Category: Buddhism

Introduction

Buddhism is a religion of practice and experiences as opposed to other religions that emphasize on believing in the tenets that define them. This and many other factors have made it hard for many people to maintain their faith in this kind of religion strongly. Like any other religion in the world, Buddhism has its own set of cultural systems, beliefs and symbols, which define acceptable human practices, in terms of spirituality.

Additionally, Buddhism has some secret traditions that focus on individual spiritual development and a deeper insight of the true nature of life (British Broadcasting Corporation 1). Therefore, although Buddhism is one of the common religions, to some level it is a unique religion, because of its traditions, belief systems, and general practices.

History ofBuddhism

The origins of this religion can be traced to a prince of the Sakya tribe (Nepal), Buddhain 566 BC. At the age of twenty-nine, he left the comforts of the palace and went out to seek the real meaning of life (Tambiah 121). After six years of arduous yogic training, he abandoned the way of self-mortification and sat under a bodhi tree where he hard a mindful reflection on the misery people went through(British Broadcasting Corporation1).

After this, he wentto the plains of northeastern India for an additional of forty-five more years. His mission was to teach the path of Dharma, which he hard realized during his meditation. During his travelling, he drew many followers from different communities, the Sangha of monks, and later on nuns from different societies; whereby, he made surethat all his converts devoted their lives to practicing this path (Kennedy67).

Beliefs ofBuddhists

The four noble truths

During his meditations under the bodhi tree, Buddha leant the meaning of the following four noble truths; truths that he taught his followers during his forty-five years of travelling. According to Buddha, religion is a belief and faith, which should be acknowledging by accepting its beliefs. However, during his teachings, instead of just believing, he taught his followers that there was no teaching without testing. Hence, they should practice the teachings in order for them to realize the truth.

The First Noble Truth: Suffering (Dukkha)

This truth is the root of the other three truths, since it explains about life and suffering. The word Dukkha refers to anything that is in a temporary condition.In other words, it will end including the precious and enjoyable Dukkha(Tambiah 145).

According to Buddha, suffering goes beyond life; the nature of life is closely related to the nature of self and human beings are not just temporal but they are compounded to many aspects of life. Therefore, for them to understand life and death,they must first understand the self. Fortunately, Buddha’s teachings do not end there, but go ahead to explain how human beings can endany form of suffering (British Broadcasting Corporation1).

Second noble truth: The origin of suffering (Samudaya)

Buddha claimed to have found out that, the root of suffering was desire (tanha) and it hard three causes, which he called,the three roots of evil, the three fires, or the three poisons(Boeree 33). They included greed or desire, ignorance or delusion, and hatred or destructive urges. He further argued that the connection between positive, negative and neutral sensation and thoughts were the cause of suffering (Tambiah183).

The Third noble truth: Cessation of suffering (Nirodha)

This involves blowing off, letting go, or just simply complete nothingness of any hatred, ignorance and desire.According to him, it is a way of letting go of the three fires (sources of suffering). He emphasized on complete avoiding of these three fires and liberating oneself from their bond (British Broadcasting Corporation1). By letting go all the pleasure and comfort of the palace by moving into the common world to see and experience actual suffering, he demonstrated an example on how people should live.

Under this truth, Buddha introducedNirvana (extinguishing any attachment to the three “poisons” and the significance of reaching enlightenment. He spoke about birth and not so much about death and what happens after death, because all he wanted his followers to concentrate on was how to free their souls from the cycle of suffering (Bradley 1).

The Forth noble truth: Path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)

According to this, for individuals to end their anguish’s, they have to adhere to a set of principles that are known as the Eightfold Path (Boeree62).

This path had eight principles, which were symbolized by the wheel of Dharma. They were Samma ditthi (meaning the acceptance of Buddhist teaching and the right understanding of all the practices), Samma sankappa (right intention or commitment), Samma vaca (telling the truth, avoiding slander and gossip), and Samma kammanta (behaving peacefully and harmoniously).

Others were Samma Vayama (developing positive state of mind), Samma sati (being aware of one’s body sensations feelings and state of mind) and lastly Samma Samadhi (building mental focus that is important for this awareness). This was to act as the bridge or raft for crossing to the other side of enlightenment (Boeree 89).

Buddhists’ Ethics

To start with, by all means all believers and other individuals should refrain from any abortion related acts. Buddhists believe that, nobody has the right to annihilate life, because they assume that, causing death is immoral.

This religion is an animal friendly religion and it expects humans to treat animal with kindness, although in the three fires that causes suffering, it uses animal symbols. The second main principle ethic centers onpunishment.According to the teachings of this religion, there should no coalesced policy on capital punishment, because of the existence of different forms of Buddhism (Boeree 124).

Another ethic is on contraception.According to the teachings of this religion, it is ungodly to use any medicine that prevents conception, because the use of these drugs is a form of causing death (Tambiah200).In addition, according to this religion’s teachings, euthanasia and going to war is wrong. On the other hand, there are no rules about organ donations, but its followers look at it a way of stopping suffering or being charitable (Bradley 1).

Customs

One of the main customs of this religion is venerating the Buddha. This is a practice that that is respect, because it is taken to be a way of meditating and honoring the qualities of Buddha. Another custom is the sacred mandala. This comprises of a picture of the universe painted on a wall or on a scroll that represent an imaginary palace that the Buddhists reflect on during contemplation (Bradley 1).

The third common custom is meditation.According to this religion, the state of being mentally and physically involved in an action that detaches one from his or her thoughts and feelings, with an aim of becoming more aware.In addition to these, adherents of this faith also believe in worship.

They do worship from both home and temples, but at home, they set aside a room to serve as the shrine. This room has a statue of Buddha, a rile banner and some candles in front of the statue(Boeree 89).

Holly Days

On f the holy days of this religion is Dharma Day or Asalha Puja. Followers of this religion have set aside this day as one their holy days, because it marks the beginning of Buddha’s teachings after his enlightenment. This religion also celebrates Kathina Day. It is the oldest festive and it is the day at the end of the Vassa (monsoon period).

This day is commemorate to remind believers of this religion some of the places where the nomadic Buddhist spent their three months. In addition to these days, this religion has aLoser‘s day, which is day that marks the Tibetan New Year(Boeree 43).

