Buddhism emerged in northeastern India at an unspecified time between the early 4th century and late 6th century. Intense religious activities and social change characterized this era. During the time of Buddha, this religious outfit differed significantly from Hinduism and other organized religions in terms of doctrines and way of life. Followers of this religion lived a solitary life of meditation in the wilderness only emerging from time to time to beg for food and clothing. However, this lifestyle has changed drastically over the last century. Currently, institutional and corporate characteristics define Buddhism and this change has occurred due to several factors. This paper discusses the different factors that may have contributed to this change in the organization of Buddhism in the contemporary world. Colonization of Buddhist countries by western powers and globalization are noted as the two major factors that have contributed to this change.
Buddhism in the Modern World
The 19th and 20th centuries brought challenges and opportunities for Buddhism, as a religious sect, which underlined the need for change from an amorphous and disorganized outfit to the formation of institutions of governance and organization. The first aspect was colonization by western powers and the associated cultural, economic, political, and religious influences (Turner et al. 76). Even Buddhist countries that avoided direct conquest were subject to external pressures from western religious ideologies. In addition, during this period, modern scientific and rationalistic modes of thinking emerged to shape notions of liberal socialism and democracy together with capitalism as a form of economic organization. These revolutionary elements were introduced to the life and thought processes of Buddhists in Asia. Moreover, with globalization, this religion spread quickly to the West whereby further developments took place to shape modern-day Buddhism as an organized institution. Buddhists responded to these challenges in different ways and ultimately the outfit became an organized entity like many religions of the world.
First, Buddhists sought to preserve their cultural and religious identities in the face of domination by western doctrines. Specifically, the spread of Christianity across Asia through missionary work posed an existential threat to Buddhism. Therefore, Buddhists responded by adopting some of the Christian practices including the establishment of places of worship, Sunday schools for children to be taught religious fundamentals, distribution of tracts, and formalizing days of worship (Turner et al 119). These early steps to counter the force of Christianity form the basis for the institutionalization of Buddhism. Officials also advanced the Buddhist cause by promoting missionary activities across Asia and later in the West. Such activities demanded the establishment of an organized structure to ensure success against the domineering western doctrines.
After globalization helped spread Buddhism to the West, new strategies were needed to advance this noble cause. Therefore, Buddhists adopted some of the Christian practices, especially in the United States. For instance, the word “church” was officially adopted into Buddhist with the formation of the Buddhist Churches of America under the US branch of Japanese Pure Land (Jōdo Shinshū) (Skilton 178). Consequently, designated places of worship (temples) were designed and built to accommodate believers similar to Protestant congregations. In 1891, the Moha Bodhi Society was formed adding to other numerous similar outfits to promote and coordinate cooperation among Buddhists across the country (Skilton 23). Other such organizations included the World Buddhist Sangha Council, which was formed in 1965, and the World Fellowship of Buddhists in 1950 (Skilton 104). Therefore, such societies needed a high level of organization to thrive and spread to other regions of the world, hence the institutionalization of Buddhism.
In addition, reforms were introduced to make Buddhism more appealing and competitive in a quickly changing modern world. For instance, leaders adopted a rationalized interpretation of the fundamental doctrines by deemphasizing the ritualized and supernatural aspects of the religion. The focus shifted to establishing continuity between modern science and Buddhism together with considering the centrality of morals and ethics. In China, the Buddhist reform movement arose during this time with the embrace of new scientific values, rationality, and progress (Ashiwa and Wank 222). At the time, Buddhism in China was associated with passivity and detached attitude, which were perceived as major causes of backwardness. Therefore, several renewal movements emerged across China to advance Buddhist education. Seminaries were formed to train Buddhist clergy as part of winning the war against proselytization and the threat of Christianity in the region (Ashiwa and Wank 222). Running these institutions required some level of organization, and thus Buddhism slowly became a corporate entity being witnessed in the modern world.
Engaged Buddhism also arose during this time to foster the implementation of socio-economic and political activities within the fundamental practices of this religion. This aspect was a departure from the pre-modern way of thinking that emphasized ritualized and supernormal aspects of Buddhism. In addition, socially active followers sought to infuse Buddhism teachings as the founding concept of modern democratic societies. At this level, the organizational foundations of this religion had to change to accommodate all the divergent views and fit into the dynamic globalized society. Buddhist institutions and organizations became a necessity.
Another widespread factor that led to drastic changes was the emergence of charismatic leaders and their associated popular movements within Buddhism. For instance, in Thailand, the Dhammakaya group emerged in the early 20th century under the leadership of Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro (Dubus 41). This group commands a huge following with commercialized sectarian interests. According to Dubus, Dhammakaya “is an attempt to adapt Buddhism to contemporary Thailand, by blending religious teachings and the consumerist ideology that has engulfed the kingdom in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries” (41). The group is also highly hierarchical, and such patterns could not be achieved without institutionalizing Buddhism. Dhammakaya is one of many Buddhist charismatic movements that exist in the contemporary world. Most of these groups promise the immediate attainment of nirvana and prompt financial and business success by observing certain rituals of donation. Consequently, the proliferation of such movements has necessitated the structured nature of Buddhism to give it the current corporate characteristics.
Conclusion
When Buddhism started under the guidance of Buddha, its main characteristic was a life of solitude with divine seekers living in the wilderness to meditate. However, the colonization and globalization phases of the 19th and 20th centuries forced Buddhists to change their way of thinking and adopt a modernistic approach towards religion. Christianity threatened to decimate Buddhism and thus leaders strategized by forming organizations to counter such threats. Temples were created and seminary schools were established to train clergy for the spread of Buddhism around the world, specifically in the West. Such objectives could only be achieved through organized Buddhist institutions as being witnessed in the world today. The emergence of charismatic movements within the religion also facilitated the institutionalization of Buddhism to give it the current corporate features of a formally organized religious outfit.
Works Cited
Ashiwa, Yoshiko, and David Wank. “The Globalization of Chinese Buddhism: Clergy and Devotee Networks in the Twentieth Century.” International Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 2005, pp. 217-237.
Dubus, Arnaud. Buddhism and Politics in Thailand. Research Institute of Contemporary Southeast Asia, 2017.
Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. Windhorse Publications, 1994.
Turner, Alicia, et al. Saving Buddhism: The Impermanence of Religion in Colonial Burma (Southeast Asia: Politics, Meaning, and Memory). University of Hawaii Press, 2017.
Japan is a civilization with many unique cultural and religious aspects which has dictated its people’s behavior for many centuries. Unlike in different European and American nations, the citizens of this country uphold unique ideas informed by the concepts of Buddhism and Shintoism. Analyzing the nature of these attributes and insights can make it easier for many scholars and historians to learn more about this region’s belief system. The purpose of this research paper is to give a detailed description of these three major Japanese religions: Buddhism, Shintoism, and Daoism.
Background Information
For hundreds of years, the selected society has followed a unique belief system characterized by different ideologies and faiths. The most unusual observation is that followers of such religions do not contradict or challenge each other. Instead, they coexist and focus on concepts that can support their goals and expectations in life. Before the end of the Second World War, the leading religions in Japan supported the notion of powerful emperors (Hardcare 22). These leaders were seen as gods, respected, and even followed. The end of this global upheaval triggered a new model whereby many citizens began to separate issues of faith from those of existence. However, they continued to follow or support various rituals, practices, and ideas that had defined their culture for several centuries.
Today, the idea of religion in Japanese society exists as a mish-mash of ideologies and teachings from Buddhism and Shintoism. Another pertinent observation in this country is that worship is not organized as is the case in the West. This means that people treat religion as a source of inspiration and guidance that dictate the way they should pursue their goals in life (Hardcare 29). It is a moral code that forms the integral aspects of the people’s cultural and social values.
Ellwood goes further to reveal that Japanese religion remains a family or personal affair that lacks the influence of the state or community leaders (15). Many people do not claim to be religious or worship frequently. The major practices of spiritual ideas tend to occur during rituals, such as the ones for death, birth, and marriage. Such ceremonies are known as matsuri and take place throughout the year.
Religious Beliefs
After many centuries of cultural influence and transformation, several traditions and practices form an integral part of the Japanese religion today. Some of the leading faiths or belief systems include Shintoism, Daoism, and Buddhism. Confucianism is also a religion commonly found throughout Japanese society which has many followers all across the country. New religions that arose from the 19th century are becoming a common feature of life in Japanese society (Ellwood 11). The discussion below gives a detailed analysis of the leading belief systems in this country.
Shintoism
This remains a common religion in Japan since it is associated with the history, origin, and nature of all Japanese people. This aspect explains why many researchers and historians examine it as the country’s indigenous spirituality (Hardcare 17).
