Category: Buddhism

Introduction

Since historical times, religion has played a crucial role in the life of human beings. It has offered answers to questions that people do not comprehend and presented moral ideas that the society can live by. Most religions present ideals of the highest good that human beings can achieve. These ideals are meant to be objectives that the believers aspire to achieve. One major religion that has a philosophy of the highest good, which its followers can achieve, is Buddhism. This highest good is a state of spiritual awakening in the believer, and it is referred to as arahantship. This state of awakening is the highest good that a human being can achieve, and all Buddhists are urged to aspire to achieve it. Appleton asserts that arahantship is the mainstream goal of Theravada Buddhism (47). This paper will set out to define this highest good and reveal why Buddhists regard it so highly. I will then discuss why I do not agree with this as an ideal for ordinary human beings.

The Highest Good in Buddhism

Buddhism is an Oriental religion that seeks to provide spiritual development and awakening in the followers of its philosophy. The religion is based on the teaching of Buddha who offers insights into life and provides the means for moving from the natural position of discontent to one of contentment and enlightenment. Hongladarom documents that Shakyamuni Buddha attained Enlightenment under the Bodhi tree (54). Here, he discovered a way through which an ordinary person could attain perfection. The Buddha contends that the ideal of perfection is something that any ordinary human being can attain in the lifetime.

The highest good that humans can attain is referred to as arahantship and it literally means one who has vanquished all defilements (Hongladarom 54). Arahants are the individuals who have achieved this highest good, often after having practiced Buddhism for many years. Appleton documents that Buddhists who aspire to become arahants can achieve it through the teachings of Buddha (35). Without attaining the highest good, human beings remain trapped in the continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. It is only by achieving the ideal of perfection that a person is able to break this cycle and achieve Nirvana.

An important aspect of arahantship is that it is achievable by any individual irrespective of his socio-economic background. Hongladarom observes that the ability to attain the highest good (arahantship) is open to everyone regardless of his/her social standing (55). Gender does not play a role in the attainment of the greatest good for both men and women can become arahants (Appleton 47). The most important requirement in attaining the highest good is a personal effort. A Buddhist does not require to be well connected or come from a good family in order to become an arahant. Instead, he/she only needs to dedicate his/her time and efforts to practicing Buddhism in order to achieve this state.

Why Arahantship Is the Highest Good

It is the highest good that human beings can achieve since it frees the person from all the things that may lead to suffering. To achieve this status, the individual must clear his/her mind of adventitious thoughts, which prevent him/her from realizing perfection. Hongladarom reveals that this does not mean that the person should stop thinking altogether (58). What it means is that a person should not fall into the trap of substantiating thoughts or believing that their content is real, objective and of consequence. The arahant recognizes that earth is earth and avoids the temptation to form any conceptions concerning the earth. In the event that he/she forms thoughts about the earth, he/she will be conscious of the fact that the thoughts are not substantial or true. This applies not only for the earth, but also for everything in the world.

Buddha recognized that the concepts of ones own self were the most serious adventitious thoughts developed by people. These conceptual formations are regarded as the root causes of suffering. Therefore, to attain the highest good a person needs to avoid adventitious thoughts about himself/herself. In Buddhism, the concept of self is a fiction that exists in the mental space of the human being (Adams 276).

The person must seek to avoid the ego, which is the root cause of all sufferings. The ego causes sufferings since it sets the self, which is constructed out of subjective, unreal and unsubstantiated thoughts, as the most important entity. The events in the real world do not necessarily work out to fulfill the desires of this ego (Adams 278). Suffering therefore comes about when a person is frustrated or suffers from dissatisfactions due to the initial desires of the self. Buddhists admit that it would be impossible to live in the world without acknowledging the self. However, there is a difference in how the reality of the self is understood and approached by the arahant.

After attaining the greatest good, a human being is still expected to continue being productive to the society. Buddha exhorts the arahant to continue working hard even after attaining liberation in order to benefit the greatest number of people (Hongladarom 61). Therefore, the individual who has achieved the highest good and is free from all the burdens that keep human beings discontent can continue taking part in activities that benefit other human beings. People who have attained the highest good are able to free themselves from the impurities of thoughts such as anger and delusion. Their actions are therefore pure, which makes them better suited for all kinds of work than the individuals who have not attained arahant.

Why I Do not Agree with This as an Ideal

The Buddhist concept of arahantship is not an ideal that I agree with. To begin with, I do not agree that a human being can free himself from suffering. Buddhism teaches that by achieving the highest good, the person is able to overcome suffering. Hongladarom confirms that the arahant is able to overcome the bond of suffering by avoiding the distortions of conceptual thoughts and seeing things as they are exactly (56). However, I believe that suffering is a condition of human life and it cannot be overcome. The best that human beings can do is to develop an attitude that helps him/her to bear suffering gracefully.

Another ideal I disagree with is the elimination of the concept of self. To achieve the highest good, Buddha teaches that humans have to eliminate conceptions of the self. This is based on the Buddhist understanding that conceptions of the self are the greatest source of human sufferings. As such, eliminating these conceptions is key to reducing suffering. I do not believe that a human being can completely do away with the concept of self. Every individual has to affirm the self in order to exist. The self creates the values and qualities that a person upholds and lives by. As such, the Buddhist idea that the person can completely do away with all thoughts of self and continue existing seem unachievable to me.

I do not agree with the conclusion that people who have attained arahant are best suited for all kinds of works due to their liberation of mind. While certain mental fermentations such as greed, anger, and delusion are negative and make people act evil, mental fermentations such as ambition, love, and commitment are positive. These positive mental fermentations provide a drive and a motivation for people to work hard and serve their communities. A person who is working under the influence of these values can be expected to do better than the arahant who is working with an empty mind.

Conclusion

This paper set out to discuss the highest good that human beings can achieve in Buddhism. It began by revealing that this good is referred to as arahantship. Attaining the ideal form is the most important, indeed the only task that a Buddhist must seek to accomplish. The paper has expounded on the state of arahantship and demonstrated why it is considered the greatest good. The individual who has achieved this state is free from sufferings and negative dispositions such as greed, anger, and delusion since he has no concept of self. However, I do not agree with this as an ideal since suffering is a part of the human existence and one cannot eliminate the concept of self.

Works Cited

Adams, George. Personalist Spirituality and Buddhist An
tman: Reflections on Contrasting Subjectivities, or Why I am Not (Quite) (Yet) A Buddhist. Journal of Ecumenical Studies 47.2 (2012): 275-281. Web.

Appleton, Naomi. In the Footsteps of the Buddha? Women and the Bodhisatta Path in Therav
da Buddhism. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 27.1 (2011): 33-51. Print.

Hongladarom, Soraj. The Overman and the Arahant: Models of Human Perfection in Nietzsche and Buddhism. Asian Philosophy 21.1 (2011): 53-69. Web.

The essay is based on the book The Journey of One Buddhist Nun: Even against the Wind. To accomplish the desired task, the two questions are being answered purely using this book. The book generally tells a story of a woman known as Wabi who resorted and sought to become religious.

In her quest to doing so, she faces various huddles as well as difficulties. Ideally the story is told of her experiences as she worked towards being a maechi (Sid 23). The first question is with regards to why did Maechi Wabi go forth. According to the author, Wabi decided to go forth after realizing that she was fully discontented and dissatisfied with the idea of reaching adulthood and becoming a mother like her own mother. She hated the idea of constantly taking care of the others and working (Sid 74).