On the other hand, buddhists celebrate Parinirvana Day, which is the day of the Mahayana festive that marks the death of the Buddha. Another holly day that is important to this religion is the Sangha Day. This is one of the most vital days in this religion, because it is celebrated to honor the Buddhist community(Boeree165).

Buddhism Demographics

Buddhism spread fast during the fourth and fifth century and currently it has over three hundred million followers in the world. Some of its sub-divisions are Korean Zen Buddhism, which has over eleven million followers and nine thousand temples, Mahayana Buddhism that is the strongest in Tibet, China, Taiwan, Japan and Mongolia.

Another subdivision is the Nichiren Buddhism, which is found majorly in Japan, although it also has a fast growing number of followers in the United Kingdom (Boeree 187) in addition to these, there is also Pure land Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism, which is the strongest in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, and sections of Laos. Finally, there is Zen Buddhism, which a combination of Indian Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism from China, Korea and Japan, Tibetan Buddhism (Boeree174).

Conclusion

In conclusion, Buddhists do not worship gods or deities. This religion started more than two thousands five hundred years ago with just one leader (Siddhartha Gautama) and five followers, but presently, it has over three hundred and seventy six million followers globally (Bradley 1). This religion is one of the unique religions, because of its unique principles, teachings, and morals, which mainly focus on methods of alleviating human suffering, unlike other religions that emphasize on only how to live a righteous life.

Works Cited

Boeree, George. The Basics of Buddhism Wisdom. Pennsylvania : Shippensburg University Press, 1989. Web. <http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/buddhawise.html>

British Broadcasting Corporation. “Buddhism. BBC. Web. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/subdivisions/tibetan_1.shtml>

Bradley, Cheryl. Buddha’s Trellis. Buddhism and the Tree of life. Tarot Canada. 17^th April. 2010. Web. <http://tarotcanada.tripod.com/BuddhasTrellis.html>

Kennedy, Chen. “Buddhism History.Buddhism in China. Pennsylvania : Princeton University Press, 1964. Print.

Tambiah, SJ. Essentials of Buddhism.(1976): 221. <http://www.buddhaweb.org/2.html>

Buddhism is a non-theistic religion because it does not uphold the belief of a supernatural being, God, as the one who brought all things in to existence. Buddha was a person who had great power of meditation, which he used to bring spiritual knowledge and beliefs to his followers. This acts as the foundation for Buddhism.

According to Buddhism, salvation is the state of ‘being’ of a person obtained through the cleansing of one’s being by meditation. Its characteristics are freedom from all forms of defilements and delusion.

In Kapleau reading, feelings, thoughts, and sensations change over time. The writer points out that everyone experiences pain, unfulfilled desires, mental anguish, as well as moments of happiness and unhappiness. These changes occur depending on the experiences that one is undergoing. The narrator likens this to the way one candle lights another one; one moment’s characteristics heralds another moment’s identity and the chain continues. The writer also points out that nothing is permanent because things are constantly changing.

Satori is the goal of Zen practice; that is, enlightenment. It aims to preserve Buddha’s teachings. In the beginning of the diaries, Kapleau initially experienced his desire for satori through his recognition of his desire to end some natural phenomenon as sorrow, pain, misery, grief, old age, and death.

Through embracing of Zen Buddhism, his understanding about these natural phenomenons changed. In the reading, he accepts that he should not fight to bring such forms of suffering to extinction. His meditating experience helped to alter the way he understood it. Meditation involves opening one’s mind to the truth. He asserts that when one opens his mind to the truth there is nothing to fear.

Roshi is a term that refers to the person who passes spiritual knowledge to Buddhists. He has good mastery of Zen Buddhism practices hence acts as a teacher to the rest. Kapleau’s relationship with the various roshis with whom they have student- teacher relationship. He is also an admirer of the lives of the roshis.

Koan is a set of aspects that one cannot understand using normal human understanding but needs a form of spiritualism to understand it. It can be a question, statement or even a dialogue. The function of a koan is to make one to concentrate in Zen’s practices in order to get certain meanings to situations that do not have natural explanation.

The narrator’s development as a Zen practitioner changed the way he perceives things within himself and the world around him through embracing the four noble truths. The narrator changed his ways of viewing things and started observing one thing at a time. Through the practice of Zen Buddhism, the narrator gains the ability to reduce attachment to his body, mind, and his desires.

The writer notes that everything that comes to being passes away or dies; nevertheless, self dies not. This helped the narrator to be fearless. He also began sharing things with others than being selfish. He says that as people continue to unravel it, and eliminate some emotional blocks, egoism fades away and ushers clear and open thoughts leading to satisfying life.

The role of the body in this reading is to show its utilization to enhance the understanding of different phenomenon in human life. The reading has shown that, the body and the mind are two different entities and for the mind to work appropriately the body must be in a position to allow this. This is very important for Zen Practitioners who are in absolute need to meditate to achieve enlightenment. According to the narrator, during meditation the body must have a given upright posture and should not have any movements.

Hinduism: The Way of Devotion

What it means for an individual to identify with Hinduism

Hinduism, as a religion, preaches total devotion to God. It is vital to recognize the faults addressed by Hinduism among other religious gatherings. Hindusim’s problem is samsara (a succession of death and rebirth). Hinduism believers endeavor to address samsara (their major problem). Accordingly, the proposed solution is moksha, a release from such obsolete bondages. The only technique required in this context is ‘devotion.’

The basic beliefs about the world held by persons participating in Hinduism

The followers of this religious group are required to demonstrate outstanding devotion as they strive to serve their religious faiths. The focus on this problem can serve as the major disparity between Hinduism and other religious groups.

A ritual action/observance/obligations that are important to members of Hinduism

According to the followers of this religion, Hinduism is part of humankind hence cannot be assumed at whichever cost. Hindus view themselves as God’s chosen and the true followers in the entire world/cosmos. The spread of this religion has majorly concentrated in Asia due to complications it fronts in its various contexts. It is crucial to understand Hinduism deeply before investigating how it varies with other religious factions. The need to worship together can hardly be achieved if the world is still embracing different religious doctrines, as noticed in various parts of the world.