According to followers of this faith, all-natural and living things have some form of god or kami. These include animals, water, flowers, and trees. This kind of thought explains why the leading principles of Shinto are identifiable in every aspect of Japanese culture. For example, the Japanese consider the naturalness or order of things to the designing of their buildings and gardens (Ellwood 34). The annual celebration called sakura depicts the blossoming nature of flowers and plants.
The Japanese believe that Shintoism is what guides human beings to focus on the spirituality of life and that of the natural world. This religion encourages many people to celebrate marriage and birth (Ellwood 17). They also use its principles and teachings to engage in prayers whenever expecting good harvest seasons. Religion is associated with shrines that tend to have huge gates known as torii (Hardcare 51). Such places of worship usually have water troughs or fountains to symbolize life.
Historians acknowledge that the nature and originality of Shintoism explain why there are no sacred texts. This is true since it emerged from the people’s rituals and ideologies and has been inherited from one generation to the next.
The founders of this religion focused on the nature of the seasons and how people are connected to this (Baffelli 59). They went further to combine such notions with harvests, tree planting practices, offerings, and birth ceremonies. Members of the community engaged in all rituals in an attempt to transform their relationships with the kami (Hardcare 83). Even though many people considered the ideology of Shinto to legitimize the country’s involvement in the Second World War, it has always been a religion of communities, agriculture, and nature.
Buddhism
The ideologies and concepts of Buddhism became common in Japan around the 6th century. This religion is believed to have originated from India whereby its followers focused on the best approaches to get rid of suffering (Ellwood 20). According to the teachings of Buddha, all people at some point become sick or weak and eventually die. With this kind of understanding, religion explains how the idea of rebirth is possible.
Those who want to expel pain should, therefore, pursue a journey to a new form of reality or understanding. This achievement is usually known as nirvana (Baffelli 81). The religion indicated that all human beings and things on earth existed in an interdependent network. This meant that all people were required to pursue a new form of thinking and ignore the problem of self-centeredness. Such a practice would guide them to embrace the concepts of Buddhist morality, wisdom, and meditation.
By the 8th century, Japanese society managed to appreciate the teachings and ideas of Buddhism. The establishment of Nara city encouraged the Japanese court to take the idea of Buddhism seriously. During this time, many scholars supported the creation of different Buddhist sects, thereby fostering a strong foundation for this religion. Over the years, new ideologies and branches of Buddhism continued to emerge, including Mahayana, Zen, Nichiren, and Pure Land (Dessi 48).
Today, this religion has leaders, priests, and monks who guide their followers to meditate and achieve nirvana. Around 90 million citizens in this country consider themselves Buddhists and follow its ideology (Baffelli 102). This belief system does not influence or affect the life of its followers strongly. However, funerals are usually informed by the ideology and concepts of this faith. Many people also have altars or visit temples to pay respect or honor their ancestors.
Daoism
Another religion many Japanese follow is that of Daoism. Having originated from China, this belief system inspires and guides people to engage in shamanistic practices. This means that believers focus on high states of consciousness in an attempt to interact with their gods and introduce the acquired ideas to the world (Dessi 29). This approach is what makes Daoism a superstitious religious practice. There are specific rituals that followers of this system take into consideration, such as uchi-soto and setsubun. Believers chant and repeat different phrases depending on the intended goals or outcomes.
Daoists engage in practices whereby they call upon ogamiyasan. These forms of consultation are essential to ensure that activities are completed efficiently or successfully, such as house construction. Followers of this religion also embrace the idea of fortune-telling or Tengenjutsu and are usually aware of the best actions or activities to consider. After the establishment of this religion, a practice called Shegundo was developed (Ellwood 57). This is a form of worship whereby followers visit mountains and engage in shamanistic practices. This religious model has also influenced different aspects of Shintoism, including Ise (Dessi 98). Daoists are also known to stay awake during the night and the day to perform specific rituals to achieve their objectives in life.
Conclusion
The above discussion has identified and described the nature of religious worship and practice in Japan. It has analyzed the three major belief systems that people in this country associate with. It is also evident that the aspects, norms, and concepts of the three religions appear to converge. Nonetheless, each ideology has continued to exist without affecting the survival or effectiveness of the other while guiding people to achieve their spiritual goals.
Works Cited
Baffelli, Erica. Media and New Religions in Japan. Routledge, 2016.
Dessi, Ugo. The Global Repositioning of Japanese Religions: An Integrated Approach. Routledge, 2017.
Ellwood, Robert. Introducing Japanese Religion. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2016.
Hardcare, Helen. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press, 2017.
Buddhism originated in the middle of the first millennium BC in northern India as an opposition to the religion of Brahmanism that dominated in those days. In the middle of the VI century, Indian society was in the midst of a socioeconomic and cultural crisis (Hawkins 18). The clan organization and traditional ties disintegrated, and the formation of class relations took place. At this time, in India, there was a large number of roving ascetics, who offered their vision of the world. Their opposition to the existing order evoked the sympathy of people. Among the teachings of this kind was Buddhism, which gained the most significant influence in society. Within the framework of this paper, key factors that contributed to Buddhism taking on institutional and corporate characteristics will be discussed. This paper will outline the factors that have contributed to institutional and corporate changes in Buddhism and discuss its implications in the contemporary world.
In the modern era of globalization, Buddhism has begun to actively go beyond its former local historical and national geographical borders, encompassing all new cultural areas. Today, Buddhism is no longer a purely eastern religion. Hundreds of organizations and centers of Buddhism operate in forty-five countries in Europe, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand (Cooper and James 33). The most Buddhist country in the West is now Germany, where since the 1920s, more than 200 Buddhist organizations have appeared; in Germany and France, Buddhism has already become the third largest denomination (Cooper and James 34). There is a European Buddhist Union, which regularly holds its congresses in European capitals.
In this regard, attention is drawn to the analysis of the following fundamental values of Buddhism, which attract people who are not native Buddhists born in India. Indeed, in present days, Buddhism is tightly connected with specific institutional and corporate characteristics that are intrinsic to the modern world, and some critical factors have contributed to this change. The first factor is the presence in Buddhism of a developed system of psychology. From the very beginning of the emergence of scientific Buddhism, this religion has been evaluated not so much as a religion, but as a type of spiritual therapy. Interest in Buddhist psychology as a method of changing human’s psychological qualities and solving personal psychological problems remains one of the main reasons for the spread of Buddhism in Western Europe and the United States (Lopez 55). Many people there are looking for balance in life, temporary peace, avoiding severe problems and troubles. Recently, one can observe a significant increase in interest in Buddhism as a system that gives practical results already in contemporary life.
Buddhism attracts its followers by the pure practicality of its psychology, which allows solving real everyday problems associated with the high psychological tension of modern life. The fidelity of this statement is illustrated by the fact that in the West, there is a spread of Buddhist practices of the Annuttara Yoga Tantra, that is, the psychology that gives quick practical results in the management of one’s psyche (Lopez 56). People are also interested in Buddhism as part of psychological training in various types of oriental martial arts. Although this is not entirely true in terms of prioritization, most of the people who came to Buddhism based on this motivation engage in Buddhist practices quite profoundly and seriously.
The second factor is the rationality of Buddhism and its proximity to modern science. This means that Buddhism does not offer its followers to perceive anything simply based on faith. The criterion of truth is practical experience in its broad sense. Such a category as faith is absent among spiritual perfections and the eight steps of the Buddhist Path. In addition, many concepts of modern science find parallels in Buddhist thought. For example, Siderits, in search of worldview guidelines, found that modern physics does not fit into the traditional Western worldview and suggests looking for worldview foundations on the way of rapprochement with the East, in particular with the Buddhist, worldview (77). He claims that the worldview of modern physics reveals so many similarities with eastern philosophy that these two areas cease to contradict each other, both in general philosophical terms and in particular issues of the matter.
In addition, several new areas of modern science not only do not contradict Buddhist provisions regarding the nature of being and human psychology but even have their foundations in them. Buddhism falls into the circle of integral research in the field of philosophy, medicine, ecology, physics, transpersonal psychology, and others. Thus, in particular, the famous scientist and thinker Ken Wilber, who develops a general theory and methodology of cognition on new integral principles, with all the obviousness draws inspiration from Buddhist traditions (Siderits 78). For example, his definition of integrality as the radiant clarity of enduring awareness is very similar to the description of the nature of the mind of modern Buddhist masters.
The third factor includes tolerance and principles of dialogue with other faiths. Like any other education in life, religion is woven from many contradictions that serve as the causes of clashes of its various forms, often leading to acute or even military conflicts. The peculiarity of almost all monotheistic religions is that they were affirmed in a fierce struggle with previous religions. This historical fact left a deep mark on the religious consciousness of all people (Albahari 42). Buddhism, even when it originated, was distinguished by tolerance, rare for the ascendant religions; therefore, the history of Buddhism is not connected with wars against other religions.