It was predetermined during her time that when she grows up, she is to assist her mother to take care of her siblings and work hard to earn money to buy food. In Buddhism, going forth simply means the act or situation where one, especially a monk or a nun, leaves his/her homes and decides to lead a homeless life, so that they can be deliberated from lust. Based on Buddhism, those who go forth are usually individuals who seek to get rid of the sorrows of birth and diseases, old age and death.

According to Buddhism, Buddha decided to go forth so that he could teach people what he had learned and discovered. The four major things that he taught were the following ones.

First, life usually ends in death; second, the cause of human suffering in life is because of our bad deed; third, end of desire results in end of suffering, and the last issue is that the man has to follow the right way and seek for divine truth which is within us. The story is indeed basis for Buddhism as it tells us about the day to day activities of those who practice the faith (Sid 34).

Maechi Wabi developed a very negative attitude towards men because the society honored religious men and scorned at religious women, thus disrespecting the females. The behaviors of her father contributed greatly to her resentment of men, this is because her father was greatly opposed to her will of being a nun because he wanted her to grow into a woman who would be able to take care of her own family and raise her own children, thus contributing to the societies development.

Wabis father was not pleased with the way the society and the women in particular were transforming. This is evident from the change in the roles and behaviors of the Thailand women. He stated the society to become promiscuous and females to begin developing anti-social behaviors that were not expected of them.

This is the issues that Wabi expressed in the book later on. Wabis father played a very significant role in developing his daughters religious life and also making her more determined to meet her goals; this is a result of his constant resent to her idea of being a nun. Wabis father realized that his resentment to his daughters decisions would not change her view, but would only contribute to her desire to fulfill her dream and support her in her quest of becoming a nun (Sid 98).

As suggested by Sid (100), Wabis father encouraged his daughter to be what she wanted to be without backing down on her ambitions. These words of encouragement definitely played a significant role in ensuring that she would become a nun and thus achieve her goal; her father is also involved in altering the mindset of the men in the society, thus they should have started appreciating the religious females in the society. This definitely changed the societys perception on religious women.

I think that Wabis father was a role model to her in some way. This is because he was a very hard working man who would not take anything to chance and would also stand straight to his words without changing his mind. This attitude gave her the courage to pursue her ambitions without second thoughts.

Work Cited

Brown, Sid. The Journey of One Buddhist Nun: Even Against the Wind. New York: State University of New York Press, 2001. Print

Introduction

The Monkey is one of the masterpieces of literature that contains the ethics, morality, religion, and culture of the Eastern world. In the tales about Monkey and his companions, the reader can notice the features of such religions as Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, on which all the stories are built. However, the principles of Buddhism are more often and more prominently displayed in the main characters of the story. Each of them represents the shortcomings that Buddhism considers as obstacles to enlightenment and the virtues that are necessary to achieve Nirvana. This combination of vices that Tripitaka, Monkey, Pigsy, and Sandy need to overcome on the path of enlightenment and their merits that coincide with Buddhist ideals proves that the Monkey is an allegory of Buddhism.

Monkey

The monkey appears in the story in the first chapter and is one of the central characters in fairy tales. In the beginning, the reader sees Monkey as a self-confident, strong leader who rules the flock and wants to self-develop. However, he is led by selfish desires to become immortal, to learn magic, and to be better than others, which demonstrates his inconstancy and fussiness (Wu, 1942/2015). The monkey represents the mental side of Buddhism with these traits since according to Buddhism, a person must master and direct his or her mind towards harmony to achieve enlightenment (Keown, 2017). Besides, according to Buddhist teachings, a person must renounce everything cruel, and find peace in his or her soul (Keown, 2017). However, at the beginning of the story, the reader discovers that Monkey kills the Six Robbers. Later he sees and wants to join the fight with words: I am going off to have a bit fun with the creature (Wu, 1942/2015, 38). Thus, Monkey is an allegory of the mental state of a person in Buddhism and one of the vices that he or she must overcome to comprehend Nirvana.

At the same time, Monkey also symbolizes the concept of vacuum, which underlies Buddhist teachings. One of the names of Monkey is Aware-of-Vacuity, that is, a person who knows absolute harmony, renunciation of desires, and identity (Wu, 1942/2015). In Buddhism, this concept is also reflected in the idea of no-self, which means the emptiness and absence of myself, since it interferes with the merging with Nirvana (Keown, 2017). Therefore, the name of Monkey and its journey is an allegory of this concept. Besides, at the end of the story, the reader sees that Monkey managed to settle his mind, overcome vices, and achieve enlightenment (Wu, 1942/2015). Thus, this character contains an allegory to one of the spiritual principles of people in Buddhism, the development of which leads to the achievement of Nirvana.

Tripitaka

Tripitaka is a monk who, in the past, was a disciple of the Buddha and was punished because of his disobedience. He is a pilgrim who goes his way in search of redemption and enlightenment, and he takes Monkey, Pigsy, and Sandy as his students (Wu, 1942/2015). He is the personification of the physical and material things that must be rejected to achieve Nirvana. Tripitaka is a monk, so he knows a lot of Buddhist teachings, and he does not forget to remind his companions. For him, the external observance of the rules is essential; however, he does not understand their deep meaning. Unlike Monkey, he renounces any violence, and it is easier for him to die than to fight his enemy. This fact is especially evident in the story of the battle of the Monkey with Six Robbers, whom he kills (Wu, 1942/2015). These Robbers are symbols of the six senses that a person must defeat to refuse desires and find enlightenment, according to Buddhism (Keown, 2017). However, Tripitaka accepts only the visible following of the rules, so he scolds Monkey for his act.

However, throughout the story, the reader can see Tripitakas empathy and compassion, as well as the progress he made. During the trip, he often assists his disciples with understanding and devotion, which helps him get rid of the physical dependence that prevented him at the beginning of the journey. As a result, he ultimately gets rid of the physical body to cross the river on the way to the Buddha Lands (Wu, 1942/2015). This denial of physical desires is also the basis for achieving enlightenment (Keown, 2017). Thus, the Tripitaka path is an allegory for the physical side, which Buddhists try to get rid of to comprehend Nirvana.

Pigsy and Sandy

Pigsy and Sandy, in this story, are the embodiment of vices that impede the attainment of enlightenment. Pigsy, who was punished for sexual misconduct towards the goddess in heaven, accidentally fell into the womb of a sow and now looks like a pig (Wu, 1942/2015). He embodies sins such as greed and gluttony, stealing, and sexual misconduct; however, at the same time, Pigsy is a vegetarian. Buddhism promotes the abandonment of the killing of animals and life in harmony with nature (Keown, 2017). For this reason, Sandy is the symbol of the opposite behavior; he kills all living beings, including humans, to eat their flesh (Wu, 1942/2015). Both characters are students of Tripitaka, who must go with him and fight with their evil virtues.

During the journey, Pigsy and Sandy gradually overcome their vices and purify karma with their actions. For example, Sandy creates a boat of nine skulls that he wears around his neck so that the pilgrims cross the river (Wu, 1942/2015). At the end of the journey, the reader feels that the characters changed and beat their bad habits, and although they have not yet reached enlightenment, they transformed into creatures of a higher level (Wu, 1942/2015). This fact coincides with Buddhist ideas about karma and reincarnation, according to which people reborn into their best or worst incarnation due to the actions of a past life (Keown, 2017). Thus, Pigsy and Sandy are an allegory of vices that interfere with the attainment of Nirvana and the successful path to their deliverance.