Buddhism: The Way of Awakening

What it means for an individual to identify with Hinduism

Buddhism is a religion comprising of traditions, beliefs, and practices advocated for by Buddha. Buddhism has been grounded on the teachings of Buddha, who was initially recognized as the ‘awakened’ being. He used his ideologies to enlighten the people of the Indian Subcontinent. Accordingly, his major intentions were to end dukkha (suffering) among the Indian people (Dukkha is the major problem addressed by the Hinduism followers). This could only be achieved by eliminating ignorance and craving among the concerned groups.

The basic beliefs about the world held by persons participating in Hinduism

Buddhism has considerable doctrines and religious beliefs that are unique to the regions embracing it. The fact that it aimed at enacting enlightenment among its followers is a critical provision when considered perilously. It is crucial to understand various provisions of Buddhism so as to authenticate its religious values. The major problem associated with Buddhism is suffering. The followers of this religion are against the suffering of any kind.

A ritual action/observance/obligations that are important to members of Hinduism

According to Buddhists, the best solution to the atrocities of humankind is nirvāņa (happiness). The ability to attain this provision will allow the entire generations, who follow the teachings of Buddha, to stand by the truth and embrace enlightenment so as to obtain happiness. This is a substantial religious provision when considered decisively in the context of Buddhism. The most viable technique to be used in this context is the Eightfold Path.

This relates to the issues of enlightenment advocated for by Buddha, as indicated earlier. The problems addressed by different religions are different; hence every religion has a distinct destiny. Precisely, because Buddhism addresses suffering as the major problem of humankind, it differs considerably from Christianity, which addresses sin as the major problem of humankind.

The origin of Buddhism can be traced back from Hinduism religion in India though it is important to note that its introduction to Japan was through China. Buddhism in Japan was divided into four periods as we shall discuss below. These periods include the Nara period which ran from 701-794, it was then followed by Heian period which ran from 794- 1185. The third period was the medieval period which ran from 1133-1600 and finally the modern Kyoto school. These periods shall be discussed from the earliest to the just recent.

Nara school of Buddhism (701-794)

The Nara school of Buddhism was characterized by different schools of thoughts with Sanron being the first. The Sanron school of thought denied all views or ideas which at any given time could prevent an individual from attaining enlightenment. The school was introduced in Japan by a Korean monk and though it was difficult for the Sanron school of thought to develop and be recognized as independent, many people still followed its teachings.

The Sanron School advocated for teaching of the middle path These teachings of the middle translated into four views which the school held closely in its teachings. These views were: existence, non existence, existence and non existence, neither existence nor non existence. It developed its concepts of the middle path based on the absolute and the relative truths.

The second school of thought during the Nara period was Jojitsu. This school of thought was based on two propositions. The first proposition was that phenomena are usually transitory and thus they tend to pass away. The second proposition was that both the self and the world lack the required essential substantiality.

It was also through Jujitsu that a set of practices were introduced which when followed would allow the followers to experience what the real truths are. It was only after experiencing the real truths that they would be able to differentiate reality and illusions. The school main arguments were based on how an individual could discover the real truth. The school hoped to exert the four noble truths as the best process towards enlightenment.

The third school of thought during the Nara period was Hosso. Hosso explained that reality in our lives was brought out by our minds and not from real life experience as many people tried to put it. The school explained that our mind tampers with the real truth modifying it. The modified truth is then expressed by our minds as the reality itself (manifestations of our minds) The Hosso School then divided our minds into eight consciousnesses and which included: sight, sound, smell, taste, among others.

According to this school, these consciousnesses help us in understanding the cognitive world. It is however important to understand that Hosso did not deny in the existence of the physical world, but they maintained that what people knew or thought was the real world was usually not the real world but a manipulation of our minds. If only we could perfect our conscious only that time could we have taste of what reality is all about.

Introduced under the sarvastivada traditions, the Kusha School of thought sought to explain a method through which an individual can achieve nirvana (enlightenment). To explain this, they analyzed the elemental building blocks of phenomenal reality.

In their analysis, it was concluded that for one to achieve nirvana, the individual had to undergo through the daily activities such as the acts of thinking, perceiving, willing and desiring since it was through such activities that people were able to generate the required karmic energy that collectively brought out a continuously evolving person.

Contrasting with the other schools of thoughts, Ritsu main interests were focused on the practical matters of faith and how the faith could be maintained. Ritsu in Japanese means precepts .It is all about the moral obligations which Buddhism expects from its followers. The Ritsu School of thought was all about guarding the moral issues which are concerned with the religion. It indicated that before people could be converted to monks, they had to know and understand all the rules that were contained in Vinaya.

Kegon was the last school of thought during the Nara period. This school of thought was based on how the Buddha got his enlightenment. It explored the vision that changed or transformed Gautama the father of Buddhism into a Buddha.

During the day of his enlightenment, it is claimed that he saw dharma appearing in the eyes of his mind and these dharma were mutually related and interdependent. It was therefore an assumption under this school of thought that all living things depend on each other and that the universe itself is self creating.

As a result of all these things that happened to Buddha, Kegon School explained that Buddha was like a god. He was the center and ground of the universe and all phenomenons originated from him. As a result of these views, the court accepted the presumed imagery of the central power to which all living things owned their allegiance to.

It was as a result of these teachings that the emperor saw a good chance in which he could transform himself to be the Buddha where everything would be originating from him and everybody else would have to be under him. As time went by, the emperor liked the teachings and the views of the school and gave them a temple which would be the center for their activities.

The emperor also changed his name to Roshana which when translated partially meant Buddha. The Kegon School devoted their study to the scriptures but as time progressed, it found itself on the verge of being absorbed. Even though the group resisted being assimilated by the other groups, Kegon School was never able to exist as an independent institution. This school of thought was regarded by many as the best and the most profound statement on the way people view life.

Heian schools of Buddhism (794- 1185)

The Heian period witnessed the improvement of Buddhist technology and architecture. The Buddha sculptures which had been inherited from the earlier period (Nara) were during this period modified. Making of new images of the Buddha was also being made using bronze changing from the old forms when they were made out of wood. The Heian period was marked by two schools of thought the Tendai and Shingon.