Buddhism allows Christians or Jews, without breaking the law of their religions, to practice the teachings of the Buddha. Therefore, for example, the famous Buddhist mentor from the USA, Sylvia Burstein, at the same time, considers herself an Orthodox Jew (Albahari 42). In China, depending on the nature of the religious mood or current need, the believer can turn to Confucius, and then to the practice of Taoism or Buddhism. Shintoism and Buddhism coexist peacefully in Japanese religious consciousness. Tolerance of Buddhism undoubtedly contributes to its attractiveness in the modern world. That is why Buddhism, contrary to official statistics, is sometimes considered the most widespread world religion.
Overall, the factors that have contributed to the changes in Buddhism are tightly connected with its implications in the contemporary world. The spirit of self-realization and the value of individual freedoms are harmoniously in tune with the current cultivated values of global liberalization in the form of human rights, ideas of the market economy, and modernism. Thus, Buddhist ideas are primarily consistent with the ideals of modern democracy. Humanism, tolerance, and high ethical standards of Buddhist culture suggest the possibility of putting into practice fundamental civil rights. At the same time, the Buddhist position is characterized by the perception of citizenship and civic consciousness through the prism of altruistic love, compassion, and universal responsibility, rather than personal initiative stimulated by the opening up opportunities for social self-realization.
Works Cited
Albahari, Miri. Analytical Buddhism: The Two-Tiered Illusion of Self. Springer, 2016.
Cooper, David E., and Simon P. James. Buddhism, Virtue and Environment. 1st ed., Routledge, 2017.
Hawkins, Bradley K. Introduction to Asian Religions. Pearson & Longman, 2003.
Lopez Jr, Donald S. Prisoners of Shangri-la: Tibetan Buddhism and the West. 2nd ed., University of Chicago Press, 2018.
Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as Philosophy: An Introduction. Routledge, 2017.
Taiwan is one of the states in East Asia that practice Buddhism. It borders Japan, the Philippines, and the People’s Republic of China. Around 35 percent of its population believes in Buddhism. This means that this religion is one of commonest in this state. Some of the sects in this nation include Mahayana Buddhism and the local practices informed by Taoism culture and tradition. Unlike in other countries, the original Taiwanese Buddhism developed in such a way that it promoted a practice known as vegetarianism.
This religion has also become diverse since there are specific followers or believers who pursue specific faiths that are unique to this region, such as Yiguandao. Many people have appreciated modern values that have the potential to support the integrity of the natural environment, promote freedom and equality, and address their common problems. The purpose of this paper is to give a detailed history of Buddhism in Taiwan. It goes further to discuss and analyse the nature of this religion in modern-day Taiwan.
History of Buddhism
The origin and development of Buddhism is attributed to the life experiences and achievements of the Buddha. According to many historians, the Buddha was an Indian by the name Siddhārtha Gautama. He undertook a journey that would eventually result in enlightenment or nirvana. Over the years, many scholars and philosophers have translated and studied the teachings of the Buddha, thereby giving rise to different religious beliefs, practices, and ways of attaining nirvana.
Although this form of worship emerged in India around the 5th century BCE, the first ideas of Buddhism were recorded in Taiwan in the early 1600.1 The Dutch colonialists and settlers from China presented the teachings of the Buddha to the people. However, the Dutch government in Taiwan during the time was keen to disallow any form of idol worship.
The outcome was that the people were unable to exercise or follow the teachings of Buddhism. It was in the last half of the 17th century when the first temple was constructed in Taiwan.2 During the time, the number of Buddhist priests and monks increased significantly despite the fact that they were only allowed to perform during specific functions, such as funerals. The Dutch colonialists were also keen to flog and even banish those who were caught practicing any form of idol practice. After the end of this era, a new wave of ideas and practices emerged in China. The number of monks originating from different Chinese provinces to Taiwan increased significantly. These religious leaders presented new ideas and concepts that created new opportunities for the foundation of Buddhism in Taiwan.
A few years to the end of the 19th century, Buddhism remained an unfavorable or weak in Taiwan.3 Many historians believe that this region remained untamed and continued to experience numerous challenges, such as natural disasters, plagues, and untapped opportunities. During the Qing dynasty, the government of the time failed to put the needs of the people into consideration. Many people continued to languish in poverty, thereby creating ideal conditions for launching a revolution.4
With such conditions, the citizens of Taiwan began to oppose different ways of being religious in Buddhism, such as meditation. Instead, they decided to design new temples intended for these purposes: local community building, divine protection, and trade-guild association.5 These situations discouraged monks from guiding laypeople in different parts of Taiwan. With such issues and developments, a lay form of Buddhism emerged that many scholars and religious historians have continued to ignore. This was attributed to the works of different monks during the Qing dynasty. Followers of this religion promoted the concept vegetarianism.6
Without proper or established Buddhist doctrines, ideas, or scriptures, temples became the best places for pursuing political ambitions and cultural rituals. Such practices were considered as an effective way to oppose the teachings and views of these foreigners.
From 1895 to 1945, Taiwan was colonized or ruled by the Japanese.7 The ideals of Japanese Buddhism began to emerge in this state. However, the colonial powers witnessed a scenario whereby many people continued to focus on the lay form of Buddhism that had existed during the Qing dynasty. Some of the teachings that different Japanese monks presented during this period were Tendai and Shingon. The Japanese managed to construct and support three major temples in Taiwan. These included Tainan in the South, Miaoli, and Keelung in the North. The founders of such temples were Chueh-li and Shan-hui.8
Despite the efforts to start a new form of Buddhism that resonated with the one practiced in Japan, very few achievements were made. For instance, the Japanese wanted to present priests and monks who could be allowed to marry in Taiwan. This kind of thought or practice was the direct opposite of the trends and practices pursued by many people in this country.
Due to the social, cultural, and economic developments recorded at the time, majority of the people of Taiwan continued to favor the Chinese Buddhist teachings. Such an approach was also seen as a form of rebellion against the Japanese rule. Those who protested against the activities and missions of these colonial powers continued to put more emphasis on the concepts associated with lay or vegetarian Buddhism.9 They took the issue of priest celibacy more seriously than ever before. These efforts and practices were essential since they continued to encourage more people to launch or stage anti-Japanese revolts and protests.
Historians acknowledge that the development and evolution of Buddhism during the era of colonialism can be grouped into several periods. The initial or first one was characterized by a new wave of forbearance. This means that majority of the colonial leaders and their monks remained tolerant to the existing cultural beliefs and practices. This kind of approach created a new opportunity for preserving most of the Buddhist views and teachings that are pursued in this country today.
During the time, several temples emerged in different parts of Taiwan. This phase came to an end after the Tainan temple, also called Kaiyuan, became the center for opposing Japanese ideas and activities. Those behind such protests were guided or led by Yu Ching-fang.10 This development forced the colonialists to consider new approaches to control the uprising and ensure that all followers of the vegetarian Buddhist sect remained under total Japanese control.
After the end of the First World War, a second phase emerged whereby the Japanese focused on the most appropriate strategies to introduce and propagate their teachings in Taiwan. The colonial authorities constructed and established a number of educational centers the introduced additional ideas. Some scholars acknowledge that this second era was critical since it resulted in additional religious ideas and practices.11 A new form of dialogue emerged that encouraged the people to pursue and promote superior religious notions.
The third stage emerged in 1936 whereby the colonial leaders began to promote a new cultural policy. During the same period, the Japanese were keen to use the ideals and teachings of Buddhism as the best tools for controlling the entire state. A new mobilization program supported by the military was founded on such practices. Buddhist teaching centers emerged, thereby encouraging more people to be part of the upcoming war.12 Throughout the early 1940s, the true or original picture of indigenous Buddhism in this state had been obliterated.
After the Second World War in 1945, Taiwan entered into a new period of transformation and development. The changes recorded in the state continued to influence the established Buddhist beliefs and practices. In 1949, the government of Koumintang introduced what would eventually become the martial law.13 A new idea emerged whereby the ruling class began to pursue a new direction in cultural practices and religious views. The government was keen to destroy any Japanese Buddhism trace or ideology that existed in Taiwan. One of the approaches for achieving this objective was to destroy or rebuild temples that were associated with the Japanese style. The main goal was to make the original Taiwanese practices desirable to the greatest number of people.
During this same period, many religious leaders emerged in Taiwan. Some of them presented the teachings and beliefs of Catholicism and Protestantism to the people of this state. From the 1960s, the economy of Taiwan improved significantly. People found new career opportunities and jobs that were unavailable before. These achievements created a better environment that encouraged more people to present additional ideas to Buddhism.14 For instance, the emergence of the Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation and the Chun Tai temple became new opportunities for disruption or disseminating the existing Buddhist views in Taiwan.