Conclusion

Therefore, the characters of the novel the Monkey are an allegory of Buddhist teachings since they embody the positive and negative qualities essential for achieving enlightenment. The adventures of the heroes symbolize the path that everyone walks on the way to understanding the truths of Buddhism and achieving complete harmony. Besides, such concepts as reincarnation, karma and the theory of no-self also coincide with the traditions and ideals of Buddhism. Thus, the main characters of the novel are an allegory of the basic principles of Buddhism, and their journey is a symbol of the search for enlightenment.

References

Keown, D. (2001). The Nature of Buddhist Ethics. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Wu, C. (2015). Monkey: Journey to the West. (A. Waley, Trans.). Huddersfield, UK: Dalriada Books. (Original work published 1942).

Introduction

Reading Chinese classics is always interesting, educative, and difficult at the same time. On the one hand, a reader gets an opportunity to learn one of the oldest cultures in the world with its beliefs and ideas. On the other hand, it is easy to be lost in an offered variety of adventures and allegories. Therefore, it is expected to choose one path and follow it through the course of reading. The Monkey and the Monk is a great Chinese novel that was created in the 16th century and translated and edited by Anthony C. Yu in the 2000s.

It is characterized by the presence of a true Chinese spirit of Buddhism and its valuable impact on human lives, traditions, and an understanding of history. The author mentions that the novel depicts changes in people and discusses them through the prism of itinerant adventure, fantasy, humor, social and political satire, and serious allegory built on intricate religious syncretism (Yu x). This essay aims to analyze The Monkey as a successful allegory of Buddhist teachings, where pilgrims travel and comprehend the worth of knowledge, cooperation, support, and power.

Main Ideas of the Story

Ancient China was not easy, and people continue improving their understanding of this culture. The Monkey and the Monk is not an ordinary story with a list of characters with the ability to develop particular relationships, grow in their specific ways, and demonstrate necessary lessons to the reader. There are 100 chapters that represent a journey that began when Pan Gu broke up the nebula and humaneness supreme enfolding every life (Yu 1). One of the main characters, Sun Wukong, a monkey, wanted to grasp the secrets of immortal life. Being exposed to the wind, a stone egg about the size of a playing ball transformed into a monkey with fully developed features and limbs (Yu 3). His transformation continues under the Five Phases with their challenges and opportunities, knowledge and doubts.

Tripitaka is another character whose traveling symbolizes the development and self-improvement through becoming a monk, desire to bring new standards to the damaged land, and the necessity to deal with personal demons and sins. Zhu Bajie, or Pigsy, Sha Wujing, or Sandy, and the Dragon-Horse are three other pilgrims in the journey that determine the influential qualities of people  greed (Pigsy), obedience (Sandy), and courage (Dragon).

In stressful situations, these heroes demonstrate their worst and best abilities to support, run, or betray. However, in total, the combination of loyalty to humans and respect for Buddhas orders contributed to the successful completion of the mission (Wang and Xu 105). Each character got what he deserved, including Golden-Bodies Arhat (Sandy), nagi (Dragon), Janitor of the Altars (Pigsy), Buddha Victorious (the Monkey), and Buddha Candana (Tripitaka) (Yu 494). Multiple lessons about how to control personal behavior, how to respond to danger and external kindness, and how to live with sins and redemption were given between the lines of The Monkey and the Monk.

Allegory and Its Essence

In a variety of sources, the authors try to discuss the nature of the novel and its relation to Buddhism. One of the most common statements is that The Monkey and the Monk consists of perfectly developed supernatural adventures, humorous situations, and religious allegories (Wang and Xu 103). An allegory is a story the meaning of which may be hidden between the lines to promote moral or religious aspects in society. For example, when the Monkey King could not help but jumping joyfully to demonstrate his grateful salutation, the Patriarch made a decision to teach him and control his emotions (Yu 19).

On the one hand, this situation seems to be harsh and diminishing peoples intentions to follow their needs and desires. From another angle, the same lesson helps to recognize true intent, promote obedience, and explain the worth of following orders set by supreme powers. The allegory is hard to catch, but its impact remains critical for further development.

This literary device is frequently used by writers; however, its success is determined by the possibility of the reader to grasp the truth and achieve the goals set. The allegory of The Monkey and the Monk is represented in terms of three levels that are revealed through reading the novel, including the idea of adventure, karma, and self-cultivation (Yu as cited in Wang and Xu 103). This method does not only depict the nature of Buddhism but also helps to identify the difference between Chinese and Western religions and philosophies. Instead of focusing on the identification of good and evil aspects like it is inherent to the western regions, China remains under the impact of Indian traditions, where Buddhism enhances salvation and self-improvement.

Allegoric Examples of Buddhism in The Monkey and the Monk

One of the main distinctive features of The Monkey and the Monk is a combination of several stories and religions within one great novel. The goal is to prove that to harmonize the Three Schools is a natural thing/One words elucidation in accord with truth/Leads to birthlessness and knowledge most profound (Yu 20). The author touched upon a variety of aspects of three religions, including Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. Despite the intention of this essay to focus on Buddhism teachings, none can diminish or neglect the role of other traditions and cultures in the story. There are many examples of how The Monkey becomes an allegory of Buddhist teachings, starting from the decision of Tripitaka to travel and ending with received honors and ranks.

The journey of the main characters remains the main evidence in the discussion of allegory in Buddhism. As soon as they decide to change something in their lives, people understand the need to improve and find out better virtues and values. Analyzing human actions, Tath
gata explained that people neither honor the teachings of Buddha nor cultivate various karma; they neither revere the three lights nor respect the five grains (Yu 457). As a result, it becomes hard to control humans with their negative qualities of greed and killing, lust and lying (Yu 457). Redemption turns out to be an internal part of their adventure, which leads to enlightenment and forgiveness.

There are multiple obstacles due to their karma that must be recognized and understood. The story underlines that sinful karma is very deep, and even the current redemption cannot promise a safe future and the avoidance of the same mistakes with time (Yu 126). Sometimes, it is easy to take a step, hurt someones feelings, and ask for forgiveness. Still, Buddhist teachings are not about forgiveness only but about the necessity to understand the worth of karma and behave respectfully.

At the same time, the strength of The Monkey and the Monk is the possibility to identify personal mistakes, think about the consequences, and share the lessons with other people. Each of the characters is never introduced as a perfect man with good intentions only. Their behaviors during teachings, uncontrollable powers, and unexplainable superiority over ordinary people took place and determined who they were. With time, new knowledge and explanations felt in their minds, and they changed.

Tripitaka got a better understanding of what it means to behave with circumspection, dont even enter a house without permission, wait until someone comes out, and request lodging politely (Yu 292). Such simple rules introduce the whole of idea of Buddhist teachings because this faith cannot be imposed or order. It has to be voluntarily accepted and developed in human minds and souls.

Conclusion

In general, it is correct to consider The Monkey and the Monk as an allegory to Buddhist teachings due to a number of urgent themes raised by the author. A life-long journey, an understanding of karma, redemption, and enlightenment are the critical elements in human development. It is not enough to know the rules and follow the standards in order to become a religious and cultural person.

The examples of Tripitaka, the Monkey King, Pigsy, Sandy, and the Dragon Horse as the main five pilgrims whose concerns, decisions, and purposes explain a true worth of Buddhism with its strong demands and expectations. As well as a journey, Buddhism is unpredictable for people who do not know the details but try to take as much as possible from it. The Monkey and the Monk can be a good guide for those who come to the conclusion that enlightenment is the goal to be reached to fulfill life with memorable events and lessons.

