Search engine optimization for the MD Anderson Cancer Center website can be achieved by installing plugins that possess extra features such as page navigation, thumbnail, and customized page numbers (Stokes, 2011). Specifically, this proposed system in Google will consist of a multi-tab page that will serve different areas and services to online customers.
The main categories may be treatment services ordering menu, e-newspaper/magazines, and brochures related to common cancer problems and their solutions, shopping (duty-free) for cancer consultancy options, and a guide on cost for each treatment package.
When implementing SEO in the Google search, it is necessary to revise the algorithms constantly for the search result of the MD Anderson Cancer Center website to remain at the top (Stokes 2011). This can be achieved through revising the content to ensure that all the information on the website pertains directly to the needs of potential clients.
Thus, constant blogging of the website and recruiting other independent bloggers to blog about the website will give the MD Anderson Cancer Center website a competitive advantage in marketing its products. This has been achieved by the Amazon and eBay websites since their SEO have been optimized and easy to access from a single search (Napier, Judd, Rivers, and Adams, 2003).
The SEO may also be tailored to include a unique cookie which is transferable to the users of the MD Anderson Cancer Center website. The unique cookie for the website will be transferred to all primary and secondary visitors of this site hence broadening the spread information on this website (Stokes 2011).
Optimizing the SEO has the potential of making the website go viral within six months since the unique cookie will spread to the primary and secondary users. However, the risk of using this option may be the high cost of constantly optimizing the SEO and hiring unprofessional bloggers who may compromise the elements of trust in dealing with the potential clients (Napier et al. 2003).
Social media advertising
Social media, especially Google, Linkedin, and Twitter, have gained popularity among companies and individuals who uses these sites as interaction modules to share experiences and exchange ideas. In the e-Marketing industry, social media has penetrated the communication environment and currently commands a large following among the users (Stokes 2011).
Reflectively, Google, Linkedin, and Twitter are ideal tools for branding and community following building for the MD Anderson Cancer Center website. Through likes and tweets, the customer base for the MD Anderson Cancer Center website will expand substantially over a short period.
To increase credibility and maintain professionalism, the current bomb internet channels used by the MD Anderson Cancer website for reaching the consumers should be tailored to encompass processes and features that flawlessly facilitate a healthy and lifetime relationship between the center and its clients.
For instance, the website should carry out a link reference promotion where the website user with the highest number of referral links is rewarded with a free cancer consultancy service or gift hampers. This will create long term loyalty among clients. The potential of the referral link approach is that it will improve the visibility of the MD Anderson Cancer Center website across the globe (Napier et al. 2003).
Finally, the MD Anderson Cancer Center should create a dynamic and functional team within its expansion structure to ensure the sustainability of the gains that will be made when the above recommendations are implemented.
References
Napier, H. A., Judd, P. J., Rivers, O. N., & Adams, A. (2003). E-business technologies. Boston, MA: Course Technology.
Stokes, R. (2011). E-Marketing: The essential guide to digital marketing. London, UK: Quirk e-Marketing (Pty) Ltd.
The main dietary source for vitamin D is from the diet. However, body can synthesis it through use of ultra-violet rays from the sun. One of the main functions of vitamin D in the body is to help calcium absorption and bone integrity. In addition to these functions it has been found that vitamin D may have an important role in prevention of cancer as it is found to check the uncontrollable growth of body cells. As such, vitamin D has protective effect against cancer especially on colorectum and neoplastic cells from a hormone produced by circulating 25-hydroxly-vitamin D (Jenab et al, 2010).
It has been speculated that this may have direct responsibility in modulating growth of normal and neoplastic colonic cells. But such evidence is not really substantiated and there lacks supporting pre-diagnostic data particularly from European populations to verify this. This was what made the authors to undertake an investigation on correlation between pre-diagnostic of circulating 25- (OH) D concentration in the body and dietary intakes of vitamin D and calcium with colon and rectum cancer risk among European populations. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to give statistical summary and results of this study (Jenab et al, 2010).
The type of study design used was nested case control design. Study site was in ten European countries namely Denmark, Germany, France, Italy, Greece, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom. About 520,000 subjects from ten western European countries were enrolled in the study. Statistical analysis indicated that the mean age of participants in the study both colon group and rectum group were similar. For colon case had 59.6 with standard deviation (SD) of 7.2 and controls had 58.0 with SD of 7.2 while rectum cases had 58.0 with SD of 6.8 and controls had 58.0 with SD of 6.9.
It was considered that level greater or equal to 50nmol/l to <70nmol/l of circulating 25-(OH) D was associated with reduced risk of cancer while circulating levels than these were linked with increased risk of cancer. Higher circulating 25-(OH) D concentration were found to be associated with lower colorectal risk in a dose-response trend. Incidence rate ratio for lowest to highest quintile was 0.60(95% CL 0.46 to 0.80) with stronger association in colon as compared to that of rectum (Jenab et al, 2010).
There was colorectal cancer risk for a 10% increment in 25-(OH)D for specific incidence rate ratios at 95% confidence levels in Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom. Nevertheless, dietary intake of vitamin D did not indicate any correlation with colorectal cancer risk. Higher consumption of dietary calcium revealed some association with reduced cancer risk for rectum. There was inverse association (p=0.154) between colorectal cancer risk and circulating 25-(OH) D concentration and its interaction with dietary calcium. In terms of heterogeneity, cancer risk did not neither differ by sex (25-(OH) D=0.782, vitamin D=0.600 nor by dietary calcium=0.500. However, there was variation between colon and rectal anatomical sub sites (Jenab et al, 2010).
Therefore, study results indicate that pre-diagnostic concentrations of circulating 25-(OH) D below 50nmol/l have association with an increased risk of colon cancer. On the other hand, circulating 25-(OH) D above 70nmol/l does not have significant reduction of colon cancer risk. Participants in highest quintiles of 25(OH) D were found to have 40% lower colorectal cancer risk. But there is need to carry out new randomized trials to confirm these results before making recommendations for vitamin D supplementation.
Reference
Jenab, M., Bueno-de-Mesquita, H. B., Ferrari, P., Franzel, J. B., Duijnhoven, V., Norat, T., Pischon, T.& Eugene, H. J., (2010). Association between pre-diagnostic circulating vitamin D concentration and risk of colorectal cancer in European populations: a nested case-control study. BM Journal, vol. 340 p 1-10.
From the discovery, the onset of metastasis can be identified. Several tumors tend to spread at a faster rate than others. This scientific discovery from the Salk Institute has managed to establish the reasons behind the rate of spread. Despite the new body of knowledge in the management of lung cancer, it is interesting to mention that cervical cancer and melanoma can be treated using scientific knowledge on molecular cells (Jolla par. 1).
