Category: Byzantine Empire

Iconoclasm is a social belief formed against the icons including detraction, prohibition, and extermination of any types of art related to the church imagery. This act was provoked either by political or religious influences against this type of art. It is associated with a period of interaction between Islamic and Byzantines cultures, which influenced the art tendency during that historical period (Labatt and Appleyard 2004). During almost 150 years, the illustration or usage of any religious images was forbidden in the Byzantine Empire. People were encouraged to destroy any kind of icons and other religious images. After the period of confrontation, the veneration of icons was confirmed once again, and iconoclasm was recognized as heresy.

The icon is defined as a representation of a sacred image or other piece of religious art work which serves an object of devotion. Generally, it is created based on the religious figure or event, which includes the saints on the image. In the Byzantine Empire icons were mostly made on the wooden panel painting (Brooks, 2009). While the idol is an image of a person or another symbol, which creates religious impact, deference, and spiritual power.

People directed their prayers towards the idol who was illustrated on the icon, when the icon served as a physical representation of an art. Referring to Brooks (2009), religious leaders in the Byzantine Empire represented the icon as a source for prayers to communicate with the religious idols either pictured on a particular icon or related to this image. The main reason for creation of the icons was to allow people to address the thoughts directly towards the saints.

References

Brooks, Sarah. 2009. Icons and Iconoclasm in Byzantium. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Web.

Labatt, Annie, and Charlotte Appleyard. 2004. Byzantine Art under Islam. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Web.

The Glory of Byzantium is a documentary video by BBC about Byzantine art: how it was born, how it grew and developed, and how it reached its zenith, then faded and died. The Byzantine Empire also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantium (pp. 395-1453 AD), was a state formed in 395 AD as a result of the final division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern parts. By the middle of the sixth century, Byzantium had formed its own identity, which it maintained even during periods of conquest.

This film helped me to better understand the Byzantine art by showing how spiritual influence could be traced everywhere in this culture. In political life, it was expressed in the deification of power and the Emperor; in painting, there was no equal to the Byzantine iconography; in architecture, new landmarks and elements of architecture appeared. In the architecture of Byzantium, much attention was paid to the decoration of the temple, not only outside but also inside, and the type of domed Basilica was developed. One of the most significant events was Iconoclastic controversies, formed under the influence of old Testament texts. It was directed against the veneration of icons, and for a long time, slowed down the development of iconography. Only by the beginning of the tenth century, icons took their former place.

Hagia Sophia (p. 534 AD) became the highest achievement of Byzantine architecture. It is the heiress of ancient architecture; this Church is a complex project of Justinians architects. A remarkable achievement of the architects of the Eastern Romans is the cross-domed Church, which replaced the basilica type. It is obvious that the largest number of architectural masterpieces was located in the capital of the state  Constantinople. But as urbanization progressed, so did the architecture of other cities  sights appeared in Thessaloniki (The Church of Hosios David and Saint Demetrius), in Ravenna (San Vitale, p. 547 AD).

Byzantine art reached its apogee in the monastery of Hosios Loukas (p. 959 AD), in Phocis. On the glittering golden background of the dome of Hosios Loukas, the descent of the Holy Spirit to the apostles is represented  a quite rare iconography in Byzantium. A grandiose project for its time, Hosios Loukas is an example of a Middle-Byzantine synthesis of architecture, painting, and sculpture, creating an ideal iconographic scheme of a cross-domed temple. Chora Monastery (1315 AD) is perhaps the most studied monument of Byzantium  the last grandiose construction of the Byzantine capital, created by the efforts of Theodore Metochites. The mosaics of this Church are only partially preserved, but they also eloquently testify to the theological education and refinement of the compiler of their program.

I found it particularly amusing how George Kordis, a modern icon painter, explained the rhythm of icons that make them alive. Icons perspective and two different dynamics invite you to participate in them, knowledge is participation. One more interesting fact that I learned from this video is about how icons help to pray. Icons are a representation of the Kingdom of God, and they support prayer. From my point of view, the questions that were left unanswered in this video are:

• How does the Byzantine art of icon painting has evolved over time?
• Why is there so much energy and emphasis on action and emotion in late Byzantine art?
• In the video, Priest, Fr Bath Relles, said that people find Western Churches very cold and Greek Churches  warm, what might be the possible reasons for that?

The medieval period is the period that stretched from the 5th to the 15th century. The Islamic and European societies, such as the Byzantine empire in Eastern Europe, had differences and similarities during this period. Both of them had a blend of lay and strict rulers applying differing degrees of fleeting power over a wide cluster of people groups, customs and convictions where the European societies used feudalism and caliphates. Both societies transformed greatly during this period as they moved from being ruled under centralized dominated caliphates such as Umayyads and Abbasids to decentralized powers.

Both societies had their golden ages in the medieval period. During the eighth through thirteenth hundred of years, Islam appreciated a Golden Age, especially in Baghdad, the site of the House of Wisdom, an establishment gave to more studies of art and sciences. Architecture arrived at a highpoint, Byzantine empire under Justinian built a church in Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, which is currently Istanbul in Turkey (Fazio, M., Moffett, M. & Wodehouse, L., 2009). The sciences prospered as researchers propelled fields, for example, geometry, variable based math, other scientific fields, stargazing, and material science, to a limited extent through a restoration of enthusiasm for old style learning. Scholars developed a writing system.

Both societies had a fall of their empires during that medieval period as the Islamic empire came down at around 1300 CE (Barlow, G., 2019) during the Abbasid caliphate due to the siege in Baghdad and the Mongol invasions (Taylor & Francis. (2011). Some of the European empires came down such as the Roman empire in the early medieval stages. The Byzantine empire was captured by the Ottomans while also the western Europe was involved in wars and invasions such as that of Goth.

They also both had a state religion where there would be one religion such as in the Islam, the religion was Muslim while in the European society such as the Byzantine empire, Christianity was the main religion. In which both societies allowed other religions such as the Jews where the other religions were supposed to pay taxes.

Differences between the Islam society and the European society was that in the western Europe, there weren’t arts and architecture as it was in Islamic societies until the rule of Charlemagne in 800 CE who established schools and renewed leadership after the fall of Roman Empire (Anirudh, 2016). Although some of the great art work was depicted in the Eastern Europe that is the Byzantine empire.

The power of leaders was different as it was believed that the Pope from the medieval Europe was more powerful than the Caliph from the Abbasid dynasty and had political powers. The pope could be able to convince kings into bidding with the name of God, also had the power to unite different kingdoms to fight in the Holy Crusade to reclaim the Holy land. The centralization in the Abbasid dynasty was believed to be less centralized because some Islamic clans that could agree on the rightful heir to Muhammad such as Shi’A compared to the Christianity where they had hierarchy as Pope had bishops that plead allegiance to Pope and who led the regional churches.