Works Cited

Wang, Richard G., and Dongfeng Xu. Three Decades Reworking on the Monk, the Monkey, and the Fiction of Allegory. The Journal of Religion, vol. 96, no. 1, 2016, pp. 102121.

Yu, Anthony C, editor and translator. The Monkey and the Monk: An Abridgment of the Journey to the West. The University of Chicago Press, 2006.

Introduction

The work, Monkey is an informative text that gives a detailed analysis of the Chinese views, religious practices, and culture. Although this text focuses on the diverse philosophies and ideas associated with this society, it is evident that the novel emerges as an allegory of Buddhist teachings by detailing the major processes for being religious and achieving nirvana or enlightenment in this religion. The purpose of this paper is to explain why Monkey is an allegory of Buddhist teachings in the selected novel.

Reasons why Monkey is an Allegory of Buddhist Teachings

The original author of this book developed the targeted characters in such a way that they allegorized the Buddhist religious culture. There are several attributes and explanations from this book that support the notion that the text is an allegory of Buddhist teachings. To begin with, these characters in this book are required to take a long journey that is characterized by numerous challenges and obstacles. These include Monkey, Sandy, Tripitaka, and Pigsy.ⁱ The entire journey is comparable to the path that followers of Buddhism should go through if they are to attain nirvana or enlightenment. The reader also observed that Tripitaka is a representation of the physical outcomes and experiences that Buddhists have to experience or go through (Yu, 2006). At the same time, Monkey is an allegory or representation of the unseen or imaginable. This becomes a representation of the human psyche.

According to the law of karma, the actions of people who engage in sinful or wrongful acts against others will eventually evolve and result in misery. Individuals who engage in actions that have the potential to benefit others will eventually result in happiness. Most of the characters have accumulated bad karma throughout the journey. For example, the depicted monkey is seen to have caused disharmony in heaven while Tripitaka slept amid a lecture focusing on Buddhism. With such bad acts, Tripitaka is forced to go through 81 hardships (Wright, 2017). When they experience their hardships, the monkey retrieves the body of the dead king and eventually accumulates good karma. This kind of happening describes why Buddhists should do good to have their bad deeds forgiven or canceled.

The teachings of the Buddha encourage followers to support others through the use of compassion. Monkey and Tripitaka achieve this obligation by turning to Kuan-yin when they encounter the dragon-horse. This means that Buddhists are obliged to consider the attribute of compassion in an attempt to resolve emerging issues correctly. Similarly, the Middle Part is a critical concept taught to Buddhists. Amid their pilgrimage, the characters presented in the book endure unique suffering that remains hard to evade. For instance, the author writes: They had been traveling for many days in December, with its cold North winds (Wright, 2017). The pain associated with such weather conditions appears to allegorize the Middle Path in Buddhism.

Additionally, when the characters described in this book encounter different forms of suffering, it is agreeable that Tripitaka is always willing ready to identify his situation with those of others.ⁱⁱ This kind of depiction explains why it would be hard for the reader to distinguish the development of this story and the Middle Path. However, one who is aware of the teachings of Buddhism will be able to connect such teachings with this pilgrimage (Yu, 2006). This concept of the Middle Path described in Monkey becomes a starting point for those who are willing to have a clear understanding of Buddhism and its beliefs.

In the selected novel, the reader realizes that Tripitaka and monkey eventually become enlightened. This kind of occurrence resonates with the concept of Buddhist enlightenment. This is the case since Tripitaka eventually gets this new name: Candana-Punya Buddha (Wright, 2017). The text portrays a literal shedding of their physical bodies. It is also notable that Sandy, Pigsy, and the dragon-horse are eventually reincarnated at the end of the story, thereby being able to achieve high status. Although these characters do not achieve enlightenment, such kind of process appears as a form of reward for their good deeds along the way. The ending of this story is critical since it fulfills or supports the argument that the novel is an allegory directed at Buddhism.ⁱⁱⁱ This happens to be the case since the entire journey and its conclusion described in the novel appears to echo the major teachings and ideas of this religion. The ending of the story is a clear representation of enlightenment whereby all those who do good and help others are eventually reincarnated or rewarded. It becomes a powerful guideline for people or believers who want to follow this religion and eventually realize higher states after the end of their lives.

Although the reader observes that Tripitaka was on a religious pilgrimage, the journey he undertakes gives a detailed analysis of the steps and practices that Buddhists should consider to attain enlightenment.^iv The entire narration becomes a representation or portrayal of the unique physical hindrances and issues associated with the life of every Buddhist. The author succeeds in explaining why there is a need for Buddhists on the path towards enlightenment should beg for the most appropriate necessities and avoid any malpractice or violent behavior that can affect their goals. Tripitaka appears to follow such guidelines and scolds those who fail to consider them (Yu, 2006). It is because of this reason that he scolds the monkey for killing the robbers they encounter along the way. This means that Buddhist priests should always be ready to die instead of promoting violence or pursuing inappropriate behaviors.

Conclusion

The above discussion has answered the intended question successfully by explaining why Monkey is an allegory of Buddhism and its teachings. This is the case since the characters described in the novel have to go through a tedious and challenging journey that informs or reminds that about the issues that true believers have to go through before attaining nirvana or enlightenment. The end of the pilgrimage makes it possible for every reader to understand the requirements and practices that are essential for every Buddhist believer. In conclusion, Monkey is an informative novel that can present a detailed or subconscious understanding of this religion to any individual.

References

Yu, A. C. (2006). (Ed.). The monkey & the monk: An abridgement of the journey to the west. London, UK: The University of Chicago Press.

Wright, R. (2017). Why Buddhism is true: The science and philosophy of meditation and enlightenment. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Endnotes

1. Other names for these characters appear in different translations of the Monkey.
2. The life of every Buddhist revolves around good karma and bad karma.
3. Buddhists can go further to follow religious teachings by observing rituals, engaging in meditation, and following the teachings of Buddha (also known as merit).
4. This kind of enlightenment resonates with the idea of nirvana.

The position accorded to women in all spheres of activity has been a subject of considerable interest in recent decades. Significant changes in the role played by women in social, economic, and even political life transcend the position accorded to women in many religious traditions of the world. The social freedom enjoyed by women and their equality of status in Buddhist societies had evoked many Western observers to distinguish them from those of the Middle East, the Far East, and Europe, where other religions of the world are practiced. In this perspective, it is imperative to consider the place accorded to women in Buddhism, though very few countries like Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, etc., are following Buddhist tenets of social practices, and analyzing its influence in these countries will be significant in the changing world social scenario.

With womens emancipation and increased pressure from feminist activists, the universal ideology of masculine superiority is being challenged everywhere. Segregation of sexes has been prevalent in varying degrees among major world religions, whether it is based on Confucian code, Strictures of Manu, or Words of the Prophet. In the international social set up the Confucian code lays down detailed rules on how men and women should behave in each others presence. The Hindu Religion adopts the Code of Law of Manu, most anti-feminist literature that forbade womens religious rights and spiritual life. In Islamic society, sexual segregation pervades all aspects of life. Whereas, social scientists observe that women in Buddhist society enjoyed freedom from its very inception, and the Buddhist principles will be more relevant today.