The ability of lung cancer to metastasize is quite fast. c any positive impact on the health of a patient. The cancerous cells can affect the entire human body within a very short time.
It is expected that this new study on lung cancer will expound or give a clearer picture of why certain subsets are more intrusive than others. Once the latter has been established, scientists will be in a position to devise more effective treatment and management methods for lung cancer. At this point, it is crucial to mention that the discovery by the Salk institute is just a beginning of a long scientific journey that is anticipated to culminate in a comprehensive and conclusive study on lung cancer (Paddock par.7).
Lung cancer does not only affect smokers. Individuals who do not smoke are also vulnerable to this chronic infection (Jolla par. 5). Therefore, a breakthrough in this Scientific study is expected to benefit a large segment of the global population. In any case, the most invasive form of cancer is the one that affects the lung bearing in mind that it records the highest number of deaths every year. In addition, medical expenditure on lung cancer has remained extremely high over the years ( New gene discovered par. 3).
For instance, over 12 billion dollars is spent by the federal government in the United States to manage healthcare cases emanating from lung cancer. Despite this huge budget secured for lung cancer, the survival rate is quite dismal. After being diagnosed with the infection, most lung cancer patients pass away within the first five years. The cellular machinery is overridden by cancer cells. Worse still, the molecular anchors attached to the cell membranes can either be turned on or off by the cancerous cells. As a result, the harmful cells can easily move through the patients body with a lot of ease.
The epitome of the discovery is a tiny gene referred to as the DIXDC1.
Both the LKB1 and DIXDC1 genes work as a unit. In other words, the stay put signal is made possible by the communication between the above genes (Paddock par.4). Although the DIXDC1 is very powerful in controlling the metastasis process, it cannot guarantee treatment for lung cancer. The Salk Institute has just set the right stage to progress the study. It is upon other like-minded scientists to support this discovery so that lung cancer can finally find its cure.
It is only expected that the new scientific discovery will generate desired results. Similar research pathways have been documented in the past without any visible end. For example, we are yet to evaluate whether the cancer research study commissioned in the UK and Austria bore any fruits. In February 2014, a team of scientists from the United Kingdom and Austria came up with a research finding that could halt the spread of most forms of cancer. The study aimed at using the immune system of a patient to fight off cancerous cells. There are scores of such findings that have been carried out in the past without any practical results.
The trial phase for this discovery is not yet over. After the process has been completed, it will be up to the scientists to move to the next level of making the treatment option more robust. It would also be interesting to see whether scientists will seek treatment alternatives for other forms of cancer such as prostate, cervical, and skin cancers.
Perhaps, patients will require to be furnished with information on the stage of lung cancer that can be easily treated. Needless to say, the efficacy of the discovery will also rely on the stage of cancer development in patients. Second, the researchers will also be expected to highlight the risks and benefits of the available treatment options. At this stage of development, it is too early to establish certain latent facts about the study.
On a final note, the cost of treating lung cancer will be on the higher side. Even if the discovery becomes functional in the long run, will patients from low-income households meet treatment costs? The national wage bill in healthcare is already overstrained. Most patients depend on healthcare insurance coverage to meet medical expenses. To some extent, it will be the responsibility of governments to make the cost affordable to citizens.
Human characteristics are the result of thousands of strands of genetic material known as DNA (Boskey, 2008). These strands are made up of unique combinations of protein and define the specific characteristics that define an individual. It can be said that the language spoken by genes tells a story of the uniqueness of every individual. They define why one sibling has red hair and another has blonde hair; why you are average height while your parents are both considered below average height (Boskey, 2008). A gene or strand is an instruction that is used in the composition of a cell, then an organ, and eventually a human being.
Genetic testing refers to the process of collecting and assessing genetic material from people. This process has been practiced in various industries for many years. For example in the insurance industry genetic testing has been used for underwriting purposes for almost 100 years (Betta, 2006). Even today in Australia insurers ask potential clients questions aimed at identifying whether close relatives have succumbed to diseases that indicate a strong familial link. This information is used in the determination of monthly deposits for life insurance policies.
It has been observed that of the single, multiple sessile, and pedunculated polypoid colon tumors, Familial adenomatous polyposis is the most common. (Swearingen, 2003). This is of practical significance as these polyps tend to become malignant. Familial adenomatous polyposis is characterized by but distinct from a condition of frequent colon polyp formation.
In this disorder, the glandular epithelia of the colon or the rectum undergo excessive proliferation throughout the mucous membranes, which leads to the formation of pedunculated or sessile polyps (Swearingen, 2003). The polyps are by nature soft and red or purplish and vary in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters. They may also range in number from a few to several thousand. They are also found anywhere along the entire length of the colon but the rectum is almost always affected. Each individual with untreated familial adenomatous polyposis will develop cancer at some point in time caused when one or more of these polyps experiences malignant degeneration (Swearingen, 2003). The disease is hereditary and is passed via an autosomal dominant trait. The disease appears commonly after puberty to the late 30s and has an incidence of 1 in almost 8,300 births (Swearingen, 2003).
The role of familial adenomatous polyposis in the appearance of cancer in an individual is one instance where genetic testing has progressed significantly in the recent past (Givel & Mortensen, 2009). This disorder is characterized by the development of hundreds of thousands of adenomatous polyps in the colon and rectum early in life. It is reported that most carriers develop polyps around puberty and develop to cancer around middle age except where prophylactic colectomy has been performed (Givel & Mortensen, 2009).
Thanks to the role of research and modern technology those at risk of exposure to the disease have benefited immensely. This comes in the form of greater clinical awareness and more predictive genetic testing. The majority of cases detected early can thus undergo prophylactic colectomy (Givel & Mortensen, 2009). Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) is the first cancerous disorder for which the causative gene was identified (Zbar & Wexner, 2010).
This disorder (FAP) is the result of gene mutation adenomatous polyposis coli gene and in a few instances mutation of the MYH gene (Hay, 2011). The disorder is hereditary by nature. The disease is known to affect 1 in almost 10,000 people with as high as 100% penetrance (Zbar & Wexner, 2010). As mentioned before it is characterized by a large number of polyps between puberty and middle age. It is possible to want to know why this testing is important. This is because colon cancer is the second leading cause of death where cancer is concerned (Passarge, 2007). In addition to that, it is reported that colorectal polyps affect as many as 25% of individuals aged 75 years and above. This position, therefore, suggests that if through genetic testing this serious disease can be discovered and potential patients lives can be saved leaving individuals to live more complete and satisfactory lives. In addition to that, the large amounts of money that would otherwise be spent on treatment can be averted.
References
Betta, M. (2006). The Moral, Social and Commercial Imperatives of Genetic Testing and Screening: The Australian Case. Dordrecht: Springer.