The Tendai School of thoughts contained several views which tried to relate and bring together Buddhism doctrine and some aspects of the Japanese culture. This school of thought based its foundation on Mahayana Buddhism. Tendai school of thought stated that Buddha hood as a religion was the capability to attain enlightenment.

This enlightenment or Nirvana in all living things was an aspect which came from within (intrinsic). Under Tendai school of thought, the way people view things and what they have experienced is all what Buddha law is about. However, this view brought problems to many people due to the many and different experiences people go through. Under Tendai anything as the people see it is usually on of the many expressions of Dharma.

Contrary to the Tendai school of thoughts where enlightenment was achieved intrinsically, according to Shingon, the rituals connected with the three secrets (body, mind and speech) were passed orally from whoever was giving the instructions to the student who was receiving the teachings

The Heian period was followed by the medieval period which had three main sects: the Jodoshu or the pure land school, the Hokke or the Nichren School and finally the Zen. The Jodoshu was based upon the pure land sutras.

The pure land school became prominent with the founding of the monastery which spread through China before entering in Japan where it gained its prominence slowly. According to Jodoshu, entering the pure land was like rebirth or what is commonly referred to as reincarnation. If one could enter the pure land, to the Jodoshu School, this was the same as achieving Nirvana.

The followers of Jodoshu believed that during reincarnation, the Buddha had to help the individual as he or she underwent the multiple rebirths so as to prevent losing the person or avoid the person being possessed by the devils. As a result, it was only through the help of Buddha that nirvana was achieved.

The idea behind the pure land Buddhism was based on the fact that it was very hard to achieve the enlightenment and so that’s where the Buddha comes in to help us. According to Pure Land Buddhism, enlightenment could only be achieved through the combine efforts that we make and the assistance we receive.

Compared to other schools of Buddhism when putting focus on this world, Nichren School was different. The school viewed itself as the only correct tradition and emphasized that it is the role of individual to improve themselves and that Buddha was not involved.

The school of thought argued that individuals have got the capability of empowering and then transforming themselves inside and if this happened, this would contribute to a better world. Nichren school of thought taught that enlightenment was available to anybody irrespective of what he or she did. According to Nichren, enlightenment was opening of a person’s innate Buddha characteristic in this world.

The last school of thought during the Heian period was Zen. It removed much importance on the theoretical knowledge one possessed to the self realization through the meditation and dharma practice. There were two schools of thought under Zen schools and they were the Rinzai and Soto schools.

In the Rinzai School of thoughts, the religion was marked with its emphasis on places such as kensho which meant seeing one’s nature and perceiving the self as the connector between the real and the only true Buddhism. The Rinzai believed their approach towards enlightenment was the best since the over emphasis helped in meditating.

While the two belonged to the Zen school of thought, rather than the rigorous activities one had to undergo in Rinzai before achieving enlightenment, Soto placed great importance on Zazen (sitting meditation).

The putting of much emphasis on Zazen was based on the assumption that Buddha achieved his enlightenment when he was meditating while seated. Most of the followers in Soto devoted their activities to Zazen hoping to achieve the enlightenment and move to the next level. Zazen did not only help the Soto in achieving their enlightenment but it also formed the center of their philosophy.

Kyoto school was the name which was given to Japanese scholars who absorbed the western lies about the religion and tried to reformulate it. Kyoto schools philosophy of absolute nothingness formed the fundamental basis for the members of the Kyoto school and remains on of the features which has carried much criticism since its inception. They had derived their origin from sunyata Buddhist notion.

Beginning with Sunyata which forms the basis for Kyoto school, it is hard to understand its meaning since it derives its meanings from several factors. First, Sunyata has got many meanings in the Buddhist history, and then translating its meaning to English from its nature is another difficult thing. Given the difficulties, sunyata can be said to mean nothingness or emptiness. In terms of religion, it is said to mean religious attitude or a focus meditation.

When one compares the Buddhist emptiness or the absolute nothingness of the Kyoto school of thoughts, problems arise when defining the emptiness in Buddhism. Emptiness is a difficult idea to understand not only due to the technicalities involved but also due to the fact of the many ways it has been interpreted in the history of Buddhism. Every school of thought developed its own way of defining emptiness and as a result, it was hard to define which emptiness was more representative than the other.

Introduction

Buddhism entails religious teaching spearheaded by the Buddha and his followers. Religion asserts that by eliminating hatred, greed, and delusion that are deemed to cause suffering, humans can achieve perfect enlightenment. Many people in Myanmar practice Theravada Buddhism. Buddhism originated from Northern India and traces its traditional origin to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha. The philosophy of Buddhism revolves around the reality of life and social life other than the invisible creator. The essay describes some key points in the article “Between Controversy and Ecumenism: Intra-Buddhist Relationships” by Peter Harvey and reflects on them in the context of Myanmar Buddhism.

Features of Myanmar Buddhism

Myanmar followed the Theravada of Mons because they were impressed by the simplicity of its doctrine. Theravada is preferred to the sophisticated court religion. The major features of this religion are centered on the following traditions. Firstly, the formation of a Buddha through the ritual performance by placing and identifying within a person’s body the traits of the Buddha that, in turn, become the Buddha. The application of sacred language blended with microcosm to macrocosm recognition. Sacred phrases or syllables are employed to depict a larger group. Groups of syllables of a given number depict other important groups of a similar number. This application of sacred language comprises the utilization of heart phrases related to mantras, Mahayana, and yantras. Esoteric interpretations of objects, words, and myths that have a standard exoteric purpose or meaning in Myanmar Buddhism. Finally, there is the need for initiation before the performance of a practice or ritual.

Consequently, based on the features described, Theravada Buddhists mainly proposed to be relieved from the cycle of Samsara, and suffering and to attain nirvana. It shows that the people of Myanmar believe that to accomplish success in the world and enhance enlightenment in subsequent rebirths, they should establish positive merit or karma. Buddhists in Myanmar search for enlightenment when somebody mentions Buddha; people who are listening typically imagine a chubby person meditating under a fig tree. The real name of Buddha is Siddhartha Gautama, whose father kept in the palace to hide the truth of suffering in this world. However, when he flees and experiences pain in the world, he begins to look for enlightenment.