Christianity was less restrictive towards women than the Islam society. Although Christians did not treat women that well but they were far much better than the Islam society. In the Medieval Europe, women had the chance of being taught by the Catholic church thus being able to become a nun to serve the church whilst in the Abbasid society, women weren’t allowed to lead any religious activities and parents had mostly think and make decisions on behalf of their daughters thus, women never had the chance to make an alternative to marriage. Women in the Medieval Europe had a voice in the politics whereby they were able to rule as regent if their sons were to young to rule. They also gave political views to their husbands unlike in the Abbasid dynasty.

The Abbasid dynasty had more intellectual achievement than the European society. The Abbasid dynasty devolved into mathematics creating trigonometry such as tangent, cosine and sine (Brewis, B.T., 2019). Also, they invented the astronomical tables. They also had one of the biggest hospitals in Cairo. They also ventured more into literature than the European society where by they had literatures that were used mainly in the west such as the Rubáiyát that was written by Omar Khayyám (Yohannan, John D., 1977).

Art history can be defined in various ways depending on the person and their perspective. A brief definition of the term is the studying, identifying, interpreting, and understanding of artworks (i.e. paintings, sculptures, architecture) from different cultures with the consideration of the time period in which they were made. A lot can be learned through the artwork of cultures such as how humanity lived, what they valued, and what they believed in. With some research, the meaning and importance of certain objects and symbols can be uncovered, and that is what will be done in this paper. The two works to be discussed are the ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’ (Early Byzantine) and the ‘Virgin Hagiosoritissa Relief’ (Middle Byzantine) from the Byzantine collection at Dumbarton Oaks Museum. These two works will be compared on their style/iconography, media attributes and influence, conceptual ideas, and historical influence.

The specific style that characterizes Byzantine art was first arranged in the 6th century. Byzantine art is almost completely revolved around religious expression “with the impersonal translation of carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms” (Britannica.com). The style was a product of sophistication and spiritual expression. Christianity was adopted in the Early Byzantine time period by Emperor Constantine. This religion flourished and it had a great impact on the art created from thereon. Majority of artworks were created to serve as decorations for the interior of churches (i.e. domes, walls, and vaults). The ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’, the first artwork to be discussed, was part of the decoration in an early Byzantine church. It was created in the late 6th – 7th century (Early Byzantine). From just simply viewing and analyzing this work, it may be difficult to figure out what exactly is being seen. However, after doing some research, it is now known that this sculpture represents the resurrection of Christ. From first glance, the viewer can see that the color is dull and gray, and the form is irregular along the edges, which indicates that it is a piece of something. There are two crosses present (on opposite ends of the central axis within the piece) which represent Christianity, something within the religion, or Christ himself. There are also two parallelograms present, one (square) being slightly above the center of the piece and the other (rhombus) being towards the bottom next to one of the crosses. The square is the opening to the tomb and the rhombus represents the stone that was moved away to open the tomb. There are four pillars holding up a dome-like roof. This was most likely in reference to Byzantine churches because they adopted the plan of having four equal pillars extending from a dome. On each pillar there are carvings that look like some type of liquid is dripping, which represent Christ’s blood after his selfless sacrifice. This sculpture’s style and iconography will be compared to that of another sculpture also from the Byzantine period.

With Christianity spreading vastly, newcomers were brought up on the value of images in past experiences and they wanted to continue this in their Christian experiences (Farber). The next work to be discussed is the ‘Virgin Hagiosoritissa Relief; or just ’Hagiosoritissa’. The work was created in the mid-eleventh century (Middle Byzantine), which is also the first difference between the two works. If the meaning of the word Hagiosoritissa is already known, it is clear what is being seen in this work. This name came about to describe a specific type of portrait depicting the Virgin Mary. It shows Mary standing slightly from the side without her child, with both hands raised in prayer. The circle surrounding Mary’s head represents a halo. This technique was used for the Trinity, angels, Virgin Mary, and other saints. A similar comparison between the two sculptures is that they reflected scenes from the lives of Christ and the Virgin Mary. Just like the first work discussed, this piece has irregular edges and sides that indicates it was part of a bigger picture. “The Virgin Mary was often pictured high in half-dome covering one of the four radial arms” (Britannica.com). Although the stylistic and thematic interests of Early Byzantine flowed into the Middle Byzantine period, some changes were brought about in the arts. One example is the difference in the churches’ architecture. It was moved to a centralized cross-in-square plan, which is different from the four pillars and dome plan of Early Byzantine. Both sculptures, along with the Byzantine architectural plans, aided in the iconographic plans to intertwine architectural and pictorial expression.

Another similarity between the two sculptures, ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’ and ‘Hagiosoritissa’, is that they were both made from stone or marble. The marble used to make the sculpture, ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’, has an interesting design within itself. There are some darker lines or swirls that give it a creamy and smooth appearance. This appearance helps with the shadows, as well as the lights and darks of the piece. The sculptor took some time to add detail to this sculpture. Even though it is a simple composition, the sculptor carved out all the objects (i.e. pillars, roof, shapes) in a way that gave this artwork depth. Another example of this is the subtle lines within the roof that make it look three-dimensional. Early Byzantine art was usually known for its ‘flatness’. Although, in one’s opinion, this sculpture’s illusion seems to teeter back and forth between two-dimensional and three-dimensional, it seems as though this sculpture was made on the brink of exploring outside that stereotype. Now, as stated before, the Hagiosoritissa sculpture is also made from stone or marble. This marble is significantly different compared to the first sculpture. For the most part the sculpture is a beige/tan color, which makes it look plain or bland. The texture looks rough like sandpaper or concrete. The media used to make this sculpture does not exactly make it an eye-catcher. However, after looking past the texture and appearance of the media, one notices the intricate details within the sculpture. There is some detail within Mary’s face, headscarf, and wristbands. There is a lot of detail in her garment. The lines and folds give a sense of movement, and shows the shadows projected from the several folds within the garment. This sculpture may not be completely three-dimensional, but it represents some naturalism, which was part of a revived interest in the classical past.