Boskey, E. (2008). America Debates Genetic DNA Testing. New York: Rosen Publishing Group.
Givel, J. C., & Mortensen, N. J. (2009). Anorectal and Colonic Diseases: A Practical Guide to Their Management. Leipzig: Springer.
Hay, D. W. (2011). The Little Black Book of Gastroenterology. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Passarge, E. (2007). Color Atlas of Genetics. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag KG.
Swearingen, P. L. (2003). Manual of Medical surgical Nursing Care. Missouri: Elsevier Mosby.
Zbar, A. P., & Wexner, S. D. (2010). Coloproctology. London: Springer.
Lung cancer is a common and deadly form of cancer characterized by the development of cancerous cells in the lungs of the individual. This disease is associated with many negative health and social outcomes for the patient. There is no cure for lung cancer, although treatment can be offered to improve the patients quality of life and their survival rate. This paper will provide a description of lung cancer and document the risk factors for the disease. The treatment options for the disease and prevention methods will be discussed.
Description of the Disease
Lung cancer is the type of cancer characterized by the development of cancerous cells in the lungs of the individual. As the disease progresses, the malignant cells can spread to other body organs. The American Cancer Society places cancer as the third most common cancer and it accounts for 13% of new cancer cases.
While it is the third most common cancer, lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the US (Moyer 330). Zakowski declares that lung cancer remains the largest cancer killer in the westernized world, with approximately 226000 new cases, and more than 160,000 deaths estimated for 2012 in the US (1816).
There are several different histological forms of lung cancer and each unique type influences the treatment choice and prognosis. The first main type of lung cancer is non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and it makes up 85% of all the lung cancer cases (Bennett and White 50). The second type is small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and it accounts for 15% of the lung cancer diagnoses. NSCLC is further subdivided into squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and large cell carcinoma (Bennett and White 51).
Squamous cell carcinoma is caused by the mutation of the healthy cells found on the lining of the airways into malignant cells. The cancer starts near the center of the chest and spreads to the other parts of the lungs. Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of NSCLC and it is closely associated with smoking. Adenocarcinoma develops when cancerous cells develop in the mucus producing cells in the lungs. This type of NSCLC starts from the outer regions of the lungs and it is common in non-smokers.
Current Statistics of those affected
Lung cancer is more prevalent in men than in women. This high representation of men can be explained by the fact that the smoking population is predominantly male. However, women who smoke are at a greater risk of developing lung cancer since women are more susceptible than men to the carcinogens in tobacco smoke (Bennett and White 51).
There is an increase in the prevalence of lung cancer as individuals get older. A report by the CDC reveals that incidents of lung cancer are most common in adults aged 55 years and above (Moyer 334). Diagnosis for lung cancer peaks between the ages of 74 and 84 years.
Risk Factors
The primary risk factor for lung cancer is cigarette smoking and up to 90% of lung cancer cases are caused by using tobacco products. Inhalation of tobacco smoke causes lung cancer since this smoke is comprised of a toxic mixture of thousands of chemicals.
The risk for lung cancer increases with the number of cigarettes and the duration of time that a person smokes. As far back as the 1950s, researchers had identified that the risk of developing lung cancer increases proportionally to the amount of cigarettes smoked, with those who smoke 25 or more cigarettes each day being 50 times more likely to develop lung cancer compared with non-smokers (Bennett and White 51).
Exposure to naturally occurring substances such as Radon gas is also a significant risk factor. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention documents that naturally occurring Radon might be trapped in houses where people become exposed to it (par. 8). Since the gas is odorless and invisible, people might be subjected to high Radon levels without knowing it.
Exposure to toxic substances such as diesel fumes and asbestos dust also significantly increases the chances of an individual developing lung cancer. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that genes play a minor role in causing lung cancer (par. 15). While this risk factor is rare, there are cases where lung cancer is inherited. An individual from a family with a history of lung cancer is therefore more likely to develop the disease that one who is from a family without a history of this disease.
Diagnosis
Lung cancer is detected through screening of a person for the disease. Screening can be done using Low Dose Computed Tomography, chest radiography, and sputum cytologic evaluation. However, screening with Low Dose Computed Tomography (LDCT) is more effective since this method has a greater sensitivity for detecting early stage cancer. Zakowski documents that individuals who are screened with LDC have a 20% lower risk of dying from the disease than those who are screened using chest radiography, and sputum cytologic (1816).
Medication and Treatment
Chemotherapy is the most common treatment for patients with small cell lung cancer. Chemotherapy is chosen over surgery since the cells are too small to be detected through imaging. In addition to this, there is a likelihood that the cells have broken away and started moving to other organs (Bennett and White 55). Chemotherapy is able to treat cancer cells throughout the body since it circulates in the bloodstream.
Patients who respond positively to chemotherapy are offered sequential consolidation chest radiotherapy to improve on the positive results of the chemotherapy. In chest radiotherapy, the beam is directed to the area where the cancerous cells have been detected.
Patients receiving chemotherapy to treat lung cancer often experience a range of physical and psychosocial problems. The physic problems include coughs, pain, fatigue, and decreased functional capacity. Psychologically, lung cancer patients experience increased anxiety and depression levels.
For non-small cell lung cancer, surgery is the mainstay of treatment. Specifically, this treatment is recommended for patients diagnosed with Stage I-IIIa NSCLC. In these stages, the tumor can be up to 7cm and it can be invading the chest wall, diaphragm, or phrenic nerve. Surgery is undertaken to remove the cancerous tumor. Bennett and White state that surgery is a potentially curative treatment since it can lead to the complete elimination of the cancer (55).
Complete excision of the tumor through surgery often leads to complete curing. However, a patient must demonstrate fitness in order to be considered a candidate for surgery. While research is ongoing, there is currently no cure for late stage lung cancer. For patients with advanced lung cancer, there is no hope of cure and the goal of treatment efforts is to improve the patients quality of life and possibly keep him alive for longer.
In addition to medication, physical exercise has beneficial effects for cancer patients. Research by Quist reveals that physical exercise for advanced stage lung cancer patients improves the quality of life and reduces symptoms and side effects for the patients (9). Physical exercise has some notable merits, including improving the physical capacity of the lung cancer patient. The patients psychological outcomes are also improved as the anxiety and depression levels are decreased through exercising.
Prognosis
The Prognosis for lung cancer is poor since almost all patients suffering from this disease succumb to it in a relatively short time. Moyer documents that about 90% of individuals diagnosed with lung cancer die of the disease (331). The survival rate for lung cancer patients is currently 5 years. This is one of the lowest survival rates of all types of cancers, making lung cancer one of the deadliest cancer forms. The low survival rate of lung cancer patients is attributed to the fact that most patients are unfit for surgery.