Indian society, around the 5th century B.C, in which Buddhism developed, did not differ from that in other places, and women were accorded inferior position. The primordial principle in the Vedic-Upanishadic philosophy, which was dominant in the Buddhas time, was the male-principle, and this provided justification for the exclusion of women generally from social and spiritual activity (Silva, 1994). Many other religions accord different positions to men than women, but the part played by women in the early history of Buddhism, notably during Buddhas own time, could be considered as an indicator of the place accorded to women in Buddhism. The attitude of Buddha to the role of women was an enlightened one, as the Buddhist teaching is referred to as the one that could lead all beings to liberation. What Buddha discovered was a universal law, which existed independently, where male or female can discover it by following the directions of the Buddha. The Buddhist doctrine of rebirth also asserts that gender can change over successive transmigrations, as the Dhamma for the most part ignores the sexual identity of persons. Thus, the spiritual ability of women to achieve Nirvana had been identified by Lord Buddha after considering womens spiritual and social status.

While reflecting on the issue related to the place accorded to women in Buddhism, it will be appropriate to consider Sanghamitta Day celebrated by Sri Lanka Buddhists. It marks the anniversary of the arrival of the Bhikkhuni (Nun) Sanghamitta, daughter of Emperor Asoka of ancient India, in Sri Lanka to establish the Buddhist Bhikkhuni Order. In the time of Lord, Buddha women had inferior status, yet he established the Bhikkhuni-Sangha, a female group, counterpart to the male Sangha. Though the Bhikkhuni order bought by Sanghamitta proved to be capable, it did not survive in Sri Lanka due to war-related disasters in the Indian subcontinent.

Along with the spiritual freedom of women, an inquiry into the social setup of Sri Lanka and the status of women will be helpful in understanding the influence of Buddhism on womens liberation. The comments made by many European observers, who had witnessed the plight of women in Europe and Hindu and Islamic societies of India during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, on the women of Sri Lanka show that women of Sri Lanka, predominantly Buddhist, enjoyed equal status than their counterparts hailing from another religious background. A better example of womens emancipation may be seen from the following accounts of Hugh Boyd, who came as an envoy to the Kandyan Court in 1782.

The Cingalese women exhibit a striking contrast to those of all other Oriental Nations in some of the most prominent and distinctive features of the character. Instead of that lazy apathy, insipid modesty, and sour austerity, which have characterized the sex throughout the Asiatic world, in every period of its history, in this island, they possess that active sensibility, winning bashfulness and amicable ease, for which the women of modern Europe are peculiarly famed. & The Cingalese neither keep their woman in confinement nor impose on them any humiliating restraints (Mrs. Dewaraja, 1981).

The social condition prevailing in the Sri Lankan island is obtained from the accounts of European navigators and colonizers. By linking circumstantial and historical evidence, we may construe that the liberal attitude towards women in Sri Lanka is a trend that has continued from the remote past. Thailand and Burma [Myanmar] also inherited similar social cultures, most probably with the Buddhist influence. According to Sir Charles Bell, British Political Representative in Tibet, Bhutan, and Sikkim, in 1928 women were not kept in seclusion, were accustomed to mix with the other sex throughout their lives, and the solid fact remains that in Buddhist countries women hold a remarkably good position. Burma, Ceylon and Tibet exhibit the same picture. (Mrs. Dewaraja, 1981).

It is also worth noting that unlike Christianity and Hinduism, marriage is not a sacrament in Buddhism. The Sigalovada Sutta by Buddha prescribes duties of husband and wife, and Sinhala laws are equally applicable and binding to both husband and wife. It is also worth noting that prior to European occupation, both sexes in Sri Lanka had equal facilities for divorce, and there was no religious barrier for remarriage of widows and divorcees. All early Buddhist literatures suggest that free mixing of the sexes, even between monks and nuns, and exchange of ideas was not prohibited. Perhaps, this free and liberal attitude certainly had its impact on the behaviour of both men and women in Buddhist societies.

In analysing the problem of male/female relationships and their consequent conflicts, it is found that biological difference, social value and conditions, and the spiritual and mental aspects are major contributors. As nature and social conditions are correlated, womens biological nature put them socially disadvantaged in every social activity. Because of the biological predestination, and they are easy targets of attack, it is more difficult for women than men to live a socially independent life. It may be seen that in most typically Buddhist countries, like Myanmar, Thailand, or Sri Lanka, social problems are far from being solved at present. However, we could conclude that the secular nature of the marriage contract, the facility of divorce, the right to remarry, the desegregation of the sexes, and above all, the right to inherit property have all contributed to the mitigation of women lot in Buddhist societies.

From the Buddhist point of view womens rights movement has to be looked from womens social and biological conditions realistically. If society is less violent womens status will be better and make their ascetic life easier. We still rely on dominance and aggression to solve problems, which ironically shows that humans have not made much progress in adopting virtuous means for pursuing their goals. Integrating the Buddhist value of not letting ourselves being dominated by emotions, and movement based on compassion for men should be crucial in womens rights movements to have a better life together.

References

Mrs. Dewaraja, L. S Dr. (1981).The Position of Women in Buddhism, Wheel Publication No. 280, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka. Web.

Silva, Swarna De. (1994).The Place of Women in Buddhism, DharmaWeb.org. Web.

Ekachai, Santisuda. (2001) Where women stand, Bhikku Prayudh Payutto. Bangkok Post: Thailand. Dharma Web.org. Web.

Introduction

Religion provides purpose and meaning, allowing its followers to navigate in a world full of uncertainty. This idea explains the seminal status of the worlds leading beliefs, as they possess well-established and documented descriptions of all key spheres of life. Among these aspects, the afterlife occupies a unique position due to the importance of the matter. Humanity has successfully addressed many fundamental questions through research and philosophy, but the afterlife remains a highly elusive subject. At the current stage of its development, society is unable to venture beyond the final points of life and acquire a complete understanding of what happens after death. Therefore, people rely on the descriptions of the afterlife documented in sacred texts and their historical interpretations. Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism are three inherently different religions that together amount to the vast majority of the global population. These frameworks of belief demonstrate varying presentation of the afterlife, and the differences comprise the very nature of existence beyond, as well as more minor details. The purpose of this paper is to compare the afterlife, as presented in Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism, through an examination of both primary and secondary sources.

Representation of Afterlife

Questions of the afterlife have also been with fascination by humanity on various levels. Naturally, spiritual studies devote a considerable degree of attention to the matter at hand. Throughout the history of mixed religion, the afterlife has been the central concept of interest for both leaders and followers. As a matter of fact, Georgiadou and Pnevmatikos write that even non-religious people favor the idea of continued existence beyond the physical understanding of life (159). Regardless of the specific religion, such beliefs help their followers find meaning and purpose by partially eliminating one of the most outstanding elements of uncertainty. In other words, afterlife representations highlight the primary role of religion as the beacon for people. Without concrete images of life after death, uncertainty would prevail, pushing many followers toward an existential crisis.

At the same time, the afterlife component of religion serves a distinct ethical function, as well. Most beliefs propose at least two possible types of life after death. The positive outcome is usually said to be attained by adhering to the moral framework of a corresponding religion (Cavallaro 2). Nevertheless, while the core principles of the next world may be common for most variations of faith, the worlds leading teachings demonstrate considerable difference on a more detailed level.