The Martial Law became obsolete in Taiwan in the year 1987. This was the case since the state promulgated the famous Organic Act of Civil Organizations (OACO), thereby setting the stage for another transformation of Buddhism. The new guidelines allowed more citizens to engage in tourism activities and travel across the region. The strength of the existing Buddhist associations declined.15 This trend made it possible for the people to embrace a pluralist approach to the teachings of the Buddha. The outcome was that the supporters of indigenous Buddhism had to accept the changes and ideals recorded in mainland China. These achievements resulted in a new direction or sense in religious thinking. With these developments and transformation in this religion, many historians acknowledge that its leaders and priests will continue to borrow or consider emerging ideas and concepts from different sources.
Post-war Taiwan was associated with significant changes and developments that made it possible for Buddhism to prosper. The leaders of this country presented adequate funds to support monks and construct additional temples. A liberal approach to different religious views created the best opportunity for the proliferation of Buddhist ideas in this country. Unlike in China, Buddhism was not viewed as an obstacle to economic prosperity and growth. In the same country, monks and priests were forced to abandon their monastic ways and practices since they were seen as unproductive members of the society. The ideas and views promoted in Taiwan made it possible for these religious immigrants to get a new environment to pursue their goals.16
Many scholars, philosophers, and teachers were able to pursue their objectives in Taiwan. These issues were instrumental in supporting the development of Chinese Buddhism. Additionally, many organizations and schools of thought emerged in this state. Different stakeholders collaborated to construct temples, shrines, and institutions that promoted the diverse notions of Buddhism.
The presence of charismatic and committed religious leaders encouraged more people to engage in public events and fundraising activities. This model created a new opportunity for the utilization of new technologies. Consequently, many people began to appreciate the teachings and ideas associated with different forms of Buddhism. Today, Taiwan has a unique way of worship that adds up to the diversity of Buddhism across the world.17 The teachings and guidelines of the Buddha continued to be merged with emerging ideas in an attempt to empower the people to achieve nirvana and at the same time emerge successful in life.
Modern Buddhism in Taiwan
The historical development of Buddhism in Taiwan has resulted in diversity. Over the decades, this state has absorbed many ideas and religious thoughts from different regions. This means that modern Buddhism remains complex since there are many people and organizations that promote and pursue their religious ideas. One of the outstanding sects or practices in Taiwanese Buddhism is that of vegetarianism.
The outstanding observation is that this kind of belief has maintained most of the teachings and beliefs that different Dutch settlers and monks from China introduced.18 The primary way of pursuing religious objectives or enlightenment is that of rituals and practices. Majority of this religion’s followers do not eat meat and animal products, such as eggs and meat. Instead, they prefer plants as the main source of food. They also engage in meditation in an attempt to achieve their spiritual aims.
Humanistic Buddhism is also common in this state and it grew during the time of the Qing dynasty. During this period, many people in Taiwan were guided and encouraged to follow the lessons and teachings of the Buddha. Its believers focus on the ideas of good and bad karma, enlightenment, and reincarnation. According to this faith, people should do what is good if they are to receive their ultimate price or reward. It goes further to encourage followers to place much emphasis on ritual that support the living. This kind of Buddhism has continued to attract additional insights and philosophies from Taoism and Confucianism.19 One issue to consider about this kind of religious practice borrows or follows most of the original ideas of Buddhism.
Another unique feature of present-day Taiwanese Buddhism is the adherence or existence of the centralized organizations. These institutions were founded by different Buddhist teachers who have remained influential in this state. These are usually given this name: Four Heavenly Kings. These include Nantou, Dashau, Jinshan, and Hualien.20 These modern organizations have been keen to introduce and promote modern values that can make it possible for the people of Taiwan to achieve their aims in life. For instance, they encourage citizens to pursue the ideas of reason, equality, empowerment, and freedom.21 The changes recorded in this country empower more people and leaders to consider strategies that can take them to the next without losing focus on the old ways or ideas.
Taiwanese Buddhism is unique since it has over the years been involved in issues to do with the wider society. For instance, monks and priests from different practices or organizations usually participate in various public events, processes, and services. This means that such priests will be found in hospitals and learning institutions. Most of the institutions encourage their followers to provide aid and relief whenever there are disasters. They are also expected to help the needy and engage in actions that can maximize happiness for different citizens.22 Such ideals have become common since they are practical and attractive to Taiwan’s emerging middle class and empower them to realize their potential.
Within the past two decades, new ideas and thoughts have found their way into Taiwan. This is the case since different monks and teachers from Tibet, Burma, and Sri Lanka have managed to introduce new beliefs that have become part of the wider Buddhism practice in Taiwan. For instance, spiritual and meditative practices have emerged whereby people focus on the best ways to attain nirvana.
Those who have attained basic education in this country have devised their unique strategies for borrowing ideas from each of the existing institutions and beliefs. Majority of them have been keen to embrace the concept of vegetarianism while at the same time being followers of the Humanistic Buddhism.23 The notion of protecting the natural environment has become a core feature of Buddhism in different parts of Taiwan. This is a clear indication that new debates have emerged that are aimed at combining modern thoughts with traditional beliefs or teachings of the Buddha.
Despite the diversities recorded in Taiwanese Buddhism, it is agreeable that the original ideas and teachings associated with this religion are still maintained. This is true since all followers acknowledge that human beings can achieve enlightenment and become a Buddha.24 This goal is realizable when people focus on the best ways to cultivate wisdom and pursue merit. This means that they should always consider the concepts of karma and nirvana.
They should always do what is good and avoid sinning against others and their surroundings. They should engage in desirable practices, be ready to help others, and solve every unique problem they encounter in their lives. Such approaches will set the stage for reaching or achieving the final stage of wisdom or compassion. These attributes reveal that Buddhism is an ever-changing religion that depends on the way monks, priests, philosophers, and followers interpret the achievements and the life of the Buddha.
Conclusion
The above discussion has presented a detailed analysis of the history and development of Buddhism in Taiwan. The description has outlined several periods and eras that reshaped the ideas and beliefs of many people for decades. The influences from the Dutch, the Chinese, the Japanese, and modern philosophers continue to dictate the beliefs and practices Buddhists in Taiwan pursue today.
The leading beliefs common in this country include Humanistic Buddhism, vegetarianism, and the Four Heavenly Kings. It is also evident that this religion will continue to grow, expand, and change due to the ideas foreigners present and encourage more people to take into consideration. Despite these developments, the discussion has supported the fact that the original teachings of the Buddha continue to inform most of the religious practices and rituals in this state today.
Bibliography
Jones, Charles B. Buddhism in Taiwan: Religion and the State, 1660-1990. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999.
Powers, John, ed. The Buddhist World. New York: Routledge, 2016.
Rubinstein, Murray A., ed. Taiwan: A New History: A New History. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2015.
Footnotes
Murray A. Rubinstein, ed., Taiwan: A New History: A New History, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2015), 16.
Rubinstein, ed., Taiwan: A New History, 34.
Charles B Jones, Buddhism in Taiwan: Religion and the State, 1660-1990 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999), 9.
Jones, Buddhism in Taiwan, 9.
Ibid., 9.
Ibid., 13.
Ibid., 29.
Ibid., 37.
Ibid., 46.
Ibid., 63.
Ibid., 83.
John Powers, ed., The Buddhist World (New York: Routledge, 2016), 19.
Buddhism is known on all the continents as one of the prominent world religions. While remaining integral regarding the most significant points of the religion, several distinctive features are observed in different countries. According to Powers, new practices and doctrines develop in the process of adaptation to the context of another cultural environments (1). Buddhism has spread predominantly in Asia, reaching vast areas and an extensive number of people. Buddhism differs according to the major schools in most of the countries, either Mahāyāna or Theravāda, but there are other minor differences in local schools. Although such aspects of Buddhism as the ritual activity, meditation, and merit remain essential in all countries, the emphasis on each of them varies in different areas due to historical reasons.
The Origin of Buddhism and its Major Aspects
Buddhism takes its origin from the Ganges River Valley in Northeastern India and the story of the first Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama. As the narratives state, once he remembered all his lives in the past and realized how what consequences his actions had on his subsequent reincarnations (Powers 60). He became Buddha and gathered disciples in the valley of the Ganges who spread the knowledge and contributed to the scripture.
Owing to the activity of the disciples and royal support, Buddhism has rapidly spread through the whole territory of India. Its popularity later decreased to individual regions, such as the state of Himachal Pradesh, but instead, it advanced across the entire continent. Economic relations with other countries, especially the close location of the religious center to the Silk Road, served as the ways to transfer Buddhism to East and Southeast Asia. Southeast countries have developed the doctrines of Theravāda school, while Eastern countries and the Himalayan region adhere to Mahāyāna principles.