Further, a unique factor of Myanmar Buddhism is the expansion of meditation movements among the population. Conventionally, meditation rituals were reserved for monastic elites, and people’s religious rituals were mostly comprised of making offerings to monks who went on alms rounds. Nonetheless, meditation has been taught to most laypeople in big numbers, especially under British colonialism, and this continues up to now. In addition, prominent meditation teachers in Myanmar have influenced the Buddhist practice across Europe and America, specifically in the meditation style referred to as insight meditation or vipassana. Burmese meditations possess a wide range of practices and techniques.

Buddhism and Leadership

The Buddhists in Myanmar are trying to deny themselves through different other ways such as nature, even though their satisfaction is high. They have learned many things from the monks and Buddha through meditation, the path of self-denial via pain, bearing and suffering that pain, and also by living thirsty and hungry all day. They learned that Buddha washed all the pictures in his mind and emptied his mind for meditation. After meditation, Buddha, through their efforts, came back into himself again in the end. It has formed the main basis for the Buddhists in Myanmar. They believe that humans can achieve enlightenment and become arahants or arhats and be liberated from their sufferings. Through meditation, laypeople can place and recognize within their bodies the qualities of the Buddha. For example, the Myanmar leader imagines herself or himself a Buddhist dhammaraja and a Buddhist Ecumene leader. Dhammaraja has duties to herself to be Buddhist and to govern based on Buddhist sensibilities. In addition, they have to offer a Buddhist space for their subjects to practice Buddhist rituals.

Buddhism and Politics

However, Buddhist or Buddhism technologies, for example, patronage (dāna) and meditation, are merely considered mechanisms applied by those jockeying for influence. A Myanmar leader may appeal to be a dhammaraja, although only to get the support of the people. Buddhism in Myanmar was employed as a rallying cry for nationalist movements; however, it is dismissed that Buddhism is the central aspect of politics. In addition, there are different possibilities for the origin of the traditions; all of the terms are in Pali and its basic ideas are Theravada: the influence of Hinduism, Mahayana Buddhism, or Abhayagiri Nikaya, or the Sarvastivada. Buddhists’ monastic order often practices and follows the rituals and norms of the people in the past.

Conclusion

Myanmar Buddhism is unique because of the growth of the meditation movement among its people. Traditionally, the ritual was reserved mainly for monastic elites; however, many people in big numbers are practicing meditation practices that continue up to now. This practice is spreading across the world, particularly in Europe and America. Buddhists believe that through meditation in the image of Buddha, they can achieve enlightenment and be liberated from their sufferings in this world.

Four major kinds of rituals practiced in Confucianism

In Confucianism, rituals contain a very important mission, because they help to keep and unite all parts of the universe (Oxtoby & Amore 266-270). However, despite other religions, Confucianism does not have a strong range of rituals that people have to follow every day. Four major kinds of rituals practiced in Confucianism are four life stages: birth, reaching maturity, marriage, and death.

Birth as the first stage of human life is supported by rituals that have to protect the woman and her child. Mother has a special diet and other family members help her to be healthy. In the first, fourth, and twelfth months of child family members give presents for the child.

Reaching maturity includes such rituals as a group meal where a young adult has to prepare chicken.

Marriage includes several steps such as a proposal when the future couple has to exchange their dates, including date of birth, engagement, dowry, procession, marriage, and reception. Every special day has its own set of rules and rituals that should be followed to have a strong family.

Death is the last stage of life that supports by such rituals as mourning and crying to inform neighbors who bring money and incense. After the ceremony, family members prepare a special altar.

The teaching of no-self in Buddhism

The teaching of no-self is one of the key principles of Buddhism indicates that human existence is the illusion of permanent. Therefore, people should not be concentrated on their physical conditions and body which is only part of the human essence. For Buddhists, people have to be free, believing in reborn, reincarnation and do not get accustomed to various things around them. Man is not a separated creation; man exists only in cooperation with nature as the inseparable structure. Therefore, it is impossible to consider oneself as an independent structure that can exist without others. Nature changes and the world can move on without a particular person and any “I” cannot prevent it. For Buddhists, to be a part of nature physically and spiritually is the same as to be a part of an eternal universe. Everyone should be free of the concrete experience or attachment, comprehending that permanence of life and selfish desires do not have any reason.

Works Cited:

Oxtoby, Willard G., and R. C. Amore. World Religions: Eastern traditions. 3rd ed. 2010. Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press. Print.

In the Bhagavad Gita, three yogas, or paths to liberation (=to moksha), are outlined: jnana yoga, which liberates one via knowledge; karma yoga, which liberates one via actions; and bhakti yoga, which liberates one via devotion. (Raja yoga was created as a complementary practice by the Yoga School.)

Karma yoga means practicing disciplined action, acting in a karmically positive manner. The motives for such actions need to be deontological, that is, one should do these actions because they are right rather than to achieve certain goals.

Jnana yoga means achieving moksha through knowledge, which is achieved via study, usually under the supervision of a guru. The knowledge that needs to be achieved pertains to the awareness of the unity of atman (= one’s “real” self,) and brahman (=the absolute and impersonal reality). The study needs to include not only personal reflection but also philosophical scrutiny.

Thus, karma yoga is practiced via acting deontologically in a karmically positive manner, while jnana yoga is practiced via gaining knowledge and conducting reflection.

In Buddhism, nirvana (“quenching”) is the key aim of the path of a Buddhist, the cessation of dukkha (=suffering) via the riddance from its causes; nirvana also means the end of the samsara (=the endless circles of deaths and rebirths).

The four noble truths of Buddhism state that

1. there is suffering which is
2. caused by the desires but
3. can be get rid of via eliminating the causes of it through
4. following the madhyama pratipad (=the Middle Way).

Doing so allows one to eliminate the desires (passion, ignorance, and aversion), as well as one’s individuality, and, thus, to end the suffering. The state in which these desires are eliminated, or nirvana, is the state of the quietude of one’s heart; it transcends human comprehension. Nirvana means that one loses one individuality and breaks free of the samsara.

Thus, nirvana is the final aim of a Buddhist, the release from all suffering. Importantly, it is open to any human who practices Buddhism.

Holocaust is a significant challenge to Judaism because, according to Judaism, God actively participates in the history of humanity, and it is difficult to explain how He allowed for such a phenomenon as genocide of His chosen people.