Christianity

As far as the matters of the afterlife are concerned, the Western cultural and academic spaces are dominated by the dogmas of Christianity. It appears important to note that several teachings exist within the framework of the Judeo-Christian faith. This paper focuses on the most popular interpretation based on the Catholic ideas of the afterlife. In this context, the next world in Christianity represents a classical dichotomy of the good and the harmful alternatives (Williamson 8). This division suggests that each person possesses an immortal soul that is sent to either realm of the afterlife upon death.

The positive outcome is represented by the Lords Paradise, in which faithful souls enjoy eternal peace and pleasure. This realm is described as the source of all life and holiness, and in Heaven, there will no longer be any curse; and the throne of God and of the Lamb will be in it (Rev. 22.1-3). The other option is represented by Hell, a place for the cowardly, the unbelieving, the vile, the murderers, the sexually immoral, those who practice magic arts, the idolaters and all liars who will be consigned to the fiery lake of burning sulfur (Rev. 21.8). The Scripture highlights this dichotomy as the central idea of the Christian afterlife. Then [sinners] will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life (Matt. 25.46). In other words, life on Earth puts a persons soul to an ultimate test, which will determine their fate after death. At the same time, the Christian afterlife primarily concerns abstract, philosophical entities of sin and rightfulness as the general mode of worship (Williamson 110). Thus, Christianity emphasizes the overall morality of a person rather than specific actions.

Buddhism

The concept of the afterlife retains its importance in Buddhist teachings while acquiring a different form of presentation. This religion is the source of the idea of karma, which is widely used across various settings today (Willard et al. 385). As Buddha said in Tripimaka, beings are owners of karmas, heirs of karmas, they have karmas as their progenitor, karmas as their kin, karmas as their homing-place (Majjhima Nikaya 135). Furthermore, the Pali Canon suggests that it is karmas that differentiate beings according to inferiority and superiority (Majjhima Nikaya 135). Karma represents a balance of the good and the bad, which is attained throughout a persons life.

Even the most minor actions can sway it, meaning that Buddhist teachings lay a strong emphasis on more minor details of human existence. Ultimately, as an individuals lifetime comes to an end, his or her karma decides the subsequent development. Buddhism relies on the idea of reincarnation, implying that being human is merely one step of the souls existence (Carr and Mahalingam 420). Accordingly, a positive balance of karma is associated with taking the form of a better, more sophisticated creature in the next life (Kachru 55). At the same time, as a soul continues its path along the cycle of lives and reincarnations, it may eventually reach the state of nirvana. At this point, a soul transcends the limits of existence and becomes one with the universe in eternal peaceful unity. This state is virtually unfathomable for the human mind, but it is presented as the ultimate living destination. In fact, the entire cycle of reincarnations serves to prepare a soul for reaching nirvana. Therefore, the Buddhist view of the afterlife is more practice-oriented, as it focuses on the combination of all actions during the lifetime, which determines the fate of a person.

Hinduism

The afterlife framework of Hinduism is highly reminiscent of the similar concepts exhibited by Buddhism. According to these teachings, each soul travels through the cycle of reincarnation called samsara (Frawley 127). The exact nature of reincarnation is debatable within the Hindu community. According to Frawley, some followers of this faith believe that rebirth occurs immediately upon the end of the previous life (128). At the same time, others speak in favor of the existence of other realms, in which a soul may pass some time before it is ready for the next life.

In addition, the concept of karma is equally central to the dogmas of Hinduism. As Buddhists do, the followers of Hinduism believe that the moral merit of a soul is built from the combination of either excellent or bad intentional actions. In fact, the component of intent is crucial in this context, as the change in karma requires an element of voluntary choice to act in a particular manner. You are what your deep, driving desire is. As your desire is, so is your will. As your will is, so is your deed. As your deed is, so is your destiny (Brihadaranyaka IV.4.5). Therefore, the ideas of Hinduism retain the emphasis on all practical decisions of a person.

Simultaneously, the cycle of rebirth and death in Hinduism is not eternal, either. While Buddhists eventually reach the state of nirvana, the followers of this religion attain moksha. At this stage, a soul becomes absorbed by Brahman, thus entering a new level of existence. In Hinduism, moksha is associated with infinity and the cosmos. It puts the cycle of rebirth to a complete end, symbolizing that a soul has been able to learn the sacred lessons of karma. Some interpretations suggest that the continuation of the reincarnation cycle resembles the Christian concept of Hell. Evidently, a new life eventually leads to a recent death, which is a painful experience feared even by Hindu gods (Frawley 130). Ultimately, accepting the values of the Hindu beliefs and following these moral principles leads to the eventual ascension.

Conclusion

Overall, the ideas surrounding the afterlife have been central to most religions of the world. They serve several important purposes, prompting the followers to adhere to specific moral principles while providing them with a higher purpose in life. Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism form the worlds most popular religions, which explains their interest in this context. Buddhism and Hinduism demonstrate similar perspectives on the matters of the afterlife, as they possess the concepts of a rebirth cycle leading to ultimate unity with the cosmos. However, Christianity takes a different approach, considering a persons life on Earth as the only one. Furthermore, Christian ideas of punishment and reward after death are more direct, as specific realms of Heaven and Hell represent them. Nevertheless, despite the variations in details, the underlying purpose of the afterlife philosophy remains similar for most religions.

References

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Translated by Swami Madhavananda. n. d. Web.

Carr, Brian and Indira Mahalingam. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. Routledge, 1997.

Frawley, David. What Is Hinduism? A Guide for the Global Mind. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018.

Georgiadou, Triantafyllia and Dimitris Pnevmatikos. An Exploration of Afterlife Beliefs in Religiously- and Secularly-Oriented Adults. Journal of Beliefs & Values, vol. 40, no. 2, 2019, pp. 159-171.

Kachru, Sonam. Death and Afterlife: The View from South Asian Buddhism. The Journal of Religion, vol. 101, no. 1, 2021, pp. 48-76.

Majjhima-Nik
ya. 2013. Web.

New American Standard Bible. The Lockman Foundation, 2020.

Willard, Alyana K. et al. Rewarding the Good and Punishing the Bad: The Role of Karma and Afterlife Beliefs in Shaping Moral Norms. Evolution and Human Behavior, vol. 41, no. 5, 2020, pp. 385-396.

Williamson, Paul R. Death and the Afterlife: Biblical Perspectives on Ultimate Questions. InterVarsity Press, 2018.

Karma presumably is among the primary associations with Buddhism; a non-professional individual, who does not have a complete understanding of the notion, quite probably will possess a generalized view of its meaning. In one respect, this shows the necessity of such a concept in peoples worldviews, as many appeal to it, although it is not integral to the philosophy with which they identify themselves. On the contrary, using the term beyond its original sociocultural context distorts its meaning and favors misunderstanding that rests on false interpretations. The paper seeks to investigate the actual Buddhist idea of karma and illustrate how the stereotype-based views contradict the initial methodology.

The Mechanism of Karma

The primary point to mention is that karma is not equivalent to the Christian concept of sin, although some use it in such meaning in their everyday speech. Particular definitions and formulations of sin may differ from one denomination within Christianity to another, but the cornerstone of each is opposing the rules and laws the God established (Shantha and Rykova 2018). Those, as the adepts believe, underlie life and bring harmony to it; therefore, breaking them has destroying consequences for the individual. In simple terms, the Christian sin is a misdeed that is a reason for punishment, which scheme has a quite apparent linear structure.