Although Buddhism is widely perceived as the intellectual and spiritual practice, ritual activity is the factor that helps to maintain its popularity through generations. The religion comprises a relatively small percentage of monastic life, and the majority of the population generally does not relate to religion intellectually, so the rituals are essential. According to Powers, Buddhist rituals are religious practices strongly connected to lunar phases and characterized by chanting (mantra), worship of the image of Buddha, and meditation (319). Such annual rituals as the celebration of the Buddha’s awakening, birth, and liberation are universal in all countries with differences in dates and minor details.
Merit is an essential aspect of Buddhism as it is the basis of the reincarnation belief. According to Buddhism, future rebirth depends on what karma a person developed in the previous life. Thus, all the activity, thoughts, and words have consequences at some point in the future. That is why the Buddhist scripture has elaborated on several ways of accumulating merit. For example, Powers highlights the acts of gift-giving as the starting practice (321). Meditation is probably the most popular aspect of Buddhism, known even as a secular practice in the modern world. Mindfulness meditation is the Buddhist practice that is viewed as the first step to awakening.
Historical Regions of Buddhism
Today, Buddhism is known in most parts of the modern globalized world due to the migration of its adherents, even in traditionally Christian or Muslim areas. Nevertheless, the countries where this religion originated and developed are limited to Asia. Although Buddhism occurred in India, it is now not a Buddhist country except for several small areas that, together with Buddhist centers of Nepal and Tibet, comprise the Himalayan region of Mahāyāna school. China, Japan, and Korea adhere to the same tradition, while Theravāda doctrine prevails in Southeastern Asia.
Buddhism in Southeast Asia
Theravāda Buddhism is the prevailing religion in most Southeastern Asian countries. According to Powers, it is the national religion in Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Thailand (76). Theravāda Buddhists adhere to the traditional step-by-step meditation and guided mindfulness. Rituals are widely incorporated into everyday life through such practices as wedding rituals, or transition to other life ceremonies. However, merit is emphasized most in Theravāda Buddhism, where it is believed to be an essential way to be religious. It is the primary goal of the religious life as it is the foundation of good karma and grants happy rebirth. The Buddhists believe that meritorious actions, such as gifts, donations, or offering food to monks, “improve” one’s karma.
Buddhism in East Asia
The expansion of Buddhism in East Asia started in China, where it arrived from India owing to the trade ways. Mahāyāna tradition has developed in China in several schools and later was transferred even further east – to Japan and Korea. The reason why it has spread so fast and so successfully is its resonance with dominant philosophical views of these countries, such as Daoism, Confucianism, or folk beliefs.
Unlike in Theravāda Buddhism, here, knowledge plays a significant role, and meditation is an essential practice “as the path to insight aimed at attaining liberation” (Powers 96). Some cultural differences have also developed in different countries in this region. Gardiner, for example, notes the esoteric nature of Japanese Buddhism in Mahāyāna. Different Japanese schools promoted the idea of the monks as socially integrated individuals who can marry and play an active role in society’s life.
Buddhism in Himalayan Region
Such parts of the Himalayan Region as Kashmir Valley or Kathmandu Valley are the early centers of indigenous Buddhism tradition where it has been preserved for more than 2,000 years. Here, the religious ways of ritual, meditation, and merit are treated with equal emphasis. Kapstein notes “the importance of securing rebirth in a divine realm of the Buddhist teaching” as the main aim for accumulating merit (143). However, Mahāyāna Buddhists believe that copying, reciting, or teaching a particular sūtra are the main ways to get merit. In contrast to other regions where rituals are less emphasized, in this region, they have a crucial meaning.
The Spread of Buddhism to the West
The Western expansion of Buddhism began in the US with large-scale immigration from Japan and China. While ethnic representatives of these countries in the US and the rest of the world adhere to Buddhist doctrines, the local population has adopted several practices taking them out of the ethical context minimizing “public acknowledgement of its Buddhist connections” (Watt 455). Mindfulness is often seen as a separate practice used even in psychotherapy as a secular movement (Helderman 937). Despite its increasing popularity, Buddhism is perceived in a limited way, and its transmission to the West cannot happen according to such a scenario as in Asia. The main barrier is established cultural and religious tradition with significant differences in philosophical views.
Conclusion
Key aspects of Buddhism, merit, ritual, and meditation, are essential in all the regions where this religion has spread, but certain cultures emphasize different ways of being religious. The followers of Theravāda tradition in Southeast Asia value merit as the fundamental aspect of reincarnation. Mahāyāna Buddhism in East Asia and the Himalayan area highlights the importance of meditation and religious rituals. The reason for such disparities is the influence of previous religions and cultures on the lands where Buddhism has expanded. Western countries have established an influential culture, so Buddhism is applied there, mostly in the secular context.
Kapstein, Matthew T. “Tibetan Buddhist Afterlife Beliefs, and Funerary Practices.” The Routledge Companion to Death and Dying, edited by Christopher M. Moreman, Routlege, 2017, pp. 143–152.
Powers, John, editor. The Buddhist World. Routledge, 2016.
Watt, Tessa. “Spacious Awareness in Mahāyāna Buddhism and Its Role in the Modern Mindfulness Movement.” Contemporary Buddhism, vol. 18, no. 2. 2017, pp. 455-480. Web.
Buddhism is currently one of the five largest religions in the world today with over 520 million believers. It is associated with various spiritual practices, traditions, and ceremonies that are based on the teachings of the Buddha. Having originated in India, this belief system has evolved over the centuries to give rise to different groups with diverse ideologies, ideas, and values. Different regions have adopted specific ways of being religious that have been influenced by the cultural attributes of the people, influence from other religions, and the ideas associated with various Asian philosophies. This paper discusses the major regions that have developed their religious practices and the reasons for emphasizing specific aspects of Buddhism over others.
Background
The story of Buddhism revolves around the life of Siddhartha Guatama who wanted to find enlightenment or nirvana. Followers of this religion narrate his experiences and practical encounters to help others of attain it (Williams 12). This achievement is viewed as the solution to all forms of diseases, challenges, and plagues humans encounter in their lives. The major ways of being religious are all aimed at honoring the Buddha’s achievements, values, teachings, and compassion (Wright 56).
Followers of this religion are expected to engage in actions that can draw them closer, be grounded, or participate in the Buddha’s state. Over the years, these notions have revolutionized with this religion’s expansion. Nonetheless, Buddhists in different parts of the world continue to emphasize or follow these three unique approaches in order to remain religious: meditation, ritual activities, and merit. Specific regions have been observed to concentrate on a given way and not the others.
Regions and Ways of Being Religious: Discussions
Devotion is a critical practice that followers of this religion should take into consideration. They can achieve this goal by considering specific observances and commitments that resonate with the qualities outlined by the Buddha. The first group that has a distinctive belief system and procedures for being religious is that follows the Mahayana Buddhism (Williams 49). Followers of this faith focus mainly on the ideas of merit and ritual activities.
This school of thought focuses on the best approaches to overcome human suffering and the reincarnation cycle. Monks take the concept of merit seriously to guide followers to attain nirvana. This has been observed as the path to human liberation. Those who embrace these approaches for being religious within the Buddhist community are found in China and other countries in East Asia, such as Mongolia and Tibet.
The Theravada school of thought focuses on meditation as the primary practice or approach for being religious. Followers consider the teachings contained in the Pāli Canon (Wright 69). Buddhists belonging to this sect are encouraged to observe monastic discipline and promote doctrinal matters. The Theravada meditation is common practice that believers take into consideration. The major regions associated with this religion group include the countries in Southeast Asia, such as Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Laos. Many citizens in Sri Lanka also practice or follow this ideology.
Vajrayana is another way of remaining religious within the wider Buddhist culture. This school of thought is believed to follow the teachings popularized in India during the ancient time. Many historians have gone further to explain why people should treat it as a different branch from the Mahayana Buddhism. Believers focus on ritual activities as the best approaches for remaining religious. Some of the common practices include mandalas, mudras, mantras, and dharanis (Wright 72).
People are encouraged to create mental visions of Buddha and religious deities. These strategies are viewed as critical or essential routes towards the attainment of nirvana. Despite having emerged from ancient India, this religious belief has spread to other parts of Asia. Presently, it is practiced in Bhutan, Tibet, some regions in China, Mongolia, and Russia (Williams 93). This thought has been disseminated to many countries across the world but with a minimum number of followers.