The two works chosen to be discussed in this paper, both come from the Byzantine period but different centuries. So, in this section of this paper, the historical, economic, social, and cultural information of the Early and Middle centuries of Byzantine will be discussed. In 330, Emperor Constantine moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. After they adopted Christianity, the religion took over the Greco-Roman gods that once defined Roman religion and culture (Hurst). Some of the earliest churches were built during the Early Byzantine period. This explains why so many artworks were created during this time. They were created for the interior of churches, such as the ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’. One known aspect of Christian art, that started in the 3rd century, was the absence of imagery. Themes of death and resurrection also came about. After Emperor Constantine passed away in 337, the empire fragmented into smaller political entities. Valentinian I came into power after Constantine’s death. In 364, he divided the land into western and eastern sections. He ruled over the west and gave power of the east to his brother. Over several centuries, the western empire began to break down. One of the reasons being multiple attacks from German invaders. At one point, the only territory they had left was Italy. In 476, barbarian Odoacer overthrew Emperor Augustus and Rome fell. The eastern part of the empire experienced a different outcome. Due to Constantinople surrounding them, they were less vulnerable to attacks. They had a stronger administrative center, internal political stability, and great wealth compared to other states of that time period; they also had better control over economic resources and a sufficient amount of manpower to fight off an invasion (history.com). Due to the eastern empire, also known as Byzantium, having all these advantages, they were able to survive after the fall of Rome. In 451, as of religion, the Council of Chalcedon established division of the Christian world. Even after the Islamic Empire began to spread, the Byzantine Empire prevailed as the leader of several eastern Christians. Justinian I took power in 527. During his reign, his army conquered part of the Western Roman Empire. Several outstanding monuments of the empire were made under his rule. An example of this is the great Hagia Sophia, a domed church of Holy Wisdom. During the late 6th century, the great Justinian I passed away. Even after his death, the Byzantine Empire continued as the largest and most powerful in Europe. However, accumulated debts from war left the empire in a serious financial crisis. His legislation dealt with anything involving their Christian way of life. Baptism was introduced and pagans were forced to attend church and convert. Baptism is one of many Christian religions that believe in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The resurrection of Christ is depicted in the ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’ using symbols. This was most likely created before the Quinisext Council of 692 ordered that Christ will only be represented in human form and not symbolically. The Quinisext Council (or Council in Trullo) was called together by emperor Justinian II. They were to issue disciplinary orders related to the second and third councils of Constantinople (Britannica.com). Also, during the late 7th century, going into Middle Byzantine, iconoclasm made its debut.

During the early centuries of the Middle Byzantine, a movement was created that “…denied the holiness of icons, or religious images, and prohibited their worship or veneration” (history.com). The movement was called iconoclasm. The Byzantine Empire experienced two periods of Iconoclasm in 730-787 and 814-842 (khanacademy.org). This was done because fear arose that people were praising the images of Holy beings rather than praising God himself. Only a few images survived, but the creation of Byzantine art continued to be made for over hundreds of years. This movement went back and forth under the rule of various Emperors. However, in 843 the display of religious artworks and icons were ruled in favor under Emperor Michael III. This explains why the Virgin Mary is seen again in the sculpture ‘Hagiosoritissa’. This work was created in the mid- 11th century Byzantine, which was after the movement ended. There was a significant rise in images and icons being used for decorations in the Byzantine churches and its adjacent walls. Art and architecture thrived due to the empire’s growing wealth and vast wealthy patrons. This was most likely due to the golden age under Michael III’s successor, Basil. Although Byzantium had less territory, they had more control over trade and more wealth. Churches, palaces, and institutions were beginning to be restored. Greek was deemed the official language of Byzantine, and the study of ancient Greek history and literature was promoted (history.com). Christianity, that started in Constantinople, spread from the Slavic lands and to the north. They successfully recovered some of eastern territories lost to the Arab armies in the 7th century. Some of these territories were Syria and Crete. Between the 7th-12th centuries, the military governorship of Byzantine provided management for the empire’s distant and expanding territories. The Middle Byzantine period was a great time for art and architecture due to the increasing wealth of the empire. During this time, the production of manuscripts, stone, and ivory carvings increased. Once again, this showed the interest in reviving classical art forms and ancient literature from Byzantium’s ancient past. Smaller churches were generally favored during this period, unlike the Hagia Sophia made under Justinian I’s rule. They still consisted of a dome, but they created a central plan. The ‘cross-in-square plan’ was one of the most popular. The domes and vaults were decorated with mosaics and frescoes. They covered the curved surfaces to create a dramatic effect or to depict a narrative. “Such monumental decoration reveals a careful consideration of how images would relate and respond to one another across space, both vertically and horizontally” (metmuseum.org). Artists were increasingly employed and paid to make decorations, such as figural images and icons, for the barrier of churches and the adjacent walls.

The two sculptures that have been discussed throughout this paper are currently being held at Dumbarton Oaks Museum in Washington, D.C. They are part of the Byzantine Collection and located in the same gallery. Another artwork that is included in the same gallery is a sculpture called Ares. It was created in the fourth-fifth century (Early Byzantine). It is believed that one of the reasons that this sculpture is in the same gallery as the ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’ and ‘Hagiosoritissa’, is that they are all Byzantine art. Another reason is that they are all sculptures/carvings. Lastly, they are all in the same gallery because they possibly represent something that they believed in at that time. The first two sculptures are about Christianity (i.e. the narratives and figures) and it is known that this religion was widely practiced in Byzantium. Byzantium, however, based a lot of their foundation on the Greeks, hence why the most spoken language was Greek. One of the most important attributes of the Greeks, was their belief in mythology. Ares is one of the twelve Olympian gods. He is the god of war and represents the violent and physical characteristics of war. So, when the sculpture Ares was created, they probably believed in at the time as the Greeks did. Or, they could have liked what he represented, which was war, since they went into war so much and conquered territories.

Art history defined is the study of or knowledge about contributions artists and works of art make to a culture or society that builds upon, reacts to, and/or rebels against, with the consideration of the time and place. Artwork can be objective or subjective. Objective meaning factual and subjective meaning belonging to, proceeding from (or relating to) one’s mind. The three sculptures discussed in this paper are examples of subjective art. They are subjective art because they are all things that people believed in at that time. They do not represent something that is factual and has evidence to back it up. Some might say they have evidence and try to convince others but that is their own experience. Everyone has their own personal beliefs and experiences when it comes to religion. Therefore, these sculptures are subjective because they are ideas that come from someone’s mind, not facts that are agreed upon universally. After doing research and writing this paper, there is a better understanding of what can be learned from pieces of artwork and the cultures they come from. When analyzing artworks, looking at the media, objects, symbols, and figures are like clues that can be pieced together to figure out the meaning or the importance. In addition, with knowing the culture and the background information, it is easier to understand why some artists do what they do, and why they put certain things into their works. For example, the ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’ and ‘Hagiosoritissa’ both represent something within Christianity. They were both part of the interior of a church for decoration. The artists were most likely paid to make them because during the time they were both made, several churches were being built. The Hagiosoritissa sculpture was created after the second iconoclastic controversy ended. So, of course after this, there was a rise in the production of icons and images that represented the Holy figures. Byzantium and Byzantine art experienced a lot of setbacks but they both overcame most. Art is one of the greatest ways to learn about history. This is one’s opinion because so much can be learned about different cultures such as what they believed in, what they valued, and their way of life.