According to Judaism,

1. only one God exists,
2. He is involved in history,
3. Israelites are His “chosen people,” with whom he made covenants.

Because of 1 and 2, it is possible that God “arranged” Holocaust (and no other supernatural force could have done so), or at least allowed it to happen, which is a challenge. This is especially strange considering that Israelites are his “chosen people.” Thus, it is unclear if God let the Holocaust happen, and if yes, then why; can a good God even allow let such things happen; did Israelites violate the terms of the contracts, or have they lost their status as the “chosen people”; and so on?

It is also unclear whether to interpret Holocaust as a punishment for Jews’ sins, or as an atonement for the sins of other peoples. It is also hard to tell whether Judaists should preserve their traditional views, or reject them in the light of this catastrophe.

Thus, the phenomenon of the Holocaust challenges the very basis of Judaism, according to which Israelites are the “chosen people”, the God is good, He intervenes in history, and should not have allowed for such a catastrophe to occur.

A “miracle” can be defined as a happening in which the laws of nature have been violated; thus, it cannot occur due to natural causes on their own and is inconsistent with and incomprehensible from the point of view of science. In Christianity, a miracle occurs as a result of an intervention of God or a certain supernatural agent. The examples of Christian miracles include the resurrection of Christ (the pivotal miracle), as well as the virgin birth of Jesus, certain actions done by Jesus, etc.

Numerous objections have been raised against the actual occurrence of miracles; one of the most prominent of them was offered by skepticist David Hume. It is hard to state that Hume claimed miracles could not occur; he questioned the rationality of believing in them based on testimony. In particular, he states that a law of nature is the regularity with no inclusions observed to it; thus, the evidence for a law of nature is extremely strong.

On the other hand, a miracle is a violation of the laws of nature; thus, all the experience of humanity contradicts the claim that a miracle occurred. Besides, a miracle, as a highly improbable occurrence, needs extremely strong evidence to confirm it; on the other hand, the testimony is rather weak if compared to the evidence which shows that a miracle cannot take place. Thus, Hume concludes that a belief in miracles is unreasonable.

Noteworthy, Hume’s argument is epistemological, but it is hard to object against the reality of miracles in principle. A miracle is by definition a violation of the laws of nature, so it cannot be objected to by referring to the laws of nature.

Therefore, a miracle can be defined as a violation of the laws of nature; in Christianity, it is believed to be caused by a divine or otherwise supernatural intervention. There are some arguments against the reality of miracles; Hume’s epistemological argument is one of the most well-known ones.

The five pillars of Islam are

1. shahadah or the confession of faith;
2. salat, or prayer;
3. zakat, or the obligatory tax in favor of the poor;
4. sawm, or fasting during the month of Ramadan,
5. hajj or a pilgrimage to Mecca.

The five pillars of Islam are believed to be obligatory by the adherents of the faith and thought to constitute the foundations of a Muslim’s life.

1. Shahadah. Every Muslim is required to state: “there is no god but God (=Allah), and Muhammad is his prophet”. It must be recited at least once in the life of a Muslim, but is, in fact, the most common act of an Islamic adherent, resembling a prayer.
2. Salat. Muslims are required to pray 5 times a day: in the dawn, midday, afternoon, evening, and night. A Muslim must face Kaaba (in Mecca) while praying.
3. Zakat. A Muslim is obliged to pay a special tax to help the poor; usually, it equals 2.5% of a Muslim’s capital and income per year.
4. Sawm. Muslims fast during the month of Ramadan, which occurs at various times of the year. Muslims are not allowed to drink, eat, smoke, or have intercourse during daylight time. Only after dusk, the prohibition is lifted.
5. Hajj. Hajj is a pilgrimage to Mecca, which an adult must carry out at least once in their lifetime if they are capable of doing so. It occurs during the month of Dhu al-Hijjah.

Thus, the five pillars of Islam are obligatory practices for any Muslim and are believed to form the basis of a Muslim’s life.

• One of the key similarities between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam is that all of them (at least partially) use what is called the Bible by Christians. On the other hand, they use it to a different extent. Judaism only uses 24 books divided into 3 sections: Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketubim, together abbreviated as Tanakh. Christians utilize all these books, calling them (and some additional books, in some Christian groups) the Old Testament, and also use the New Testament. Finally, Muslims only use certain parts of the Bible, believing them to be a revelation from God, but believe that Bible is partially corrupted; the Quaran is regarded as the main book in Islam and is believed to have been dictated to Muhammad by God via Gabriel the angel. Interestingly, Muslims call Christians and Judaists “the people of the book”, and believe they still can be saved.
• All the three religions are considered to be monotheistic. However, Judaism and Islam are strictly monotheistic, believing in one God. On the other hand, the Christian God is believed to be one and to be three simultaneously; the Trinity comprises the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The Christian God is “one essence”, but, at the same time, three persons.
• All the three religions believe in messiahs and prophets, in the Judgment Day, in Paradise, and Hell. All the three religions have their Commandments, and their adherents practice fasting.
• In Christianity, Jesus is the son of God. In Islam, he is *a* prophet. In Judaism, he is a false messiah.
• In Islam and Judaism, it is obligatory to have several prayers during the day.

There are several dominant religions in the world. Christianity and Islam are considered some of the most numerous and well-represented around the world. They are very similar to one another in many ways, including religious teachings and the concept of One God. Buddhism, however, is different. It is a religion widely-spread in the Far East, particularly in India, China, Japan, and some portions of the Middle East. Buddhism has no specific god to worship, which differs it from other religions. Instead, Buddhism focuses on how to solve real-life problems. One of its defining traits is the absence of the concept of revenge. Buddhism is not about who stabbed you with the sword but about how to pull it out.

Buddhism is like a journey on a boat towards the shore. It provides the boat, but it is up to the person to sail. There are 2 major schools of Buddhism, called “The big boat” and “the small boat.” The Big Boat focuses on allowing others to accompany you on the journey to Nirvana, while the Small Boat only allows room for oneself. On the journey to Nirvana, traditions of donation of money and donation of the body are important, as charity is said to benefit those around you and make the journey easier.