The final approach for being religious and pursuing nirvana is that of Navayana. It is presently pursued in the Indian region of Maharashtra (Wright 68). Although this is a modern approach or religion in Buddhism, it emphasizes the concept of meditation while at the same time allowing believers to pursue merit and various ritual activities. These discussions reveal that Buddhism has expanded to become a diverse religion whose followers focus on specific notions and ideas for being religious.
There are specific factors that might have influenced or informed such developments. Firstly, cultural infiltration and immigration encourages people from one region to travel to another country. Such individuals carried with them their religious texts. Over the years, they borrowed and dropped some of the beliefs and ideas, thereby supporting the establishment of new procedures for worshipping and pursuing their religious aims (Wright 92).
In China, the dominance of Buddhism has encouraged more people to consider the power of merit and meditation. This fact explains why such practices at taken seriously by followers of Mahayana Buddhism. Similarly, Navayana emerged during the colonial days in India. Believers of this faith analyzed the ideas associated with Christianity and merged them with the attributes of Buddhism. Its founder, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, was also keen to borrow some aspects from Hinduism and make them part of this faith.
The cultural influence, views, and philosophies practiced in China and the Entire East Asia have been instrumental in dictating the practices many Buddhists pursue. Some of them include Taoism and Confucianism. Such ideas have continued to reshape people’s beliefs and worship systems. The abandonment of the original approaches to enlightenment associated with the Buddha has continued to diminish (Williams 127).
Consequently, many sects or groups of Buddhism have emerged in different countries and regions that emphasize these diverse approaches for being religious as followers of the religion: merit, meditation, and ritual activities. The religious ideals that have been practiced in different countries in the wider Asian region have continued to influence these religious practices associated with different groups in Buddhism. Some of them include Hinduism, Confucianism, Taoism, and Jainism, Shinto, and Sikhism.
Conclusion
The above discussion has identified Buddhism as a religion whose followers consider specific approaches for attaining nirvana and realizing their religious aims. Due to the influences and ideas gained from other major religious and cultural practices in Asia, Buddhism has been split into different schools of thoughts that pursue unique practices for being religious. The regions and philosophical aspects associated with them have also contributed to the above differences. These attributes reveal that additional approaches or thoughts might emerge in the future and continue to make Buddhism one of the most diverse religions in the world.
Works Cited
Williams, Michael. Buddhism: Beginner’s Guide to Understanding & Practicing Buddhism to Become Stress and Anxiety Free. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2016.
Wright, Robert. Why Buddhism is True: The Science and Philosophy of Meditation and Enlightenment. Simon & Schuster, 2017.
There are different types of icons signifying different things and ideas associated with Buddhism. However, the following are the commonest and most popular ones that define Buddhism.
The Right-coiled White Conch that coils on its right side is a symbol of the far-reaching, intensive and sweet sound associated with the teachings of Dharma. It is appropriate for a wide range of aspirations, natures and characters of disciples and compels them to come out of the deep sleep of ignorance. It encourages them to focus on accomplishing their welfare and that of others.
The precious umbrella is a symbol of the entire work of shielding human beings from harmful forces and sicknesses in life. Generally, human beings should be preserved from all forms of suffering in the realms of gods and men. The victory banner is a Buddhist icon that represents one’s victory in different activities in the face of difficult situations. It also symbolizes that the Buddhist doctrine is victorious over every harmful and ill-intentioned force.
The golden fish in Buddhist iconography symbolizes the perceived success of human beings since they are characterized by fearlessness and never think of perishing in the ocean of sufferings. They move from one place to another with ease just like the fish do in the waters. The Auspicious drawing represents the dependence that exists between secular affairs and religious doctrines. In addition, it symbolizes the unity that exists between method and wisdom and how wisdom will unite with great compassion when enlightenment comes.
The whole purification of the body, mind and speech that has been defiled is symbolized by a lotus flower in Buddhist iconography. This flower symbolizes how wholesome deeds will eventually blossom after a happy liberation. The vase of treasure in Buddhist iconography represents a continuous rain of happy life, posterity, riches and all the good things of the world and freedom.
The history of early Chinese paintings dates back to 6000 years ago. Early Chinese civilizations initially used pulverized or crushed minerals in painting ordinary designs, figures on pottery and shapes. The ordinary patterns were comprised of dots, animals, zigzags and spirals. Those who made the pottery pieces included Longshan, Xia Dynasty, Majiavao, Yangshao, Shang and Han Dynasties among other civilizations.
Painted pottery is believed to have been used for the first time in ceremonies such as burials of prominent people. The pottery of Chinese people continued evolving and included human beings and animals in addition to the pots and vessels. Chinese painting was not left behind and during the reign of the Han Dynasty, paintings of beautiful figurines were produced.
Available evidence indicates that early Chinese paintings were done on vessels made out of Bronze as the Bronze Age flourished, although this did not continue for long. Chinese painting started to evolve remarkably when the Xuanzhi or Shuen paper was invented. Traditionally, the paper was created from rice or Elm and the Tang Dynasty is credited for its invention.
As the evolution of Chinese painting continued, artists adopted various subjects in their painting. Human figure within flowers, birds, nature and paintings of calligraphy became more common. Chinese calligraphy is to date regarded as one of the most remarkable Chinese art. Research in the modern era has revealed a lot about the origin and nature of early Chinese paintings. Because of the rich history of the country, research and in depth studies on early Chinese paintings remain issues of focus in the future.
The Heian Period is often known as the golden age in Japan’s history. It was in existence from the 9th until the 12th century and came before the medieval age of samurai and shoguns. The period was marked by stability, relative peace and the presence of central government at Heian-kyo.
There was also the court aristocracy and an emperor. It forms the history of The Hollow Reed novel of the 12th century and Akitada mystery series of 11th century. Heian Japan was comprised of provinces administered by governors who were appointed by the Heian-kyo based imperial government.
During the time of Akitada, Heian Japan was comprised of two classes, the commoners and nobles but an under class of outcastes and slaves also existed. Those above Akitada were powerful nobles while those below him were soldiers, artisans, merchants and peasants. Artisans and merchants spend their time in the cities and at times they prospered when they engaged in valued skills.
The slaves and outcastes included the entertainers, workers in noble trades and laborers. Apart from the lay population, there was the clergy which had its ranks but was not defined according to classes.
The Buddhist clergy which was derived from all classes was expected to remain celibate. The Buddhist clergy that was given the highest ranks came from the ruling class. As the Heian age approached its end, huge monasteries increasingly embraced war and conducted attacks against rival groups in addition to favoring particular groups involved in secular politics.
The culture of Japan is believed to have started developing 5000 BCE when the early settlers started establishing fishing villages. They were referred to as the Jomon culture and their distinguishing feature was their unique pottery. Jomon culture was overtaken by Yayoi culture at around 300 BCE after they introduced agriculture in the mainland of Japan.
The Yayoi were more advanced than the Jomon as they had good mastery of metalwork and cultivated rice paddies. They also had organized clans under the leadership of tiny groups of warriors. The warriors were responsible for taking care of the members of the clans.
The Yamato clan took over the leadership of most parts of Japan in the 6th century. A Yamato prince known as Shotoku took over power around 600 BCE and started working towards the creation of a strong centralized government similar to the one that existed in China. They adopted Buddhism and other ideas from Chinese government in order to learn from it. A remarkable change took place in 600 CE when the land was subdivided into provinces controlled by officials who were answerable to the emperor.
The idea of a central government had succeeded in China and was also successful in Medieval Japan. A new city known as Nara was set up in the eighth century and it functioned as a small capital city. The setting up of Heian as the new capital city in 794 CE gave nobles a lot of influence and power while that of the emperors started disappearing.
The nobles constituted small armies known as samurai in order to protect the land. By the 12th century, war broke out as wealthy families fought each other for power. The culture of the Japanese during the medieval age was marked by increased practice of Buddhism all over the country, development of art and architecture and growing drama and literature.
The canon is a set of norms and rules that are not subject to revision. When it comes to art, the canon is a system of standards that prevailed within a particular historical period. Religious canon focuses on moral and behavioral norms and includes a strictly defined set of sacred texts. This paper aims to provide a meaning of the canon, summarize the main differences between Buddhist and Christian canons and give a brief description of how the Tibetan Buddhist canon evolved, formed, and developed through the ages.