Quist reveals that in most cases, surgery is required to manage lung cancer (1). However, most patients are not surgical candidates since the condition is discovered at a late stage. Quist reveals that most patients with lung cancer have reduced physical capacity and functional capacity, making them poor candidates for surgery (1).
The best prognosis is achieved for patients whose cancer is discovered at an early stage. The Early state includes non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) states I-IIIa and Small Cell Lung Cancer limited disease. For patients with lung cancer at this stage, treatment is provided with curative intent. Patients with advanced lung cancer have an even lower prognosis.
Quist states that patients with NSCLC IIIb-IV survive for an average of 10-13 months after diagnosis (3). This observation is corroborated by Bennett and White, who document that up to 80% of patients with advanced lung cancer will die within one year of diagnosis (51).
Prevention
Considering the poor prognosis of lung cancer, the most effective way of dealing with the disease is to prevent it from occurring in the first place. Research clearly shows that smoking is the most important risk factor for lung cancer. The most important prevention method is mitigating or altogether stopping smoking among members of the general population. Moyer documents that smokers should be advised to quit smoking and measures should be taken to prevent non-smokers from being exposed to tobacco smoke (332).
Treatment options to assist in cessation can also be provided by health care service providers and the government. A lot of support is provided for individuals who want to quit smoking. The CDC provides a wide range of resources to assist in smoking cessation, including behavioral counseling and support.
The survival rate for lung cancer patients is significantly higher if the disease is diagnosed at an early stage. The delay in diagnosis is caused by a lack of awareness of the risk of lung cancer as well as the absence of symptoms during the initial stages of the disease. As such, regular screening for high-risk persons is recommended. Through regular screening of high-risk persons, a substantial number of lung-cancer related deaths can be prevented (331).
Works Cited
Bennett, Alison and John White. Improving care and quality of life for patients with lung cancer. Nursing Standard 28.9 (2013): 50-58. Web.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Lung Cancer: Basic information. 2013. Web.
Moyer, Virginia. Screening for Lung Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Annals of Internal Medicine 160.5 (2014): 330-340. Web.
Quist, Morten. Exhale exercise as a strategy for rehabilitation in advanced stage lung cancer patients: a randomized clinical trial comparing the effects of 12 weeks supervised exercise intervention versus usual care for advanced stage lung cancer patients. BMC Cancer 13.1 (2013): 1-14. Web.
Zakowski, Maureen. Lung Cancer in the Era of Targeted Therapy. Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine 137.12 (2013): 1816-1821. Print.
This paper begins by laying out the information about the commonality of the skin cancer in Australia. The first section also describes the extent of the problem that Slip! Slop! Slap! campaign attempted to change. The second section is concerned with the distribution of the problem in the population. The third section lays out the findings on the risk factors of skin cancer. The remaining parts of the paper present social and political dimensions of the campaign, provide its analysis as well as offer recommendations for the future actions aimed at the reduction of the problem.
Commonality
According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, the incidence of skin cancer in Australia is the highest in the world (as cited in Staples, Elwood, Burton, Williams, Marks, & Graham, 2006). The most commonly diagnosed type of cancer in Australia is non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC). It is estimated that approximately 9 percent of the total spending on cancer is dedicated to this type of cancer. Moreover, in the span from 2000 to 2001 over a quarter of a billion dollars was spent on the diagnosis and treatment of NMSC (Staples et al., 2006). Unlike other types of skin cancer, NMSC is rarely registered by the national cancer registry offices. Therefore, data from self-reported diagnoses has been gathered and assessed in order to define trends in the incidence of the disease. The results from the surveys revealed that there is a positive trend in the growth of cancer since 1985 (Staples et al., 2006). The data also suggested an increase in the rates of basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) (Staples et al., 2006). Out of 57,215 respondents across the country, 18 percent testified having ever been treated for some form of skin cancer (Staples et al., 2006). Around a half of interviewees reported being treated in the period of 12 months before the survey. In more than 30 percent cases the diagnosis was confirmed clinically (Staples et al., 2006). Around 2 percent of Australias population were treated for NMSC in 2002 (Staples et al., 2006).
Population
According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), 13,283 cases of melanoma skin cancer will be diagnosed in 2016 with 3.8 percent of lethality (AIHW, 2016a). It is estimated that melanoma skin cancer will be the fourth most common type of cancer in Australia in 2016 (AIHW, 2016a). The study conducted by Staples et al. (2006) suggests that there is a significant difference in incidence rates between BCC and SCC. For example, the incidence rates of SCC in the age group below 40 that took part in the survey were too unsubstantial to make accurate measurements, whereas BCC rates revealed that women are more susceptible to the disease (Staples et al., 2006). On the other hand, for the age group older than 40 years rates of squamous cell carcinoma were higher for men. It was extrapolated from the study that the risk of being diagnosed with BCC was also higher for men than for women (Staples et al., 2006). No correlation of NMSC rates with socioeconomic status was discovered (Staples et al., 2006). According to AIHW, there was an almost two-fold increase in the incidence rates of melanoma from 1982 to 2016 (AIHW, 2016b). The estimated age-standardised rates of the disease for 2016 are 49 cases per 100,000 (AIHW, 2016b).
Risk factors
Even though skin cancer is a preventable disease, the data from AIHW reveals that the estimated number of deaths from NMSC in 2016 will be 560 (AIHW, 2016b). There is ample evidence suggesting that regular use of sunscreen leads to the reduction of the risk of SCCs and melanoma. However, the data for BCCs is not substantial enough to make a conclusive statement about the link between the use of sunscreen and the reduced risk of BCCs (AIHW, 2016b). The numerous studies point to the fact that over-exposure to the sun leads to the higher risk of developing skin cancer (AIHW, 2016b). However, there is no direct correlation between the level of intermittent UV exposure and the incidence of melanoma. The chances of developing the disease are directly correlated with the individuals exposure to UV radiation (AIHW, 2016b). Studies also suggest that solariums and other artificial tanning methods sometimes emit up to 5 times amount of summer sun radiation, thus highly increasing risks of developing some type of skin cancer (AIHW, 2016b). The risk of developing the disease considerably increases with the presence of a first-degree relative with melanoma (AIHW, 2016b). According to the numerous studies, there is a greater chance of being susceptible to spreading melanomas if there is a history of the disease incidence in the family (AIHW, 2016b). Moreover, studies suggest that the people with the great number of moles on the body are more likely to develop skin cancer.