Works Cited

1. Brooks, Sarah. “Byzantium (ca. 330–1453).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/byza/hd_byza.htm (originally published October 2001, last revised October 2009)
2. Dr. Allen Farber, ‘Early Christian art,’ in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015, accessed March 24, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/early-christian-art/
3. Dr. Ellen Hurst, ‘Byzantine art, an introduction,’ in Smarthistory, August 8, 2014, accessed March 24, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/a-beginners-guide-to-byzantine-art/.
4. History.com Editors. “Byzantine Empire.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 24 Aug. 2010, www.history.com/topics/ancient-middle-east/byzantine-empire#section_6
5. “Introduction to the Middle Ages | Art History (Article).” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/early-europe-and-colonial-americas/medieval-europe-islamic-world/a/introduction-to-the-middle-ages
6. Metmuseum.org, www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/byza/hd_byza.htm
7. Teall, John L., and Donald MacGillivray Nicol. “Byzantine Decline and Subjection to Western Influences: 1025–1260.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 6 Feb. 2020, www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire/Byzantine-decline-and-subjection-to-Western-influences-1025-1260#ref9255.

Why is this city called ‘the City on The Seven Hills’? This city, Istanbul, with its known history of nearly two thousand years, has been a crossroad of civilizations. Today, with modern skyscrapers at one side and the skyline of minarets on the other Istanbul remains as a connection between the past and the present, east and west. However, it inherited its famous title of ‘the City on The Seven Hills’ from the Byzantine Constantinopolis which was also settled on seven hills. In the Byzantine period, Istanbul, once Byzantium, was shaped with monumental buildings, which mostly remain. Some did stay as they were but some experienced major changes with the arrival of Islam to the city in 1453. One of the buildings that was altered parallel with Islam was The Monastery of Lips, or with its present name the Fenari Isa Mosque. Located in the Fatih district, the complex sits on the fourth hill of Istanbul. Even though, it does not attract attention as much as Hagia Sophia and similar Byzantine buildings nearby, it has an approximately 1,500 year long history, in which a mix of Byzantine and Ottoman influences can be seen.

The Monastery of Lips is a complex of two connected churches: the northern church and the south church. The northern one is in a five-aisled cross-in-square structure and its history goes back to the sixth century. On the other hand, the relatively smaller one, the south church’s history goes back to the thirteenth century, times after the Latin invasion. The northern church was constructed by a powerful man of his time Constantine Lips, who was an admiral. He dedicated the church to Theotokos, Virgin Mary, in the valley of the Lykos (Macridy 257). At the restoration process of the Byzantine Empire after the Latin invasion, at the end of the thirteenth century, the Empress Theodora, wife of Michael VII, “restored it once more and added to it the church of St. John the Baptist which was to serve as a mausoleum for herself and her family” (Macridy 258). She did not just erect another church south of the first one but also instituted a nunnery in the north church (the first one) and “fixed the number of nuns to fifty. Thirty of them were supposed to perform daily prayers and services in the church, while the remaining twenty were in charge of the household duties”. The poor economic conditions following the recovery of the city from the Latins disturbed civil life in the empire and such religious places became healing centers for the sick (Johnston 70). Concordantly, she created a twelve-bed hospital, with its own paid staff, next to the monastery for the treatment of the laywomen, women who are not nuns (Hendrix). By her actions that affected civil lives of locals, the church expanded its Christian audience.

The church did experience alterations in its long history but it mostly preserved its cross-in-square plan, which was a dominant architectural plan in the middle and late period Byzantine churches. It was the second in Constantinople to adopt the plan, Nea Ekklesia being the first in 880. However, it is the “oldest church with that plan surviving in the city” (‘Grande Flânerie’). It is centered in a square naos which is divided into nine bays by four columns. The central bay is covered by a dome and “The naos culminates in the east by a tripartite bema and in the west by a three-bay narthex” (‘Grande Flânerie’). The four rectangular bays connected to the naos are barrel vaults, an element formed by the extension of a single curve along a given distance, and are the arms of the ‘cross’, that is is inscribed within the square naos. These barrel vaults were especially common in Roman architecture which influenced the Byzantines: they were, for instance, used to replace the Cloaca Maxima with a system of underground sewers.

The influence of Byzantines is also seen in the decorations of the exteriors of the two churches. As Alexander Van Millingen, a Robert College professor in history, emphasized in his book, “The exterior of the two churches is very plain. On the west are shallow wall arcades in one order, on the south similar arcades in two” (132). While the north church was being constructed, the Byzantine architecture was at its pinnacle under the rule of the Macedonian dynasty. That is why, one can expect a lavish exterior; however, it was quite the opposite. In the early tenth century, the exteriors of the churches had the impression of “having been left to their own devices”; they were just the result of the need to cover the rich interiors (Johnson). In short, the strong political and social stability mostly effected the interior. The south church, also, didn’t have a meticulously decorated exterior, even though it was constructed later. Most historians link its exterior simplicity with the economic instability of the empire at the thirteenth century in the aftermath of the Latin invasion (Tuncer).

Since their inception, Monks have played a vital role in monasteries with regards to how they are able to afford supporting the monasteries both financially and spiritually. There are various methods in which these structures are able to operate so efficiently throughout varying sects of belief. Monatstaries accomplish this feat being open to everyone and incorporating unique architecture designs, sculptures and paintings. This ensures that everyone, regardless of language or ability to read fluently, is able to understand the teachings and responsibilities expected of them.

Throughout history, the definition of what constitutes a monastery has varied immensely through both religious affiliation and personal beliefs. According to Alice-Mary Talbot’s article ‘An Introduction to Byzantine Monasticism’: “The monastery was often the spiritual center of a rural village or urban quarter; local inhabitants might attend services at the monastic church, seek out monks for spiritual advice, or ask for help in a time of need’ (Talbot 2). It is through this explanation that one can now classify monasteries as much more than a sole religious place of worship; these structures served a vital place on both the social and economical level, as opposed to solely that of a religious nature.

Monks played a very important role in the early medieval times. Both monks and nuns provided many services such as helping to care for the sick, needy, and feeding the poor. They also helped house travelers and people outside of the community by providing advice to the secular ruler and education to children in the local towns. According to ‘Monasticism in Western Medieval Europe’, from the website Metmuseum, “The need for books buildings and other devotional necessities made religious houses active patrons of the arts, and the monastic obligation to perform manual works allowed many monks and nuns to serve God as creative artists”. Monks worked together with patrons, painters and architects regarding the works done to the monastery.