Buddhist Canon and Bible Canon, the Main Differences
Bible canon is a collection of Bible books used in worship practices and recognized as God-inspired. The Bible canon was closed in the 3rd – 4th centuries, while the Buddhist canon is open and inclusive. In closed canon, texts cannot be appended or moved away from it; in contrast, an open canon allows further manipulations with its content. According to the doctrine of Christianity, only God could achieve a state of enlightenment and inspire the creation of canonical texts – that is why the Bible canon is a closed one. In Buddhist teachings, “all beings, not just humans, can achieve the highest state of realization, whether in terms of Arhatship or Buddhahood.” 1 Therefore, the Buddhist canon creates “canonicity extending from the works of Buddhas to the works of Buddhist masters and even below them.” 2
Tibetan Buddhist Canon
Tibetan Buddhist canon mostly consists of Kangyur and Tengyur texts. Kangyur means “translations of the word” of the Buddhas and consists of sutras, tantras, and the root texts attributed to the Buddhas – Buddha Shakyamuni and later enlightened beings, like Guru Padmasambhava. Tengyur means “translations of the treatises” on the word of the Buddhas and consists of commentaries and treatises by Indian masters. Both collections appeared after being translated into Tibetan during two periods of translation.
In the Early Period, from 779 to 842 AD, 44% of Kangyur and Tengyur texts or 103,000 pages were translated. Also, during the Early Period, translators created three catalogs, of which two are extant: the Lhan dkar ma and the ‘Phang thang ma catalogs. In 779, Emperor Songdetsen Gampo established an imperial academy for translators, a “Translation Department” at the Tibetan Monastery Samye. He invited the “renowned Indian scholars Śāntarakṣita and Padmasambhava as the leading teachers, while Vairocana, Kawa Paltseg, and Chogro Lui Gyaltsen served among the assistant mentors.” 3 Also, 108 talented and diligent young boys and men were invited to work on translations.
Less capable young people were involved in the script translation, more capable were engaged in proofreading and editing. Adult scholars performed the role of chief editors, examining the translated texts for compliance with the Sanskrit original. The translation team’s work was characterized by attentiveness to the accuracy of interpretations and formulations. Translators also compiled translation manuals, dictionaries, and catalogs of translated and original Buddhist texts.
During the Later Period that lasted 300 years, 56% of Kangyur and Tengyur texts or 125,000 pages were converted. The most prominent stage of the Late Period is the end of the 13th – the beginning of the 14th century. Then, after the Muslims’ attack on India and the persecutions of Buddhists, many Indian pundits sought refuge in Tibet. They settled in Tibetan monasteries and began joint work with Tibetan scholars, revising earlier translations and writing comments and treatises.
The Later Period canon includes collections from Rnying mas and Bon traditions, which originated in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. Bon treasure texts are called “termas” and include esoteric scriptures and exoteric sutras and treatises, revealed by the Buddhas when the decent time has come. Most “termas” were unveiled by “Five Kings the Treasure Revealers” who are all considered emanations of King Khri’s strong lde bits in the 13th, 14th, 15th, and 19th centuries.
At the end of the 10th century, the first texts of the Rnying ma collection appeared. They were “presented as translations from Indian sources carried out in the Early Translation Period.” 4 Dying mas rediscovered cycles of treasure texts and gathered them into collections – one famous example is “The Collected Tantras of Vairocana.” There are also later collections of the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. The Tibetan and Himalayan Library online catalog lists 1,017 texts, 45,432 pages, and 50 volumes of Rnying ma collections, which are based on the nine vehicle system of the Rnying ma tradition. Esoteric and exoteric texts follow in the descending order from Atiyoga or the Highest Yoga, to Anuyoga or the Subsequent Yoga, and Mahayoga or the Great Yoga.
Buddhist Canon Nowadays
The Buddhist canon continues to expand by incorporating ancient translations found recently. Texts found in Dunhuang caves in Central Asia by Western explorers and included in the Chinese Taisho canon in 1924-1934 is one remarkable example. Nowadays, an opportunity to expand the Buddhist canon has emerged since Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan, and Mongolian canons became public. Therefore, within the framework of the programs of the Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center, Resources for Kanjur and Tanjur Studies, and the Asian Classics Input Project, a single Union Catalog of Buddhist Texts can be created. If so, it will produce the prerequisites for the most inclusive canon. Moreover, such a unique electronic library can provide the opportunity for cross-language comparisons of similar texts.
Besides, there is a large-scale project to translate the entire collection into English and other languages called “84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha”. It has a website that provides access to translated texts. At the moment, translations of all three canons – Tibetan, Chinese, and Pali into English are finished. Thus, it became possible to create a full virtual Buddhist canon in English, and subsequently translate English texts into other languages.
Some attention should also be paid to another exciting project, indirectly related to the previous ones. It was initiated by Dalai Lama, who “invited Emory University to develop and teach a curriculum in Western science to Tibetan Buddhist monks and nuns.” 5 Through this project, Tibetan monastic scholars, in collaboration with scholars from Emory University and Tibetan translators, discovered vital differences between conceptualization in Western and Tibetan civilization. The difference in the creation of the concepts of water, fire, quarks, life, life form, sentience, cell body, a body of a cell, amygdala, organism, mass, weight, energy, the proton was analyzed. Hence, they launched an interesting scientific discourse, in which translators, scientists, and linguists from around the world took part.
Thus, the meaning of the canon was provided, and the main differences between Buddhist and Christian canons were summarized. Development of Tibetan Buddhist canon included two peaks – 779-842 AD for the Early Period and the end of 13th – the beginning of the 14th century for the Later Period. During both periods, Tibetan translators in cooperation with Indian pundits created 228,000 pages of Kangyur and Tengyur collections. Also, Bon and Rnying mas constitute the Later Period collection.
Bibliography
Gray, Kelsey, Dadul Namgyal, Jeremy Purcell, Tsondue Samphel, Tenzin Sonam, Karma Tenzin, Dawa Tsering, Carol Worthman, and Arri Eisen. “Found in Translation: Collaborative Contemplations of Tibetan Buddhism and Western Science.” Frontiers in Communication 4: 76.
Halkias, Georgios. “Translating the Foreign into the Local: The Cultural Production and Canonization of Buddhist Texts in Imperial Tibet.” In Translation and Global Asia: Relocating Networks of Cultural Production, edited by Kwan Uganda Sze-Pui and Wong Lawrence Wang-Chi, 143-166. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2014.
Stanley, Phillip. 2014. “The Tibetan Buddhist Canon.” In The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism, edited by Mario Poceski, 383-408. 1st ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Footnotes
Philip Stanley, The Tibetan Buddhist Canon. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2014), 402.
Stanley, The Tibetan Buddhist, 402.
Georgios Halkias, Translating the Foreign into the Local: The Cultural Production and Canonization of Buddhist Texts in Imperial Tibet, (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2014), 148.
Stanley, The Tibetan Buddhist, 395.
Kelsey Gray et al. Found in Translation: Collaborative Contemplations of Tibetan Buddhism and Western Science, (Frontiers in Communication, 2020), 3.
Religion is a set of beliefs and practices generally organized around supernatural and moral claims, and often codified as prayer, ritual, and religion. On an exhibit on the many religions of the world, this includes the beliefs and history of six of the world’s most known religions. They include Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Animism, Christianity, and Hinduism. This can be identified from the proofs of human religion by Homo Sapiens approximately 100,000 years ago to the present day.
Though there are numerous religions, each different from the other, they all serve the same purpose. Each answers questions that all humans seem to be programmed to ask: Why are we here? What happens when I die? How shall I live my life? Religion helps us to transmit our values from one generation to another and influences the way we interact with the natural environment. It teaches us how to see ourselves in light of the universe and gives purpose and meaning to life.
A philosophical analysis of Buddhism
W. James was convinced that only immediate knowledge, the direct experience offers “an empirical approach for a philosophical analysis of religion”, and that James’ radical empirics guides him towards scientific research of religion, therefore highlighting the important role of religion in the lives of the human beings. According to Buddhism the well being of mankind, it’s peace and security are unattainable until its unity is firmly established.
Lord Buddha: “the lust for sensual luxuries and clinging to worldly life is the cause of troubles.” it might make sense to call Buddhism a religion for purposes of describing the predominant religious groups in a country, but not to distinguish between theists and atheists). To me, the difference between philosophy and religion is that religion tends to be biased toward edifying some sort of deity or god, whereas philosophy is more about edifying oneself or mankind as a whole.
Buddhism has many great things about it. It is a religion, philosophy, religion, psychology, and metaphysic depending on how you apply it in life. Metaphysics deals with the philosophy that examines the nature of reality, including the relationship between matter and mind, substance and attribute, fact and value. The term was initially used by the followers of Aristotle as a name for that part of his writings that came after, or followed, the part which treated physics. It is the science of reality as differentiated from phenomenal being. But, when the Buddha said, “I am Awake”, we get to the cream. Because the mystics claim we can wake up also. What are they talking about? And why have these traditions lasted so many years, if no one wakes up, etc?
Amazingly, physics is now reaching conclusions that sound metaphysical to many.