Campaign approach
Slip! Slop! Slap! campaign was initiated by the Anti-Cancer Council of Victoria (ACCV) in 1980 (Montague, Borland, & Sinclair, 2001). Its aim was to discourage individuals from intermittent over-exposure to UV radiation. The campaign used an animated clip in which a seagull named Sid encouraged inhabitants of the southern state of Victoria to wear clothes and headwear as well as sunscreen during daytime under the sun (Montague et al., 2001). It was a limited program with the annual commitment in funds around AUS$50,000 (Montague et al., 2001). After eight years of its initiation, Victorian Health Promotion Foundation launched the SunSmart program that was a continuation of the ACCV campaign (Montague et al., 2001). The social and political environment of late 1980 provided a significant boost for the program (Montague et al., 2001). The uptick of the interest in the environment movement for the reduction of the damage to the ozone layer, which is associated with the higher level of UV radiation, provided a backdrop for the campaign. Moreover, the information about the presence of an ozone hole over the territories of Australia, New Zealand and South America accelerated the acceptance of program messages (Montague et al., 2001). In addition, the government support helped to launch a comprehensive program SunSmart with the aim to encompass governmental, business and social organizations. Even though both social and environmental contexts of the time were conducive to changing peoples behaviour, a comprehensive approach was needed to alter cultural and social norms (Montague et al., 2001).
Analysis of campaign
There is a substantial data on the changes in the attitudes of Victorians towards sun exposure (Montague et al., 2001). An increase in the proportion of population wearing sunscreen or a headwear item between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. has been documented (Montague et al., 2001). Moreover, the studies indicate the presence of the significant downward trend in the sunburns since 1988 (Montague et al., 2001). The data from the national surveys reveals a considerable decrease in the proportion of the population who are willing to get a suntan. For example, in 1988, around 60 percent of Victorians thought favourably about the idea of suntan (Montague et al., 2001). However, after only one decade the trend radically changed and only 38 percent of the population were likely to get a suntan in 1988 (Montague et al., 2001). Slip! Slop! Slap! campaign made a great contribution towards structural and institutional changes in a wide array of organizations. By the end of 2000 almost three-quarters of all primary schools in Victoria received SunSmart accreditation (Montague et al., 2001). However, there was a critique of the effectiveness of the campaign. A study conducted by Paul, Tzelepis, Girgis and Parfitt aimed at the exploration of acceptance of UV protection messages by the groups of 12 to 17-year-olds suggested a tendency for distancing from cartoon aspects of the program in most of the adolescent groups (Paul, Tzelepis, Girgis, & Parfitt, 2003).
Future action
To reduce the problem, all school curriculums in the country have to be changed to accommodate educational information about UV protection and policy for compulsory hat wearing. Moreover, all government organizations should either develop their own sun protection policies and procedures or get accreditation from SunSmart. The national standard-setting body must work towards the development of a severe regulatory framework for the solarium industry. In addition, extensive media campaigns need to be launched in order to decrease the numbers of solariums.
References
AIHW. (2016a). Melanoma skin cancer. Web.
AIHW. (2016b). Skin cancer in Australia. Web.
Montague, M., Borland, R., & Sinclair, C. (2001). Slip! Slop! Slap! and SunSmart, 1980-2000: Skin Cancer Control and 20 Years of Population-Based Campaigning. Health Education & Behavior, 28(3), 290-305.
Paul, C., Tzelepis, F., Girgis, A., & Parfitt, N. (2003). The Slip Slop Slap years: Have they had a lasting impact on todays adolescents? Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 14(3), 219-221.
Staples, M. P., Elwood, M., Burton, R. C., Williams, J. L., Marks, R., & Graham, G. G. (2006). Non-melanoma skin cancer in Australia: The 2002 national survey and trends since 1985. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 184(1), 6-10.
Prostate cancer is a killer disease that affects only men since they have prostate glands unlike women (Ellsworth, 2012). It is generally regarded as one of the most common types of cancer witnessed among men. Although it was originally viewed as a disease for older men, prostate cancer is today common among middle-aged men. Incidentally, how a person lives during the early days of his or her life can increase the risk of being affected by prostate cancer later in life.
Given that the field of prostate cancer is constantly changing, several resources exist to assist interested parties with vital information for improved management of the disease. This paper seeks to explain the biology of prostate cancer. It describes the nature and causes of the disease, signs, and symptoms, forms of treatment and prevention, and associated laboratory tests.
Description of the Nature and Causes of the Disease
Prostate cancer is an aggressive growth of malignant cancerous cells in the prostate that can be fatal. According to Mason & Moffat (2010), the prostate is a gland that is found immediately below the bladder in men and is not found in women. It is connected to the human reproductive system and produces substances in the body that help in nourishing the sperm in semen. Seminal vesicles placed alongside the prostate produce substances like sugars that feed the sperm and activate them before ejaculation.
Two things can be examined about the prostate. First, the size of the prostate and second the consistency of the prostate (Mason & Moffat, 2010). The consistency of the prostate can sometimes be an indication of cancer. Prostate cancer sets in as a result of benign enlargement of the prostate.
Description of the Signs and Symptoms
Generally, the diagnosis of prostate cancer occurs from routine annual screening, before any physical signs can be detected. According to Cheuck and Kim (2016), it is generally important to ensure that prostate cancer screening is done in good time for effective management of the condition. During its early stages, prostate cancer may show no signs or symptoms (Rockefeller, 2015). However, the affected person starts to experience several problems with time. They include but are not limited to urination problems, pain during ejaculation, contaminated semen, and pain in the bones.
While these are some of the signs and symptoms that are commonly associated with prostate cancer, it is advisable to consult a doctor whenever one experiences any strange symptoms to rule out the possibility of prostate cancer (Rockefeller, 2015). Also, prostate cancer can lead to other health complications if not detected and treated in good time. Cancer may metastasize and spread to body organs that are nearby such as the bladder. Cancer can enter the bloodstream and spread to the bones.
List of the Laboratory Tests
Two popular tests of prostate cancer are digital rectal exam (DRE) and Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA). As noted by Rockefeller (2015), not everyone agrees on the benefits of screening for men who have no symptoms of cancer. This notwithstanding, it is advisable to go for regular screening after the age of 50 or if one notices any of the symptoms of prostate cancer mentioned earlier. Drawing from the study by Cheuck and Kim (2016), PSA testing combined with DRE is useful in the detection of prostate cancer during its early stages.
Another common test is a biopsy and histologic examination. Histopathology is the assessment of a biopsy or surgical sample by a pathologist. Biopsy and histologic examination are very helpful in diagnosing prostate cancer and especially to determine the Gleason score. A biopsy test can also help to make a distinction between a cyst and foci.
How Immunohistochemistry Stains help in Diagnosing Prostate Cancer
Immunohistochemical (IHC) stains are mainly used to help in diagnosing prostate adenocarcinoma (Kristiansen & Epstein, 2014). It is especially very useful in the diagnosis of limited primary prostate carcinoma. The use of IHC in the diagnosis of adenocarcinoma is very common in uropathology (Leite et al., 2010). However, the chances of patients being over-treated are extremely high.