The monasteries were a vital part of the community because they assisted poor members of society through collective community efforts and welfare assistance like food pantries and an ancient method of crowdfunding. In addition to the average community contribution, local noblemen would also give extravagant offerings in hopes that the temple would grant their family members entrance into their afterlife, essentially bribing their penance for forgiveness regardless of their sin or level of involvement in the monastery and would receive the elderly’s pension.

Many of the monasteries architectures were built based on a design known as Byzantine architecture. The Byzantine empire began in 330 in the Roman Empire the emperor Constantine established the city of Byzantion in modern turkey but it is said to had originally been originated in an ancient Greek community however the Romans changed the name to Byzantium Catholicizing the name. In 1453 the Turkish Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople then after leading to the division of Byzantine artworks and architecture into three periods which are Early Byzantine, Middle Byzantine and lastly Late Byzantine.

One example of the ten most known monasteries in the 10th century Middle Byzantine era is named Hosios Loukas, which was founded by Hermit (Loucas Stereiotis/ Loukas Styri), whom died at the age of 56. Which is located in a town in Greece somewhere near Delphi. According to ‘10 Splendid Examples of Byzantine Architecture’, from the website ‘Historylists’, ”This monastery was best known for its gorgeous mosaics such as stained glass,colored stones and even tiles, fresco paintings most commonly seen on walls and ceilings, and lastly marble works such as walls, slabs, carved ivory figures and more”. The Katholikon was the main church of the Hosios Monastery. According to the textbook, “It’s small scaled domes supported by Squiches has an octagonal core, and vaulting roofs. The builder created a polychromed decorative effect on the exterior and alternating stones with bricks set up both vertical and horizontal and using the diagonally set bricks to form saw toothed moldings”. Therefore making its architectural design very complex (pg. 253,254). According to the website ‘Hellenic Foundation for Culture’, “Another reason the Hosios Loukas monastery was best known for was Hosios Loukas ability to miraculously heal people and his future prophecy telling skills”. This monastery is beautiful the architecture is amazing and the paintings truly are a piece of art considering it’s roofs have been repaired and it’s northern and western wings cells have been restored all because of the Ministry of Cultured that has restored and conserved the monastery.

The next example of the 10 most known monasteries is named Hagia Irene. Now this was one of the earliest monasteries this monastery was built in the Byzantine capital located in Faith and is now a museum, which has remained the appearance the same as it was in the 8th century it was also commissioned by the Roman emperor Constantine the great unfortunately the monastery was destroyed burnt down to ground along with hagia sophia which happens to be Irene’s monumental neighbor during the Nika riots in 532. It was later rebuilt by orders of patron emperor Justinian in the middle of the 6th century. Unfortunately, two centuries later the monastery was again severely damaged due to an earthquake however it still holds musical events and attracts tourists this monastery now museum has been through quite a lot of history but continues to be an important part of the Byzantine period. This monastery is also well known for its mosaic, cross, marble, stones, columns which are sustained by brick/blocks frescoes painting such as the dome angel figures on walls and ceilings and it’s apse and iconoclastic black cross with a golden background.

According to the National Gallery of Art this painting is one of the 13th century Byzantine most famous paintings it is named ‘Hodegetria’ meaning ‘the virgin who’, and the Child significance is the one that ‘shows the way’, which is also known as the ‘Enthroned Madonna and Child’. This art is said to be a blend of Byzantine and western piece, which was painted by a Greek painter meaning that he had either been working for a western patron it reflects some western influence because of its folding cloth defining gold striations and three dimensional view of Virgin marys throne theirs also indications that he had possibly worked in Italy because of the paintings Italy popularized floral patterns this painting really represents the role of Mary as the Queen of Heaven.

Another 13th century Byzantine art painting/altarpiece is named the St James the Minor, the anonymous Italian artist was known as the master of Saint Francis. According to the National Gallery of Art in the painting Saint James wrapped swathed right arm of drapery had been inspired by an early Christians sarcophagus adornments that happened to be kept in the same exact church as the painting itself. He has created many other known Byzantine paintings such as Saint John the Evangelist and more it is said to believe the unknown artist himself could of been a Franciscan fair but that is just a belief and this mystery may continue to be unsolved and continue to be unknown whether he was or not a Franciscan fair.

Another well-known Byzantine art is Ivory Diptychs. According to our class textbook, “Christians adopted the practice of religious use,

inscribing a diptych with the names of people to be remembered with prayers during the liturgy” (pg. 248).The Archangel Michael Byzantine ivory diptychs, for example, happens to be the largest surviving Byzantine ivory diptych of the 4th centurys. This carved ivory diptych is seen as a divine messenger and is represents the holding of great authority the sphere he holds is said to symbolize great influential power/ authority.

The Harbaville triptych is another ivory diptych from the Middle Byzantine period in the mid 10th century there are two parts to this piece, which are figures (8-25A) and (8-25B). Figure A being the front and figure B being the back. According to the textbook, these triptych were used by privileged owner for the focus of private prayer it was luxurious meaning the owner was of high status and wealthy. Figure A shows Mary, St. John and Christ interacting with each other and asking Christ for forgiveness and salvation for the owner of the work. On the bottom outer panels on the bottom side it shows four apostles whom are identified as James John Paul and Andrew on the top side are four whom are identified as military Saints their are also bishop saints and martyrs On figure B represents a celestial court of saints attending Christ in paradise which happen to be organized between thematic groups. Just like on the first figure it is seen on the back a form of a large cross with animals and crops again very luxurious this is symbolizing where the owner hopes his or her destination will be showing their desired ending point (pg. 259).

The Byzantine architecture, paintings, ivory figures/sculptures all this art was displayed in many monasteries. Byzantine art is all about religious beliefs. The monistic communities are all about devotion to those who are spiritual/religious, that are able to worship to the gods. It’s all about Christian and catholic teachings. The monastic communities are able to picture the heavenly realm through the Byzantine architecture and paintings, altars panels, sculptures and more at monasteries, and be a part of religious practices such as meditation and prayer.

The Roman Kingdom was built on seven hills split between Tiber River in Italy. The Tiber River allowed Rome to have easy access to the Mediterranean, where people could come together and trade over water. The Roman Kingdom also built roads and Roman Forum, a public place were all citizens could meet, network, and pray together. Over time Rome begin to create social structure as humans begun to develop city-states. The Patricians were wealthy landowners of Rome, who were born with rights and controlled most decisions made. The Plebeians were poor famers who had little say so in government. The Freemen were slaves who were freed from their owners. The bottom of Rome’s social classes was slave. Slave were enslaved for debt or prisoner of war. Gender role in Roman Kingdom also begun to establish. Women were not legally equal to men, which mean they had no input especially in politic. Women were only seen as a mother or wife. As for Rome religion many believe in gods or goddess who intervene in humans’ affairs. Rome also built the Aqueduct which allowing water to flow into the city. To protest Rome wealth Patricians built a powerful military and begun to participate in political affairs. Over time the kingdom was replaced with a Republic and then an empire before the fall of Rome.