The methodologies that do not involve monotheism, meanwhile, offer a more complex view of cause-and-effect relationships that excludes the will of a single upper creature as a universal explanation. Although similar to sin, karma has several canonic interpretations, none of them presuppose the existence of the only acceptable way to think and act (Study Buddhism n.d.). Rather, the point is an autonomous [&] law that connects an action to its inevitable result with a causal sequence, which does not include any external intervention (Olivelle n.d., para. 4). Therefore, it is possible to state that the structure of karma relies on logic, not on the will of a transcendent divine entity. This makes it a more effective system for interacting with the material world in comparison with sin.

Nevertheless, the concepts of a good and a bad action exist in Buddhism, although the criteria for identifying certain behavior as such are quite different from those in Christianity. Specifically, the key nuance is whether the karma, which the action produces, is beneficial or not; the intention, furthermore, is not less important than the material manifestation is (Willard et al. 2020). Simply stated, the primary cause that leads to the effect is what the individual was willing to do, not solely what he or she actually did.

Another point that distinguishes karma from sin is the lack of any requirement for punishment. In the Christian paradigm, as mentioned, violating Gods laws calls for a penalty; those who have lived in such a system since birth may extrapolate it to Buddhism (Shantha and Rykova 2018). In fact, however, karma is no more than one action in response to the other; within this framework, one reaps what they have sown (Yew et al. 2021, 9). Buddhists consider this a fundamental law of nature, which works without any divine intervention and without serving as a sanction for disobedience.

For Whom Karma Is Produced

Considering the above, it is not quite reasonable to assume that karma can address only sinners. In fact, there is hardly any notion of this kind in Buddhism, as this philosophy does not presuppose any divine laws that would be possible to break (Shantha and Rykova 2018). Instead, its adepts regard a certain action as improper in case it is either unwholesome or unskillful (Lesley 2019, para. 1). The need for behaving exclusively in productive ways, in one respect, may be considered the norm that people violate. This makes Buddhism similar to the majority of religions since their main function is guidance, in other words, producing recommendations to follow (White et al. 2019; White and Norenzayan 2021). Along with this, the specialty of karma is its form of a non-agentic force that has no individual source; this is the reason for not mixing Buddhism with theistic religions.

The nuance that karma is not associated with anybodys personal will allows assuming that it works identically on everyone who acts. In fact, it is possible to regard this idea as a culture-specific interpretation of Newtons third law, which tells that every action causes a reaction (Subudhi 2021). The latter depends on particular circumstances, which complicates the paradigm, but the general principle that underlies it remains unchanged.

Another concept with which karma is comparable, although not identical to it, is the so-called golden rule of morality. Notwithstanding its quite subjective and subsequently paradoxical character, this fundamental ethical postulate also addresses everyone (Mahrik 2018). Avoiding treating other people the ways the given individual is unwilling to experience himself or herself actually is not the essence of karma; rather, the logical consequence of understanding how it works. In the simplest terms, counter-productive behavior can have destroying results, which determines the need for minimizing it. The main difference is that karma covers not solely interpersonal relations but any actions in any sphere where human beings perform.

Karma and Rebirth

The point where Buddhism and Christianity agree is that the action of a person affects not exclusively his or her current life on earth. The similarity is partial, however, because, as mentioned, Buddhism has no fully formed practice of punishing for sins. Instead, it operates the concept of samsara, which stands for the continuous cycle of reincarnations (Ivankovic 2020). Karma plays one of the most critical roles in this process; accumulated throughout the past lives, it determines the background with which a creature comes to the world. This burden, in turn, is the cause of the recurring problems, dissatisfaction, and non-freedom of which life consists (Wongsangkul et al. 2020, p. 38). Simply stated, the persons behavior not simply has consequences within one life but makes him or her captivated in the wheel of deaths and rebirths.

The only way to escape from the cycle, according to the adherents of Buddhism, is enlightenment. It helps to reach nirvana, the special state in which desire, hatred, and ignorance cease (Lopez n.d.). These three are considered the factors that determine negative intention, which, in turn, actually is the driving force of negative karma, as said above (Shantha and Rykova 2018). Consequently, overcoming those emotions enables leaving the samsara since the root cause of constant rebirthing disappears.

There are eight basic areas where a Buddhist has to reorganize his or her mind and life for enlightenment. The right intention, which means no desire to cause evil, is only one essential point; furthermore, apparently the primary step. The next are speech as well as action, none of which should ever hurt other people, and resisting all forms of evil (St Ivo Academy, n.d.). Along with respect towards life, control over the thoughts, meditation, and knowing the truth, this can help accumulate positive karma and subsequently end suffering, which, in Buddhism, accompanies living on earth by definition.

The above points, which make the so-called eightfold path, may seem to be quite similar to the biblical Ten Commandments; this presumably is among the reasons for misunderstanding Buddhism. Such a view is also false, however, as a non-theistic religion cannot dictate any will due to its different nature. Buddha, the founder, is not a ruler who instructs the adepts but simply an example to follow willingly (Shantha and Rykova 2018). Another essential difference is that responsibility for deciding which intentions, words, and actions are good lies on the adherents themselves, not on intermediaries like priests. This makes any extrapolations from Christianity to Buddhism even less relevant since the latter apparently has more respect towards free will.

To summarize, Western people, who grew up in Christian tradition, frequently misinterpret the basic concept of Buddhism, karma, trying to explain it in their usual terms of sin and punishment. In fact, meanwhile, karma is a universal law of life and nature, the force due to which every intention that determines action has its result. In case the actions are unwholesome, their consequences prevent the doer from enlightenment, making him or her reincarnate repeatedly and live further lives full of suffering; this is called samsara. Proper behavior that leads to enlightenment, on the contrary, enables breaking the chain.

References

Ivankovic, Milorad. 2020. Karma and Reincarnation. Authentic Unaltered Meanings of the Veda 6. ISSN (Online) 2683-5886. Web.

Lesley, Alison. 2019. Is There Sin in Buddhism? World Religion News, Web.

Lopez, Donald S. n.d. Nirvana. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web.

Mahrik, Tibor. 2018. The Golden Rule of Morality  An Ethical Paradox. Ethics & Bioethics 8(1): 5-13. Web.

Olivelle, Patrick. n.d. Karma. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web.

Shantha, Indunil Philip, and Svetlana Rykova. 2018. Karma and Sin: Foundation of Moral Philosophy in Therav
da Buddhism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research 89: 426-430. Web.

St Ivo Academy. n.d. Ethics: Term 3, Buddhism. Web.

Study Buddhism. n.d. The Mechanism of Karma. Web.

Subudhi, Satyabrata. 2021. Modification of Newtons Third Law: Every Action Has Time and Properties Dependent Reaction. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology 8(10): 77-78. Web.

White, Cindel J. M., John Michael Kelly, Azim F. Shariff, and Ara Norenzayan. 2019. Supernatural Norm Enforcement: Thinking about Karma and God Reduces Selfishness among Believers. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 84, 103797. Web.

White, Cindel J. M., and Ara Norenzayan. 2021. Karma and God: Convergent and Divergent Mental Representations of Supernatural Norm Enforcement. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality: advance online publication. Web.

Willard, Aiyana K., Adam Baimel, Hugh Turpin, Jonathan Jong, and Harvey Whitehouse. 2020. Rewarding the Good and Punishing the Bad: The Role of Karma and Afterlife Beliefs in Shaping Moral Norms. Evolution and Human Behavior 41(5): 385-396. Web.