Description of Appropriate Forms of Treatment and Prevention of Prostate Cancer
The treatment of prostate cancer starts with an individual taking the right diet. Regular exercise, being fit, and sticking to a healthy lifestyle are vital ingredients that help to prevent prostate cancer (Mason & Moffat, 2010). Based on an individuals health status, the options for the treatment of cancer include active surveillance. It is important for one to carefully monitor his health condition as a prostate cancer patient.
Conclusion
As discussed in this paper, prostate cancer is among the deadly diseases in the world today. Unless carefully diagnosed in good time, prostate cancer can become very destructive and difficult to manage. It is thus imperative to have an early screening. If prevention fails, treatment should be administered and carefully monitored to ensure success.
Ellsworth, P. (2012). 100 questions & answers about prostate cancer. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Kristiansen, G. & Epstein, J. (2014). Immunohistochemistry in prostate pathology. Web.
Leite, K., Srougi, M., Sanudo, A., Dalloglio, M., Nesrallah, A., Antunes, A., & Camara-Lopes, L. (2010). The use of immunohistochemistry for diagnosis of prostate cancer. International Brazilian Journal of Urology, 36(5): 583 590.
Mason, M. & Moffat, L. (2010). Prostate cancer. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.
Rockefeller, J.D. (2015). A guide to surviving prostate cancer. New York: J.D. Rockefeller.
Epidemiology is the scientific study of public health aimed at preventing diseases. It is an important branch of the public health sector as it helps to formulate the policies used to control certain diseases. Today, epidemiology is critical since there have been drastic changes in patterns and types of diseases. The Chinese Americans as the minority group is also characterized by certain health problems and deseases.
Diseases contributing to high morbidity among the Chinese
The results of the research show that the risk of cancer is much high for the male Chinese Americans than for the general population. The scholars argue that the Chinese Americans as well as other represantatives of the Asian nations living in the United States are prone to cancer due to the mix of the internal and external factors. It is said that the Chinese males are predisposed to cancer under the conditions of the American environment. The cancer among the Chinese Americans is the result of the impact of the external factors on the genetics.
The Priority Diseases
Diseases mostly affecting the Chinese Americans are diabetes and cancer. They are considered to be the major factors influencing the number of total deaths in the ethnic group. The diabetes is mostly of a non-insulin-dependent type (Aubert 664). Here, a large part of the countrys population is affected by chronic diseases. The lung cancer is widely spread among the Chinese Americans. Therefore, the diabetes and cancer can be said to be the priority diseases in the Chinese Americans epidemiology. The results of the research should be taken into consideration by the government in order to provide the necessary help to the immigrants and to ensure the equal access to healthcare.
Social Behavioral Influences
Overweight
Poor dieting among the population has increased the number of people who are overweight. For instance, obesity is common among children above the age of seven, and this is mainly due to the poor dieting (Campbe and Campbell 17). This has contributed to an increase in the number of deaths due to the chronic diseases.
Urbanization
The high use of tobacco and unhealthy nutrition, which in turn cause cancer, diabetes and other chronic diseases, are widely spread among the Chinese Americans (Poppy and Philippe 15). In addition, physical inactivity among most people living in urban areas has led to obesity and hypertension. At the same time, smoking is a major cause of lung cancer. It is reported that the high percentage of those, who have the addiction to tobacco, are men and women staying in urban areas.
Solutions
The epidemiology of the Chinese Americans shows that this minority group is characterized by the high predisposition to the serious deseases including cancer and diabetes. The obesity is also a priority desease in this ethnic group. Therefore, there is a need to encourage people to eat a balanced diet. The government should educate people on healthy dieting (Chung, Eimer and Heller 147). Also, physical activity should be encouraged, especially among those living in urban areas (Wang, Wang and Wu 38). Nevertheless, the importance of physical activity should be emphasized to prevent some chronic diseases. Lastly, relevant policies should be formulated to control tobacco intake to avoid the associated risk.
Conclusion
In order to sum up all above mentioned, it should be said that the epidemiology of the Chinese Americans minority group shows that it is characterized by the high risk of cancer and diabetes among its represantatives. The obesity and smoking contribute to this tendency. It is important to encourage people leading the healthy way of life in order to prevent these deseases.
Campbe, Colinll and Thomas Campbell. The China Study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-Term Health. Oxford: BenBella Books, 2013. Print.
Chung, Wah, David Elimer and Carolyn Heller. China. Hong Kong: Lonely Planet, 2009. Print.
Poppy, Blue and Sinnoue Philippe. The Treatment of Modern Western Medical Diseases with Chinese Medicine: A Textbook & Clinical Manual. Beijing: Blue Poppy Enterprises, 2001. Print.
Wang, Longle, Yu Wang, Shuigao Jin, Zunyou Wu, Daniel Chin, Jeffrey Koplan, and Mary Elizabeth Wilson. Emergence and Control of Infectious Diseases in China. Health system reform in China 2 (2008): 1-8. Print.
Cancer remains one of the major health challenges affecting the global community today. Researchers and scientists have observed that new cancer types have been recorded within the past four decades. One of these malignancies affecting humankind is colorectal cancer. This paper gives a detailed analysis of colorectal cancer. The essay outlines the diseases etiology, causes, diagnosis, prognosis, risk factors, treatment methods, and prevalence. The presented information can help healthcare workers design appropriate health delivery models capable of supporting the needs of more people in the world.
Name of the Cancer and Etiology
The name of targeted cancer for this assignment is colorectal cancer. This type of cancer usually starts in the rectum or colon (Sancho, 2007). These body parts constitute the lower part of the human digestive system. The role of the colon is to absorb nutrients and water from the stool before it is excreted from the body. The etiology of this cancer is complex because it is associated with various risk factors. For instance, a persons age is a key risk factor for the condition. Genetic predisposition can be used to explain the development of this condition. People whose ancestors had Crohns disease or colorectal cancer have increased the chances of developing the condition (Freeman, 2013). People who consume fatty foods and smokers expose themselves to this disease.
Altering Normal Body Functions
Colorectal cancer is known to affect the human digestive system. Cancer begins with growths or polyps that can eventually grow to become cancerous tumors (Cutsem, Nordlinger, & Cervantes, 2010). These cancerous cells grow slowly and eventually destroy the surrounding body tissues. This condition affects the normal functions of different body systems. For instance, cancer results in the ineffective digestion of food materials in the body. The bowel becomes ineffective thus failing to empty completely (Cutsem et al., 2010, p. 94).