Byzantine Empire became an Continues of the Roman Empire. Byzantine Empire built similar structure of Roman Empire but add their own twist to each structure. Constantine, who was the Roman emperor, committed a new Rome to Byzantium, a colony of Greek. Constantinople city became Rome new capital. The empire was characterized by its developed economic and monetary system, unique government organization, enormous wealth, and excellently equipped army with a remarkable war technique. During those times Byzantine had a prominent position among the first states.

Besides, the Byzantine Empire survived for many years producing a magnificent custom or literature, art, learning, and serving as a military shield between Asia and Europe. It was very civilized and powerful. Although Constantine reigned over a unified Empire, after his death this unity was attested to be unreal. Therefore, the Empire Valencian I divided the empire into eastern and western whereby he ruled in the west and his brother Valens on the east. The fortunes of the two sections later deviated with constant attacks in the direction from the Germans who broke it down until Italy was left under Roman control as the only territory (Angold, 1997).

Moreover, the eastern section with Constantinople located on a strait had a shorter common frontier, and therefore it was difficult to breach its defences. It was able to effectively master enough human resources to prevent invasion and thus was able to survive for many years after the fall of Rome. During the reign of Justinian, the empire was left in a lot of financial debts, and therefore his successors were enforced to tax its people hugely to maintain it (Hussey, 1970). The army was reduced as a result and would not prevent its conquerors from attacking. Later in the centuries, serious threats arose in the form of Islam formed by Mohammad, and thus Byzantines lost Syria, Egypt, and North Africa by the end of the century. Later in 1453, an Ottoman army attacked Byzantine Empire causing it to fall.

An Analysis of Selected World Cultures Before the Advent of Islam and the Major Impact of Islam of These Cultures

Introduction

This paper presents an overview of the political, religious, and moral state of the Arabian Peninsula, the Roman/Byzantine and Persian empires, and surrounding polities/cultural groups extant at the emergence of Islam. An analysis focusing on the period from the beginning of Prophethood and, thereafter, under the four righteous caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali with a mention of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. There will be a close examination of Islam’s impact on conquered civilizations during the emergence of Islam as a political/military force in the region.

Unanimously, historical records that deal with Islam’s emergence, indicate that Islam had a substantive effect on the cultures with which it came into contact either through dawah, trade, treaties, hijrah, or conquest.

Status of Civilizations Prior to Islam

Arabian Peninsula

Within the pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula, there was no central government. Rulers were of two kinds: 1) crowned kings were found in Yemen, Iraq/Hera and at Ghasam in Syria (also referred to as Shams), and 2) heads of tribes and clans. Both equal in authority within their own realms but the latter were mostly independent unlike the former. Due to geographically challenging mountainous and dessert terrain, the northern Arabian Peninsula was protected from the two major empires flanking it—the Roman and Persian Empires. Despite this protection from external forces, the Arabs were beseiged by inter-tribal warfare and fueds. Yemen, positioned in the south of the peninsula, was unlike its comrads to the north more vulnerable and was conquered twice by the Romans and Ethiopians in 340 AD-378 Ad and again in 525 AD.

Religious Conditions — Historically, the majority of the Arabs had professed the religion of Ibraheem (upon him be peace) for many centuries. However through time, key aspects of monotheism were distorted and idol worship (Hubal) was introduced to the Arabian peninsula by a revered and righteous chief of the Khusa’a named Amr bin Luhai, imitating the practice of the people Syria after a trip he took in BC. His actions began the spread of idol worship across Arabia leading to over 360 idols found in the Ka’aba at the time of the Prophet’s conquest of Makkah. Each person, household, and tribe had its own idol to whom they devoted themselves and for whom they made pilgrimage and sacrifice, and from whom they expected intercession, closeness to Allah, and the fulfilment of their needs and desires. Beyond the worship of idols, the religious practices of the Arabs in pre-Islamic times included divination by casting of Azlam (arrows/lots), belief in soothsayers, and astrologers. Other than the pagan Arabians, there existed those who practiced Judaism, Christianity, Magianism, and Sabianism.

Socio-Economic Conditions

The Arabian society was solidly patriarchal impacting the status and treatment of women, types of marriage and the existence of prostitution and in its extreme expression, the murdering of the female child. Arabs’ warped notion of family and view of the woman on the one hand expressed itself with woman of nobility having free will and being held in high esteem so much so that her male folk would defend her honor with bloodshed and even the common man would deeply cherish the women of his family. At the same time, men would hide or bury their daughters alive out of shame and/or fear of poverty. While marriage in some cases resembled present-day marriage, it was also part of their tradition 1) for a man to send his wife to cohabit with another man to conceive a child, 2) for a group of men to have sexual intercourse with one woman who would chose the father of her child from those men if she became impregnated, 3) a women would post a flag inviting men to her intimacy and reliance on a seeress to identify the father of her impending child [Abu Da‟ûd, on the authority of „Aishah(RA)]. These untenable practices, along with tribal pride stirred by drinking of intoxicants and gambling, led to on-going inter-tribal warfare and a weakening of the social fabric of the times.

On the whole, Arabian society was plaqued by poverty and a dearth of food and other daily resources as a result. Arabs on the peninsula pursued trade as the most common economic engine though farming and sheparding also existed. Women in the northern peninsula did some yarn spinning and other crafts and knitting was the main craft of those from Yemen Heera and Syra. there was some sort of farming and stock-breeding.

Ethics/Morals

Despite the troublesome aspects of the Arab social interactions, they were characterized by positive traits that were spawned by their simple, healthy Bedouin lifestyle. These included a sense of honour and self-respect, keeping the covenant, showing hospitality to the guest, treating others with tolerance and mildness, displaying diligence and tenacity, and not being contaminated [image: ]by a duplicitous nature.

Roman/Byzantine Empire

The Roman/Byzantine Empire prior to the advent of Islam was focused on their military/political agenda. At that time, the empire was a functional monarchy under the rule of Emperor Heraclius and was on a decline it is historical power. Northwest of the Arabian Peninsula, it circled the Mediterranean Sea and comprised portions of North Africa (from Egypt to Tunis), Italy, Greece, Mesopotamia, Armenia along with the accompanying sea islands of Sicily, Cyprus and Crete. An important subject of the Empire was Syria due to its trade routes. The Roman Empire had a heterogeneous polity and exercised economic oppression over those it ruled. Their prime political rival was the Persian Empire with whom they had been engaged in ongoing wars for millennia (700 years?).