When people die, they are brought to the mountains, where the body is given to the vultures. Without the spirit, the body is useless, so it is viewed as the last step of separating the spirit from the body.

Before Buddhism, Tibet had the religion of Bon. Similar rituals and symbols, different in history and religious authority. Buddhism has different wings. The Chinese, Indian, and Tibetan Buddhism. Chinese Buddhism is about Oa Chun – big boat. Sothern (Indian) – Show Chun (small boat). Tibetan Buddhism is very close to Bon – the religion it merged with during the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet.

In Bon, as it is in Tibetan Buddhism, there are three regions – evil, human, and divine. Human lies in between and is in this world to find its path between good and evil. Witchcraft is used to communicate. Bon and early Tibetan Buddhism have strong ties to witchcraft.

In Tibet, Buddhism and Bon competed with one another, being supported by different social groups. Royalty supported Buddhism, while rich and noble families – Bon. Eventually, Buddhism won. The two religions became incorporated into one another, with Buddhism taking some elements from Bon while disregarding those considered faulty.

Buddhist temples play an important part in preserving the legacy of Buddhism, its history, traditions, and beliefs. They are scattered all around the world, but the majority of the temples can be found in China, India, and Japan. Afghanistan holds one of the largest Buddha statues in the world. In Tibet, Buddhist temples are few and far between due to the scarcity of materials necessary for construction. It is the reason why the concept of “Temple within oneself” is so important for Tibetan Buddhists – as long as they have it, they can conduct the rituals and practice their faith whenever they go, with no need for walls and altars to justify the divinity of their experience.

These are the main points of the lecture about Buddhism that I attended. It was fairly informative, and the translator did a good job explaining to us the meaning of the lecturer’s words. However, I believe that having a foreign lecturer and a translator is not a very effective model. It takes twice the time to deliver the information. Instead, the foreign lecturer should have written his script on the paper, had it translated, and let someone else read it to us. It would have been much more efficient and informative.

Introduction

Buddhism was established in India by one man on a journey to find enlightenment. His name was Siddhartha Gautama (Huston, 40). He was brought up in a wealthy family. One day, he was exposed to poverty outside his home and his life changed. He then began to find a solution to pain and anguish.

His teaching became popular, and he made disciples. Originally Buddhism commenced as a branch of Hinduism. However, the followers of this religion then turned their backs on the mother religion. The basis of Buddhism is found in the answers to two questions that Gautama attempted to answer. The answers were classified under in to the “Four Noble Truths” and the ‘Eightfold Path” (Huston, 40). This paper describes the fundamentals of Buddhism and how it later embraced other doctrines contrary to the original message.

Buddhism had various beliefs. The first principle Gautama believed was that pain was not part of the plan. His thought was that selfishness was the source of pain and suffering (Huston, 49). He taught that the solution could be found by training the human mind, soul and body to do right. If human beings would stop being greedy, then there would be no anguish or pain.

According to Buddha, understanding the cause of human pain was the first step to victory. This was followed by real intentions, right communication, selfless behavior, integrity, sincere efforts and focus (Huston, 52). These steps are described as the eightfold paths of Buddhism.

Although the answers to the questions posed by Gautama were precise, the followers held different views over three questions. These questions related to human independence, the intention of the universe and the finest part of the human body (Huston, 58). This division birthed out two branches Theravada and Mahayana (Huston 60).

Unity existed among the Theravada followers. On the other hand, Mahayana followers were once again divided amongst themselves. As a result, Tibetan and Zen Buddhism were established (Kärkkäinen, 103). Buddhism was spread to other parts of the world with different doctrines and beliefs.

Initially, there was not mention of a deity. Nevertheless, as the religion grew many people began to look at Gautama as a god and started worshiping him. Others believe there is no deity or a supreme power. Consequently, they hold no worship service or believe in redemption. In essence, reflection and understanding the four truths and the eight fold path is their goal in life.

This concept differs from Hinduism which believes in several gods concerning the different areas of their lives. Additionally, Hinduism supports the pursuit of objectives like wealth, happiness and Nirvana. In Buddhism, equality among all human beings is essential. However, the caste organization is forbidden. In contrast, Hinduism advocates for the caste structure and holds that women are inferior beings.

Currently, Buddhism is more prevalent in other nations in Asia except India where it was birthed. Even though its popularity has declined, there are several Buddhist doctrines or truths that have been adopted into Hinduism (Huston, 120). Most importantly is the elimination of the caste organization as a way of life.

Several Hinduism supporters have accepted that men are equal. Moreover, Hinduism has embraced some of the steps in the eightfold path such as tolerance, right effort, honest livelihood, selflessness and peace (Kärkkäinen, 171). These steps have enriched Hinduism and made it a more compassionate religion.

Buddhism began because one person desired a world full of happiness. Gautama lived his life wanting nothing but he still had sympathy when he saw the pain of a homeless person and an old man. He sacrificed his life to seek answers about the problems of life. He did not attempt to make himself a god, although he was later worshipped by his followers. His answers to pain have been embraced by other religions such as Hinduism.

Works Cited

Huston, Smith. The World’s Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1991.

Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti. An Introduction to the Theology of Religions: Biblical, Historical, and Contemporary Perspectives, Madison, WI: InterVarsity Press, 2003

Introduction

The spread of Buddhism to China is a controversial topic that raises more than one issue about its diffusion, acceptance, and assimilation. Buddhism started to enter China during the Han dynasty, probably through the ancient Asian silk routes between the first century BCE and CE. The transmission of the Buddhist doctrine was not linear, and the reasons for its success are not always plain and predictable.

After providing a short framework of Buddhism in China, from its introduction to the communist take over in the twentieth century, this paper offers some insights on the spread and signification of the Buddhist teaching within the Chinese society. This paper will focus on how multicultural factors, including an initial misconceiving of the doctrine and ingenious translations of the Buddhist texts, contributed to making Buddhism one of the main Chinese religions.