This disease has been observed to weaken the bodys immunity. The weakened immune system will be unable to fight illnesses such as flu and the common cold. These diseases will eventually affect the health outcomes of the affected person. The human body relies on specific hormones in order to function optimally (Sancho, 2007). Colorectal cancer can affect the levels of different hormones thus altering the effectiveness of the hormone system. When different body functions are altered, the patient finds it hard to perform his or her daily activities. Consequently, the individuals lifestyle changes completely.
Diagnosis, Treatment Plan, and Prognosis
The best approach towards dealing with colorectal cancer is early detection. Routine tests should be conducted in order to detect this cancer. Blood in the stools should be monitored in order to detect the condition. Biomarkers have been proposed by health professionals to diagnose this disease. Colonoscopy and biopsy have become effective approaches for diagnosing various cancers. The technique monitors the development of different abnormalities.
Stool DNA tests have been used before to diagnose various conditions such as colorectal cancer. Many doctors encourage their clients to monitor their bowels (Cutsem et al., 2010). Frequent screening practices can help patients detect the disease before it develops. Some experts argue that the analysis of genetic variants can single out individuals who have increased chances of developing the condition. This understanding can be used to support the needs of individuals who have higher chances of developing the condition.
Powerful treatment plans should be used to support the needs of individuals who have been diagnosed with colorectal cancer. The first approach is the use of drugs. Several drugs can be combined in order to treat the disease or reduce its effects. Some of the common drugs include Avastin, Capecitabine, Leucovorin Calcium, Oxaliplatin, and Vectibix (Kahi et al., 2016). Some drug combinations such as FOLFIRI, FU-LV, CAPOX, and XELIRI can be used to treat this condition.
Surgery is the second technique used to treat this cancer. During its initial stages, doctors can use surgical procedures to remove polyps or tumors. This surgical procedure should be done when performing a colonoscopy (Bazensky & Yoder, 2014). Mucosal resection can be done to remove large tumors or polyps. Cancers that have grown through the rectum or colon should be treated using partial colectomy. This procedure is used to remove certain parts of the affected colon. Doctors can use surgical methods to remove lymph nodes. Chemotherapy is embraced when cancer has spread to different tissues or organs (Kahi et al., 2016). Radiations such as X-rays can be used to destroy cancerous cells in the body. Radiation therapy has the potential to minimize pain.
Colorectal cancer is one of the complex conditions affecting many people. Analysts have argued strongly that it is very hard to make an accurate prognosis of colorectal cancer (Kahi et al., 2016). A study by Bazensky and Yoder (2014) indicated that 90 percent of individuals who were diagnosed with the condition could live up to five years (p. 2). However, some of the studies focusing on cancer have failed to monitor the survival rates associated with it. That being the case, experts have been supporting the use of therapies and early detection in order to deal with this condition. Individuals should have their digestive systems screened frequently to detect the disease (Bazensky & Yoder, 2014). This practice will increase the survival rate associated with this condition.
Predisposition: Ethnicity, Gender, and Age
Past studies have identified a number of issues associated with colorectal cancer. To begin with, individuals above the age of fifty have higher chances of developing this disease. This fact explains why healthcare practitioners and nurses encourage people above 50 years of age to be screened frequently. This practice should apply to both females and males in order to deal with the condition successfully. Freeman (2013) goes further to argue that men have higher chances of developing colorectal cancer. Although both genders have high chances of getting this disease, medical experts encourage men to undertake stringent measures in order to achieve their health goals.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the African American community is more widely affected by colorectal cancer than any other racial group. African American men are also widely affected by this condition. The condition has also been prevalent in different races such as whites, Latinos, and Native Americans (Colorectal cancer rates by race and ethnicity, 2016). African American women are more widely affected by the condition than the other groups. However, these findings are not exhaustive thus encouraging future researchers to analyze the prevalence of the condition in different ethnic groups. This knowledge will make it easier for different organizations and agencies to develop powerful models that can deal with the condition.
Risk Factors
Increased cases of colorectal cancer have been observed in specific groups and communities. This fact shows clearly that there are some risk factors for the condition. Individuals who eat unhealthy foods and fats have increased chances of developing this condition (Bazensky & Yoder, 2014). People should ensure their diets are balanced in order to deal with this problem. Men who take alcohol increase their chances of developing colorectal cancer.
This fact should encourage more people to avoid or consume less alcohol. Smoking is associated with different terminal conditions such as colorectal cancer (Colorectal cancer rates by race and ethnicity, 2016). Medical experts encourage smokers to avoid tobacco-based products. By so doing, more smokers will minimize their chances of getting different chronic diseases.
Genetic factors have been associated with different cancers. Individuals whose parents, relatives, and ancestors had the disease tend to have higher chances of developing rectal or colon cancer (Colorectal cancer rates by race and ethnicity, 2016). Studies have indicated obesity and overweight increase the risk of malignancies such as colorectal cancer. Experts and nutritionists encourage obese people to engage in physical activities in order to have healthy lifestyles. People who lead sedentary lifestyles should engage in physical associated. This is the case because the lack of exercise is one of the risk factors for this cancer (Freeman, 2013).
Men have been widely associated with this condition. This fact explains why males should undertake extra measures in an attempt to deal with colorectal cancer. They can achieve this goal by engaging in sporting activities, jogging, and gymnastics (Cutsem et al., 2010). By so doing, more people in the community will lead quality lives and eventually realize their personal objectives.
References
Bazensky, I., & Yoder, L. (2014). Colorectal cancer: an overview of the epidemiology, risk factors, symptoms, and screening guidelines. CNE Series, 1(1), 1-7.
Colorectal cancer rates by race and ethnicity. (2016). Web.
Cutsem, E., Nordlinger, B., & Cervantes, A. (2010). Advanced colorectal cancer: ESMO clinical practice guidelines for treatment. Annals of Oncology, 21(5), 93-97.
Freeman, H. (2013). Natural history and long-term outcomes of patients treated for early stage colorectal cancer. Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology, 27(1), 409-413.
Kahi, C., Boland, C., Dominitz, J., Giardiello, F., Johnson, D., Kaltenbach, T.,&Rex, D. (2016). Colonoscopy surveillance after colorectal cancer resection: recommendations of the US multi-society task force on colorectal cancer. Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, 83(3), 489-498.
Sancho, E. (2007). Molecular mechanisms involved in colorectal cancer initiation and progression. Scientific Report, 1(1), 118-121.
Prostate cancer is a type of cancer that develops in men and that affects the prostate (Ramon & Denis, 2007). Prostate is a gland that secretes seminal fluid that is necessary for the nourishment and transport of sperm cells. In the United States alone, more than 2 million men have been victims of this type of cancer (Ramon & Denis, 2007). Its risk factors include race/ethnicity, age, geography, family history, genetics, sedentary life, chronic inflammation, hormones, obesity, and gender (Ramon & Denis, 2007). In its early stages, the cancer is not very dangerous because it is confined only to the prostate gland. However, if not detected and treated early, it can spread to other parts and cause serious damage. Successful treatment is achieved if the cancer is detected early while it is still confined to the prostate gland. This paper will discuss genetics as a major risk factor for prostate cancer based on its pathogenesis, extent of contribution to cancer etiology, prevention, and methods of early detection.