Christianity was the state religion, however even within this majority religion there was internal strife between those who believed in One God (Chaldean Chistians) and those who believed in the trinity. Conflicting ideologies resulted in slaughter, murder, flaying, drowning, rape and pillage as a means of conversion.

The Roman/Byzantine Empire sustained a class system whose upper class practiced extravagant behavior and lived in luxury. The elite was comprised of the emperor, the wealthy and landowners. The middle class consisted of merchants, artisans , government employees and skilled workers; these had a degree of upward mobility within their class. Slaves and other laborers made up the lower class and were exploited by their wealthy masters. The wealthy ate meals (including meat dishes) and frequented elaborate social events and well-appointed bathing houses, the poor ate simple foods including fish, nuts, bread, eggs legumes olives milk cheese and fruit. All classes engaged in wine and gambling. and while There were violent sporting events, riots over unfair taxation and suffering under the brutality of ruthless leaders. As the age of Islam approached, the empire was on the decline as a result of horrific plagues, the weariness of ongoing war and the instability of exchanging one ruling power (Rome) for another (Persia).

Persian/Sassanid Empire

The Persian Empire was the second major power extant at the emergence of Islam. It was situated on the northeast border of the Arabian Peninsula. An ancient society, Persia ruled over an impressive empire comprised of Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Armenia and Central Asia, Afghanistan, and parts of Pakistan. northwest to the Caspian Sea, east to the border of Turkistan, south to the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, as well as exchanging dominance of Syria with the Roman Empire. As the Muslims’ strength and renown in the region grew, the Persian Empire faced an unprecedented decline in its political, social and economic systems due to hundreds of years of military conflict with the Roman Empire coupled with emergent civil wars after the execution of the King Chosroe II in 628.

Zorastrianism was the dominant religion of the empire. It was a dualistic faith where adherents believed in One God, Ahura Mazda the creator of all good who was alone worthy of worship. However, they also attributed evil to another powerful being, Angra Mainyu, rendering the faith polytheism through the commission of Shirk ar-Ruboobiya. .

In addition to Persia being a formidable military force at its height, culturally it was a center of refinement. Persian Empire had attained the largest population in the world at the time. The populace was skilled in architecture, engineering, irrigation and waterworks, canal building, intricate gardens, metal work, carpet weaving and the literary arts. Beyond an internal, the empire transfered its knowledge, culture and trade beyond its own massive borders through its impressive development of its roadways and maritime trade. It was built upon a class system [four levels of nobility, followed by priests, warriors, husbandmen, and artisans].

Bibliography

1. Islam, S. (2016, July 27). SlideShare. Retrieved July 1, 2018, from Timeline of the caliphate in history: www.slideshare.net/SaajidIslam/the-timeline-of-the-caliphate-in-history/9

The Justinian Code

Can you imagine becoming king of an empire and your kingdom was in utter chaos?

That was how it was for Justinian I. When he came to power in the year 527 the Byzantine Empire was having a very hard time. Half of its land was taken from barbarians, and the laws were a mess.

Flavius Justinianus or more commonly known as Emperor Justinian was born in 485, in North Macedonia. He was born poor and did not have any relations who held any high positions except for his uncle, Justin. His uncle held a very high military command. Justin became emperor in 518. Justinian was Justin’s favorite nephew and ended up being a big influence on him. Justin, being childless, adopted Justinian to be his heir. Then in 527, Justinian became Justinian I, Emperor of The Byzantine Empire because of his uncle’s death on August 1, 527. He made his queen Theodora. She was a dancer and everyone in his court was very surprised Justinian picked her to be his wife instead of a famous princess.

When Justinian became Emperor in 527, the Byzantine Empire was in chaos. There were not many great laws at the time, and the empire had a very weak foundation. The only laws they had were not strongly enforced and some were just to make those in power to stay powerful. They were many heretics promoting paganism. They were teaching paganism at schools.

The Byzantine Empire had lost half of its kingdom. Another problem with the laws are that they were not really written. That made it very easy for one to change them which also causes a lot of inconsistencies with the laws. Looking to fix the problems with the laws, Justinian created the Justinian Code or the Codex Justinianus in Latin.

The Justinian code is a set of laws that got his empire back together. It also has some laws that are used today, some that were taken directly from the Justinian code or some that originated from them. The Justinian code consists of 4 main parts. The Codex Constitutionum, the Digesta, the Institutiones, and last but not least the Novellae Constitutiones Post Codicem. They each are their own part of the Justinian Code.

The Codex Constitutionum is also known as the Codex Justinianus or just the Codex. The Codex Constitutionum is a collection of 12 books. These 12 books contained 4,562 imperial edicts. An imperial edict is a method used by emperors to promote or give orders to their ministers and officials. Surprisingly, the Codex Constitutionum talks very lightly on the topic of religion. For example, it touches on the fact of Catholicism spreading. It was finished and issued in the year 529.

The Digesta has many names. It is also called the Pandectae, the Pandects, and the Digest. This is used for those who are making claims or filing lawsuits. It can also be used by those who are trying to defend themselves in court against a claim. The Digesta was also made to be used for practicing judges. At first, the Digesta consisted of 1,500 books but it was cut down to 50 books. The Digesta is very organized, each book is very specific of its subject. The final work, which consisted of 50 books, was published in December in the year 533.

The Institutiones, or also known as the Institutes, is the third part of the Justinian code. It was technically a very short version of the Digesta and the Codex Constitutionum. It was not for actual lawyers, it was for students. It was like as textbook or handbook focusing directly on both the Digesta and the Codex Constitutionum. It was used by law students to understand the laws and apply them more accurately. So in short, the Institutiones is a student law book for future great lawyers. Like the Digesta, it was also published and issued in the year 533, during December.

The last part of the Justinian Code is the Novellae Constitutiones Post Codicem. It is also called the Novellae Constitutiones, or just the Novels, which means new laws. The Novellae Constitutiones Post Codicem is a collection of every imperial edict, which are orders to his ministers and officials between the years 534 and 565. It is used to keep all of his imperial edict between the years 534 and 565 in order, written down, and ready to referenced. Another thing that the Novellae Constitutiones focuses on are a lot are the social adjustments the Byzantine society went through during Justinian’s rule. The Novellae Constitutiones really addressed the laws concerning the rights of slaves, children, and women. Thanks to the Novellae Constitutiones the laws of slaves, children, and women really improved.