Spread and Sinification of Buddhism in China

The coeval official Chinese historiography attempted to link the spread of Buddhism into the Han court through mythical and miraculous narratives. The most famous episode was the emperor Ming’s dream of a golden Buddha flying over his palace in 64 CE. However, the dream should not be taken literally, but framed in a broader context where both the Chinese rulers and the Buddhist élite tried to give legitimacy to a foreign doctrine (Sen, 2012). Zurcher (2007) highlights how the introduction of Buddhism into China became a favorite theme of apocryphal literature to enhance the prestige of the Buddhist monks. As will be discussed below, apocryphal texts became a powerful means to spread and adopt Buddhism to the Chinese environment.

One of the first reliable official documents dates back to 65 CE and testifies the presence of Buddhism in the area north of the Huai, in Eastern Henan, Southern Shandong, and Northern Jiangsu (Zurcher, 2007). The greatest flourishing of Buddhism took place during the T’ang dynasty (618-907), and it continued to thrive until the thirteenth century. When the Communists took over in the middle of the twentieth century, Buddhism was still the most significant religion in China (Gethin, 1998). The thriving of Chinese Buddhism over this long span cannot be studied without the understanding of the cultural environment of the early medieval Chinese society and of the factors and connections that influenced the spread of Buddhism.

While the document of 65 CE establishes a fixed point, it is plausible that Buddhist doctrines had already started to circulate in China at least one century before. The lack of material concerning the early spread of Buddhism into China and the appearance of a dignified form of Buddhism has suggested a series of factors that contributed to filtering the original Indian doctrine to adapt it to the Chinese society, to its common beliefs and thoughts.

The first aspect that affected the signification of Buddhism was linguistic: only a few foreigners had some knowledge of the Chinese language and, until the late fourth century, the Sanskrit was unknown to the Chinese (Zurcher, 2007). This linguistic gap had two main consequences of the diffusion and perception of Buddhism. Firstly, the translations were hardly understandable, with large use of Chinese terms that had already established philosophical meanings and non-Buddhist associations, therefore leading to a general misconception of the original doctrine.

Secondly, it implied a more or less conscious selection of the original material to those texts that were congruent with the existing Chinese ideas and were easy to be adapted. As a consequence, the canonical Indian Buddhist corpus was never translated into Chinese following a coherent plan, and the most important Chinese Buddhist collection of texts, the Tripitaka, was more a container for translations of sūtras, without any specific logic or chronology (Gethin, 1998).

Moreover, this scenario mirrored a total ignorance of the cultural milieu where Buddhism had originally thrived, even enhancing misconceptions and misunderstanding. For example, it was widely accepted that the Buddha was actually Laozi who happened to travel west to convert the Indians (Eno, 2008). Further consideration on the corpus of the Chinese Buddhist texts cannot fail to notice how the Tripitaka included many apocryphal texts which did not belong to the Indian tradition.

When Buddhism started to spread into China, the Mahāyāna canon was not yet fully developed. Hence, apocryphal works played a crucial role in molding the Buddhist ideas that spread into China (Sen, 2012). Translators, missionaries, and monks created an indigenous Buddhist doctrine, which contributed to disseminate Buddhism among people by framing it within the Chinese system of beliefs and even producing pilgrimage sites. One of the most important examples is the Treatise on the Mahāyāna Awakening, an indigenous Chinese work that had a huge influence on the development of Chinese Buddhism from several perspectives.

The text revolves around several essential concepts of Buddhism through an innovative approach that testifies how the Chinese doctrine was able to change its form and style to adapt to the new environment. Within this work, some of the most influential ideas include the ultimate reality (Zhen Ru), the two aspects in one mind (er Zhong me and Exin), and the Buddha bodies (fishery) (Aśvaghoṣa, 1967). Notably, it entails the intrinsic possibility for all beings to reach enlightenment (Tarocco, 2008).

Also, the Treatise, despite dating to the sixth century CE, was traditionally attributed to Ashvaghosha, an Indian Buddhist patriarch of the second century CE, while the translation from Sanskrit was accredited to Paramartha, another outstanding medieval Buddhist scholar: such a background made the text an autonomous and powerful spiritual reference point, able to influence society (Tarocco, 2008). However, the Chinese culture was dominated by Confucianism and Taoism, and the question of how Buddhism managed to become the third religion of the nation raises spontaneously.

When Buddhism began to spread across China, Confucianism was the main religion and regulated Chinese society through its complex system of rituals and canons. On the other hand, the new-Taoism resonated with some of the ideas and meditations typical of Buddhism (Gethin, 1998). Also, the Buddhist doctrine provided some philosophical justification to the status quo of the coeval society.

For example, through the concept of karma, Buddhism offered a theological argument to the rigid class distinction in medieval China (Zurcher, 2007). The periods of maximum spread of Buddhism coincided with particular historical moments where Confucianism was perceived as weak and inadequate to ensure stability in the society (Sen, 2012). In this context, Buddhism was flexible and able to start a dialogue with the other religions, while the spreading of texts, monks, and sacred pilgrimage sites constituted a solid popular basis.

Conclusion

Buddhism was introduced into China between the first centuries BCE and CE during the Han dynasty. Its early spread should be considered as a random series of episodes that followed the mercantile routes across Asia. The lack of knowledge of both the Sanskrit and the Indian environment where Buddhism had previously thrived led to ingenious translations of some of the Buddhist texts, without a solid organization.

However, the flourishing of apocryphal works created an indigenous corpus of signified Buddhist doctrine, while the proliferating of pilgrimage sites rooted the new religion into the Chinese fabric of the society. Finally, signification entailed the ability of Buddhism to start a dialogue with Confucianism and Taoism, even integrating some unresolved philosophical concepts.

References

Aśvaghoṣa (1967). The awakening of faith / attributed to Aśvaghosha; Translated, with commentary by Yoshito S. Hakeda. (Y. S. Hakeda, Trans.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. (Original work published 6^th Century CE).

Eno, R. (2008). Buddhism and Buddhism in China. Web.

Gethin, R. (1998). The foundations of Buddhism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Sen, T. (2012). The spread of Buddhism to China: A re-examination of the Buddhist interactions between ancient India and China. China Report, 48(1-2), 11-27. Web.

Tarocco, F. (2008). Lost in translation? The treatise on the Mahayana wakening of faith and its modern readings. Bulletin of SOAS, 71(2), 323-343. Web.

Zurcher, E. (2007). The Buddhist conquest to China. The spread and adaptation of Buddhism in early medieval China (3rd ed.). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.