Genetics
Numerous studies have found out that prostate cancer is a disease that emanates primarily from the interaction between genetic and non-genetic factors. These factors are responsible for the diseases initiation and progression. Statistics released by the American Cancer society show that 1 in every 6 American males will be diagnosed with the cancer at a certain stage in their life (Ramon & Denis, 2007).
Pathogenesis
Prostate cancer develops when mutations repeatedly occur in genes that control processes such as cell division and cell growth (Tewari, 2013). In addition, it results from the genetic mutation of cells that repair damaged DNA. Prostate cells undergo genetic changes referred to as somatic mutations. Some people become exposed to the disease through the inheritance of mutated genes such as BRCA1, BRCA2, and HOXB13 (Pestell & Nevalainen, 2008). Mutations in these genes increase the risk of developing prostate cancer. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are responsible for secreting proteins that fix damaged DNA and suppress tumors (Pestell & Nevalainen, 2008). DNA is critical in the maintenance of cells genetic information.
Therefore, existence of mutations in the aforementioned genes prevents the production of BRCA1 and BRCA2 proteins (Pestell & Nevalainen, 2008). These proteins control the division and growth of cells. Changes in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes prevent them from fixing damaged DNA thus facilitating the persistence of dangerous mutations (Tindall, 2013). Continued mutation of genes triggers rapid growth and division of prostate cells thus causing cancer. Mutations in the HOXB13 gene stop the secretion of a protein that regulates the activity of other genes thus impairing the proteins ability to suppress tumors (Pestell & Nevalainen, 2008). This leads to uncontrolled division and growth of prostate cells thus leading to cancer.
Extent of the contribution of genetics to prostate cancer etiology
Several studies have established that genetics play a key role in the etiology of prostate cancer. For example, approximately 5-10% of all prostate cancer cases are attributed to genes that are highly susceptible to cancer (Tewari, 2013). This explains why family history is an important risk factor for prostate cancer because susceptible genes are passed from parents to the offspring. Examples of genes that are associated with prostate cancer include RNASEL (HPC1), BRCA1, BRCA2, and DNA mismatch repair genes (Tindall, 2013). RNASELs role is to facilitate the death of cells whenever something goes wrong during the process of cell division or growth (Pestell & Nevalainen, 2008).
Mutations in this gene let cells that are supposed to be destroyed live longer thus increasing an individuals risk of developing cancer (Tindall, 2013). Majority of gene mutations that have been associated with prostate cancer are acquired and occur during the lifetime of an individual (Pestell & Nevalainen, 2008). Very few cases of prostate cancer are as a result of inherited gene mutations. Therefore, all cases of prostate cancer linked to heredity have a genetic background because they involve the transfer of genes from parents to the offspring. Other genes that are associated with prostate cancer include AR, CD82, CDH1, CHEK2, EHBP1, ELAC2, EP300, GNMT, MED12, EZH2, HPCX, FGFR4, MAD1L1, FGFR2, IGF2, and KLF6 (Pestell & Nevalainen, 2008).
Prevention of the risk factor
It is not possible to prevent genetics from initiating the development of prostate cancer because mutations occur in genes and are not easily detected. However, men who possess mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes should undergo screening to determine whether they have prostate cancer. Genetic mutation is a biological process that cannot be stopped. The only remedy is early screening, detection, and treatment.
Methods of early detection
Genetic testing is the most common method of determining the presence of genetic mutations that can predispose men to the risk of developing prostate cancer. It is mainly recommended for men who belong to families that have a history of prostate cancer. Genetic testing involves studying an individuals DNA to determine whether the molecules are arranged properly (Ramon & Denis, 2007). There are two variations of genetic testing. The first involves looking at the specific DNA in cancerous cells and the second involves looking at the DNA of normal cells in order to identify inherited susceptible genes (Ramon & Denis, 2007).
Whole genome sequencing identifies variations in DNA sequences (Tewari, 2013). In many cases, genetic testing for prostate cancer involves the identification of specific mutations that are associated with prostate cancer (Ramon & Denis, 2007). Men at risk of prostate cancer undergo regular measures of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and digital rectal exam (DRE). A PSA test is a way of measuring the level of prostate-specific antigens in the blood to determine whether they have prostate cancer or not (Ramon & Denis, 2007). In men with cancer, the levels of PSA are very high compared to those in men without the disease. A DRE is conducted to establish the presence or absence of enlargements or unusual lumps in the prostate (Ramon & Denis, 2007).
Closely related risk factors
Other risk factors related to genetics include heredity and family history. Heredity is related to genetics because the risk of developing prostate cancer due to heredity involves the transmission of mutated or susceptible genes from parents to the offspring (Tewari, 2013). Men who belong to families with history of prostate cancer are at a high risk of developing the cancer due to the interaction between genetic and biological factors that are responsible for inherited genes that are mutated or susceptible (Ramon & Denis, 2007). A man whose father had prostate cancer is more likely to develop the cancer than a man whose dad never developed the cancer. The risk is lower in men with a second-degree relative such as an uncle or nephew who has or had prostate cancer.
Conclusion
Prostate cancer is one of the most common types of cancer that affects men. It affects the prostate and it is so common that statistics project that 1 in 6 American men will be diagnosed with the disease before they come to the end of their life. Genetics is one of the major risk factors that increase the risk of men developing prostate cancer. Mutations on BRCA1, BRCA2, and HOXB13 genes stop the production of proteins that fix damaged DNA and that control the division and growth of cells. These mutations encourage the persistence of mutations that facilitate rapid division and growth of prostate cells thus causing cancer. Genetics as a risk factor of prostate cancer cannot be stopped. However, early screening, detection, and treatment can cure the disease. Genetic testing, PSA test, and DRE test are the most common methods used to detect prostate cancer during its early stages for successful treatment. Heredity and family history are other risk factor closely related to genetics. Men with parents or close relatives who have or had prostate cancer are at high risk of developing the disease.
References
Pestell, R. G., & Nevalainen, M. T. (2008). Prostate Cancer: Signaling Networks, Genetics, and New treatment Strategies. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.
Ramon, J., & Denis, L. J. (2007). Prostate Cancer. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.
Tewari, A. K. (2013). Prostate Cancer: A Comprehensive Perspective. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business media.
Tindall, D. J. (2013). Prostate Cancer: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Genetics. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.