Then here are some overall neat facts of the Justinian Code. It is one of the first places where the law didn’t have the “ guilty unless proven innocent “ rule, which was very common during the time of the making of the Justinian Code. Instead, it taught the “ Innocent until proven guilty” law. That was a real amazing turn in law at the time and it made things much more fair for the accused. Many of the laws of the Justinian Code can be found in the modern American law book. Many of the laws we know today came directly from or originated from the Justinian Code. The Justinian Code was a real turn around for the Byzantine Empire. Ancient civilizations also adapted laws from the Justinian Code. In the end, Justinian the I was a great emperor, he restored half his empire and created the famous Justinian Code.

Next time you are at court, whatever law you use to defend yourself, or accuse one of breaking it, or even being accused of breaking, it might have been created by an ancient Byzantine Emperor over 1,000 years ago.

Sources

1. Source 1- https://www.ancient.eu/Corpus_Juris_Civilis/
2. Source 2- https://www.britannica.com/topic/Code-of-Justinian
3. Source 3- https://www.britannicas.com/biography/Justinian-1
4. Source 4- https://www.penfield.edu/webpages/jgiotto/onlinetextbook.cfm?subpage=167958

Throughout history, various cultures have created numerous artworks depicting religious salvation and damnation, with the most common depictions coming from Christianity. The religion as a whole focuses a great deal on the concepts of sin as well as redemption through faith and worship. This theme has been shown in art through periods such as the Byzantine Empire as well as the Romanesque era. This theme is represented repeatedly throughout history due to the popularity Christianity has held as a major world religion. Both the Byzantine and Romanesque era view christ as a holy divinity who judges a person on whether or not they are able to enter heaven and gives judgment on those who commit sins. Christ’s significance as a judge is portrayed in both Byzantine and Romanesque art to convey a religious message that emphasizes the worship of Christ and the abstain of sin to reach paradise. Some art pieces also convey what happens to those who do not pass Christ’s judgment and are sent to hell for their sins. The Anastasis represents those who are saved from Hell’s prison through the worship of Christ while the Last Judgement shows souls that are either sent to heaven or condemned to hell through the weighing of the souls.

The Byzantine Empire began in 330 CE, shortly after the fall of the Roman Empire. Constantine, I subsequently became emperor of Byzantium after he decided to establish the capital known as Constantinople on the land itself. The capital allowed for profitable trade between the East and the West, as it sat near the border of Europe and Asia. Because of Constantinople’s location, Byzantine art was greatly influenced by its surrounding areas. For example, figures with an appearance that is less realistic looking and have bright colors were influenced by the Coptic style of Alexandria. Another is the oriental style of Antioch which influenced the use of decorative patterns and frontal portraits similar to Syrian art. Christianity was the religion of the empire and was ran by the bishop whom the emperor choose and whom the emperor could remove (Cartwright, 2019). The religion played a vital role within politics and art as bishops were very important and wealthy members of society since they represented both the church and the emperor. The empire’s choice in religion was due to Constantine’s sponsorship as well as the Roman Empire’s previous involvement in it.

However, there were many debates on how the religion should be viewed, especially in art, with the separation of church in the East and West. For example, there was a debate over whether or not Jesus Christ had more than one form. Another was over the use of Icons. This controversy occurred during a period called Iconoclasm, also known as “the destruction of images”, which took place in both 726-787 CE and 814-843 CE (Cartwright, 2019). Icons were the representation of figures such as Jesus Christ. Many Byzantines approved the idea of them, however, those in support of iconoclasm believed that it was sacrilegious for God to be presented in art and would, therefore, destroy any art that has the use of icons within them. Because of the huge role Christianity played in the empire, many art pieces were created displaying some sort of religious message. Artists created their masterpieces using paintings, mosaics, or icons, with the most popular medium being painted wooden panels that could be carried or hung on walls (Cartwright, 2019).

The Anastasis, greek for “resurrection”, is a fresco painting that was created during the late byzantine empire. It is held in the apse of the parekklesion of the church of Christ in Chora in Constantinople. It depicts Jesus Christ standing over both Satan and the keys and locks of hell’s prison while pulling Adam and Eve out from their tombs. To the left, John the Baptist, King David, and King Solomon watch from the side, and on the right martyr, saints stand there as well. The figures are shown in a spaceless and spiritual atmosphere with no volume to cast shadows. The painting was created as part of a series of paintings that show human mortality and redemption through Christ, as well as conciliation from the virgin Mary. In the piece, Christ has a mandorla illuminated around his head while he reaches out to Adam and Eve with this graceful and fluid-like appearance. All the figures have a smooth and light appearance with slight changes in coloration. The clothes of the figures are precise as the clothes drape over the figures in a naturalistic way rather than through hard abstract lines.

The piece is inspired by a scripture from the Gospel of Nicodemus, where John the Baptist tells the other prophets and patriarchs that Christ is coming to the underworld to rescue them if they are ready to worship him. The prophets and patriarchs agree that they are ready to, and when Christ arrives he defeats Satan and takes them to heaven (Stracke, 2017). The piece demonstrates the theme of salvation or deliverance from sin and its consequences. Christ saves Adam and Eve, the ones who established original sin when they went against God’s word by eating the forbidden fruit they were told not to consume. Through their worship of Christ, they are saved from their sins and taken to heaven.

The painting demonstrates the Byzantines’ use of art to convey religious messages of salvation and redemption, as well as strengthen people’s faith. The piece also uses the icon of Jesus Christ and shows the viewer his divinity through the depiction of a halo around his head. This is common for icon artists of the time, as it was a way to emphasize their figure’s holiness (Cartwright, 2019). This piece, as well as many other Christian art pieces, was created because of the significance the religion had on society as a whole. Since it was the religion of the empire, and the bishop was chosen by the emperor, many churches and religious art pieces were a result of the emperor’s sponsorship as well as the wealth of the church. The Anastasis holds a message of salvation similar to the Last Judgement, however, the Last Judgement also illustrates those who are deemed unworthy to enter heaven and are condemned to hell. While the Anastasis serves as a reminder of what happens to those who follow Christ, the Last Judgement serves as a warning to those who don’t.

The Romanesque period took place during the late middle ages, between 1050 and 1200 CE. The name ‘Romanesque’ was taken from the era’s artistic style, which uses aspects similar to those found in ancient Roman art and architecture. They also took inspiration from previous empires such as the Byzantine empire. The spread of the art style was mainly due to the growth of monasticism. Monasticism is defined as ‘an institutionalized religious practice or movement whose members attempt to live by a rule that requires works that go beyond those of either the laity or the ordinary spiritual leaders of their religions. This means people became monks, priests, or nuns in order to renounce worldly pleasures and devote themselves to religious work. Additionally, many clerical buildings were constructed or remodeled as there was an increase in independent cities. Pilgrimages to monasteries containing relics continued to grow, allowing for them to gain funding for future monasteries.

From this era, relief sculptures were used to tell biblical stories as well as display church doctrine.