Philosophy is a process of thinking. It is possible in philosophy for one to discard things that he no longer needs. Things that may have seemed to explain something one day, may not the next and in philosophy, we can throw that explanation away and look for another. This is not possible in Buddhism. Tenents exist in Buddhism-tenents are said to be universal and everlasting truths matter-of-factly and are not for “throwing away” if found to not work. Books exist, techniques exist all professing everlasting truths in Buddhism and these are not to be pondered on, they are to be followed and believed.
Religion does not necessarily need a God. I believe this is the major difference between all religions including Buddhism and philosophy. So this would make “beliefs” in philosophy more a means to an end (truth), while in religion they are the end? On a side note, this is a partial explanation for why my church is so anti-intellectual. According to James’ theory, it can be observed that philosophy can be successfully integrated into religious work. This is what is embedded in Buddhism. Hence one of the reasons why the theory of James can be applied to Buddhism.
It can also be learned from the theory that philosophy is the head of emancipation, and the proletariat is its heart. Philosophy can only be realized by the abolition of the proletariat, and the proletariat can only be abolished by the realization of philosophy. As philosophy finds its material weapon in the proletariat, so the proletariat finds its spiritual weapon in philosophy. And once the lightning of good reasoning has struck this ingenuous soil of the people, the emancipation of the people into Buddhism is accomplished. This also shows the relationship between the theory and Buddhism.
The meaning of religion
Religion was the first science if you analyze it down critically. This is because religion in its purest form was created to explain the world around us.
I believe that is why many cultures worshiped the sun because it was beyond their scope of understanding, anything that big and powerful must be a god. Of course, the way we view religion now is different because our science can explain things that we previously didn’t understand. This only but stressing James’ theory. The split between religion and science happens when religion can no longer explain things like science can. But I tend to think that religion at one point was a form of science.
The saying that Philosophy might lead you astray is real. That’s because Philosophy can get you in dilemmas that you don’t have an answer for, and such situations lead many to disbelieve in God. For example, an example like: “If God is the most powerful and create anything, could he create another God who’s more powerful than him?” If you answer yes, then God is not the most powerful, and if the answer is “no”, then he can’t create anything.
Conclusion
As much as religion is a philosophy of how the world is and how it should be. Every religion has some sort of doctrine. Science is a philosophy of how the world is and how it should be. Each field of science has its philosophy, rules to follow. Then each individual sees the world differently. We each have our personal views on science and religion. Both have the same objective of defining our reality and have equal significance in the long run. Also, both say the same thing if you are willing to open your mind, look past the words, and see what they are trying to discover. So, in the end, we shouldn’t spend so much time arguing over words but trying to discover the truth about what is. This contradicts James’ theory of religions.
In conclusion, it can be seen that Ironically, Philosophy could be used too to prove the existence of God. But people could believe in that with simple logic and common sense….no need to study or learn that. Buddhism is based on common sense by finding wisdom.
Buddhism is a sacred tradition that centers on personal religious growth and the realization of an in-depth understanding into the exact nature of humanity (Gerner 5). Around the world, the religion has attracted 76 million followers (Religions 1). As the followers, we always aspire to attain a state of Nirvana.
The teachings require us to live in accordance with the traditions of Buddha Siddhartha. Siddhartha is a famous religious leader who championed for enlightenment during the 6th century BC (The life of Buddha). The religion does not mandate its followers to have faith in an individual deity. As such, Buddhists suppose that nothing endures forever and that transformation is always likely.
To achieve enlightenment, all followers are required to uphold lives that enhance the growth of morals, meditation, and understanding. Being a follower, I am required to acknowledge that life is a never-ending course prone to impermanence, pain, and vagueness. According to the religion, life is a never-ending course because people are brought back to life repeatedly through reincarnation.
Buddhism is attributed to Buddha Siddhartha. Siddhartha was born as a noble prince at around the 6th century BC (Kozak 16). The prince home place was situated at Lumbini, Nepal. His noble family was referred to as Shakya. The prince’s parents named him Siddhartha. Based on his name, a number of magnificent forecasts were postulated about his future.
Throughout his childhood, the prince resided in his father’s palace. However, when he attained the age of 29 he moved out of the palace to the community. According to the Buddhist tradition, the young prince experienced tremendous suffering outside the palace (Kozak 20).
He saw individuals suffering from extreme poverty and acute diseases. The experiences transformed his life. From then on, he dedicated his life to seek meditation and the true understanding of enlightenment. After spending more than 7 years outside the palace, the prince achieved the state of enlightenment beneath a sacred tree in Bodh Gaya, India (Kozak 24).
Later, Siddhartha taught his followers for approximately forty years (Kozak 27). During the time, the influence of his teachings attracted multitudes of supporters in the region. His teachings about how to tackle human sufferings were received with enthusiasms in Northern India. The teachings were attractive because they offered a substitute to the firm communal and custom principles widespread in Northern India in the period.
Ever since then, the religion has spread around the world due to its ability to accept all people from all lifestyles. In general, Siddhartha offered his followers with more than 84, 000 teachings (Kozak 39). He did this with the aim of establishing Buddhism. He hoped that through this he would liberate humans from anguish. He acknowledged that short-termed emancipation from pain and problems is not adequate. Inspired by care for humanity and empathy, his plan was to assist people discover lifelong peace.
Our Buddhism belief is based on the four noble truths taught by Siddhartha. The four elements are the truth with respect to anguish, the truth about the basis of anguish, the truth about the end of anguish, and the truth about the means of ending anguish. Based on the illustration, it can be deduced that suffering is real, has a cause, has an end, and a means to end it. The concept about pain is not aimed at putting across a pessimistic worldview.
In contrast, the concept aims at putting across a realistic viewpoint that acknowledges humanity as it is and challenges to fix it challenges. As such, the notion of happiness is not denied, but recognized as a transitory (Schumann 80). Thus, the quest for happiness can carry on with what is ultimately an unappeasable longing. The concept disproves an understanding of pleasure. The teachings assert that ultimately old age, illness, and death are definite and inescapable.
Another important element in the Buddhism faith is the wheel of life referred to as Bhavachakra, Bhavachakra is a multifaceted image depicting the Buddhists’ vision of the universe (The life of Buddha). As Buddhists, we believe that survival is made up of life, death, reincarnation, and pain. Throughout our existence, we aspire to break out of these series of events. Bhavachakra is subdivided into six areas. In each of these areas, a soul can be reincarnated.
According to my Buddhism teachings, I believe that desires and lack of knowledge are the main causes of human suffering. Based on my understanding, desires refer to the craving to have material wealth, immortality, and other worldly needs. Notably, these desires cannot be satisfied.
Therefore, I believe that the longing for such pleasures leads to human suffering. I believe that ignorance allows an individual to perceive the world in its original form. In the absence of enlightenment, an individual’s brain is left untrained and incapable to seize the true character of the surroundings. In this regard, I believe that vices such as gluttony, jealousy, extreme dislike, and annoyance are caused by ignorance.
Since its inception, Buddhism has extended eastwards and has perpetually changed a number of countries. The countries include China, Vietnam, Korea, and Japan (The life of Buddha). Unlike other religions, Buddhism explored the issues affecting humanity in a manner that other religions did not. Similarly, the religion has spread the traditions of empathy into areas where the continued existence relied on social class and areas where abject poverty was widespread.
Buddhism has not only changed the society but also the political constellations. In the countries where the religion became predominant, the religion has had an impact on their political constellations. Although Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and other major religions competed for political influence in most East Asian countries, it should be noted that most of the countries became Buddhist kingdoms (The life of Buddha).
As such, the whole South East Asia cultures portray the influence of the religion’s values and aesthetics. Simple cultures were established in the region leading to new social organizations and principles. The religion’s ethics infused into the communities that accepted the religion.
Over the last century, Buddhism has attracted many followers, especially in the western countries. Through this, the religion has had an impact on the entire world. Similar to other religious convictions, Buddhism has been utilized as a way out of common problems facing humanity.
People faced with racial, financial, and domestic issues usually turn to Buddhism for consolation and answers. Given that the westerners face a number of the issues due to their capitalistic nature of their economies, a number of them are now turning to Buddhism for consolation. In the future, Buddhism will attract more followers because it does not mandate its followers to have faith in an individual deity unlike other religions.
Kozak, Arnold. The everything Buddhism book a complete introduction to the history, traditions, and beliefs of Buddhism, past and present. 2nd ed. Avon, Mass.: Adams Media, 2011. Print.
Religions: Buddhism. 2009. Web.
Schumann, Hans Wolfgang. The historical Buddha: the times, life, and teachings of the founder of Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2004. Print.
The life of Buddha. Dir. Kritsaman Wattananarong. Perf. Sarut Wijittranon, Supattra Thiwanon,. BBC Worldwide, 20034. DVD.