Wongsangkul, Usa, Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, and Sanu Mahatthanadull. 2021. Rebirth in Therav
da Buddhism and Dr. Ian Stevensons Research Study. The Journal of International Buddhist Studies College 7(1): 37-53. ISSN: 2465-5546. Web.

Yew, Wong Chin, Abd Hair Awang, Sivapalan Selvadurai, Mansor Mohd Noor, and Peng Kee Chang. 2021. A Comparative Study of Islam and Buddhism: A Multicultural Society Perspective. Religions 12, 1098. Web.

Today, it is normal to see people choosing different religions and following specific beliefs as an integral part of their lives. There are usually no restrictions related to the decision on what religion to practice, but understanding the historical backgrounds, morals, and metaphysical views remains critical. This essay compares Hinduism and Buddhism and reveals what religion could be defined more as an ideology. Hinduism is one of the oldest and largest religions globally, but not much credible information on its foundation is available. Buddhism shares some common characteristics with Hinduism because it is one of its offshoots. Both religions were rooted in India, but compared to Buddhists who follow the teachings of Gautama Buddha, Hindus address the writings created during many centuries. Despite similar attitudes toward the cycle of birth, the concepts of karma and dharma, and the worth of meditation and yoga, Buddhism and Hinduism differ in their foundations, focuses, and other religious characteristics.

One of the main differences between Hinduism and Buddhism lies in their foundation processes. As one of the first world religions, Hinduism or Brahmanism history deserves attention and recognition. There is no particular date or year when this religion appeared, and it is impossible to say who was its founder or author of the major books Vedas. Most historians and scholars use the period between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C. for its development (qtd. in Kumar and Yao 23). Hindus rejected the necessity to identify dates or names because they believe that Hinduism is a timeless faith that has always existed. When the first Indo-Aryan people migrated to modern-day Pakistan (the Indus Valley), they had to share their language and culture with the local civilization (Kumar and Yao 23). Thus, it is hard to define Hinduism as a single religion but as a combination of thousands of religious groups whose traditions and beliefs were transcribed in the Vedas from 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. (Kumar and Yao 23). Old and new concepts, rituals, and lifestyles were defined in four Vedas, namely the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda.

Talking about the dates of the Buddhist foundation, the researchers give more specific dates and names. In the 6th century B.C., Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha, proposed a new doctrine turning into a meaningful religious movement by his followers after his death (Coomaraswamy 45). Gautama came from a wealthy family but gave up all his riches and chose poverty to liberate his soul from suffering. His reformation aimed not to introduce a new order but to restore the already known beliefs and achieve enlightenment.

Hinduism and Buddhism are similar in terms of their Indian origins and in understanding the concepts of samsara, karma, and dharma. For example, in both religions, the teachings should penetrate the Eternal Law or dharma and follow a universal truth that has been stored as the major morale for centuries (Coomaraswamy 45). Hindus and Buddhists were also ruled by the doctrines of samsara, which represented a continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation, and karma or the cause-effect law (Kumar and Yao 27). Being differently practiced, yoga and meditation were the preferred physical and mental disciplines and skills that worked for social order (Coomaraswamy 26). Rituals in Buddhism and Hinduism were based on mantras, but the latter used them to worship gods with sacrifices and chanting, while the former facilitated their concentration with no violence or obligation.

The differences between the religions can be traced in their readings. Hindus underlined the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice, proving the beliefs in God and the caste system (Rig Veda line 1). In Buddhism, vice versa, castes were forbidden, and no beliefs in gods were appreciated. Regarding the rules that require expiation or Pâkittiya, speaking disrespectfully is wrong, or being angry or displeased with another Bhikkhu is not allowed (Vinaya Texts 34). Not directly, but these regulations promote equality, compassion, wisdom, and awareness but remove any metaphysical views. There is no need for Buddhists to explain the origin of human existence but address the current experiences and cyclic processes. Hindus use absolute monism to support the connection with the Lord, their spiritual thirsting, and intense devotion (Kumar and Yao 26). Soul liberation is a strong belief in both religions, but its achievement depends on the chosen means, rituals, and practices.

Considering the offered findings, definitions, and comparisons of Buddhism and Hinduism, it is also important to understand the difference between an ideology and a religion. Religions usually refer to God or several gods, while ideologies are based on the chosen truths and realities. Thus, it is correct to say that Buddhism should be defined more as an ideology than religion because Buddhists reject the presence of any god in their lives. At the same time, any religion includes a particular source of authority, usually divine and powerful. In Hinduism, one God, Brahman, is recognized, while in Buddhism, no metaphysical values of existences are followed. Therefore, Hinduism is more a religion than an ideology, and I relate my spiritual and moral outlooks to this faith where God motivates, supports, and never directly interferes with human life.

The differences and similarities between Buddhism and Hinduism do not reveal their weaknesses or strengths but prove how diverse and critical human beliefs can be. These religions are old, and their origins are not always easy to trace, but their impact remains significant for modern people, ideologies, and theological studies. Rituals, morals, and metaphysical views may vary, but the essence of life, death, and reincarnation unites Hindus and Buddhists and make them physically and spiritually strong.

Works Cited

Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. Hinduism and Buddhism. Independent Publishing, 2019.

Kumar, Rajeev Ranjan, and Hefang Yao. Hinduism and Decline in Brahman Population in India: A Review. Journal of Indian Research, vol. 7, no. 3, 2019, pp. 22-39.

Vinaya Texts. Translated by T. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 1990.

Rig Veda. Translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith, 1896. Sacred Texts, Web.

Buddhism is an Indian-originated religion with complex beliefs and teachings taught by Buddha after wandering around searching for understanding. Buddha spent time learning the basic teachings of the Four Noble Truths, dealing with human suffering, which he had fully understood. Buddha spent the remaining bit of his life teaching elementary doctrines of Buddhism, which led to the worldly spread of the religion.

The first Noble Truth is suffering. There are many forms of suffering encountered by human beings in physical form or mental nature. Human beings are subject to unlimited desires and goals in life, but the satisfaction is temporary; sickness, death, aging, unfulfilled wants are also considered suffering. The second Noble Truth is the origin of suffering. The root of suffering is desire and craving for certain things, such as material goods, delight, and pleasure. The urge to cease the pain brings suffering as any satisfaction is temporary in nature.

The third Noble Truth is the cessation of suffering. Buddha taught about the end of suffering in human lives on earth and spiritual life by achieving nirvana. Nirvana is a supernatural condition unbound out of suffering and patterns concerning birth, rebirth, and reaching enlightenment. The Fourth Noble Truth is the path to the end of suffering. Avoiding sensual pleasure and self-mortification leads to the end of suffering. Additionally, following the sequence and practicing principles of the Noble Eight Fold Path guides to the cessation of suffering. The principles include wisdom, ethical conduct, and meditation, which altogether may lead a devotee to enlightenment.

The desire to achieve specific goals gives a person the sense of direction in life and commitment to daily routines that may lead to long-term achievements. Additionally, desires motivate towards attaining a particular purpose which would lead to the feeling of fulfillment. Desires also help in minimization of procrastination of daily activities and speed up the attainment of long-term goals (Steel et al., 2018). Desire gives strong drive, therefore, helping in dealing with everyday setbacks in the journey to achieving the long-term goal.

Living a life where one does not have to make decisions based on personal desires would be better because of the elimination of many challenges. For example, failing to make the right decision on specific desires leads to frustrations, especially when there are any attachments. Some decisions may create anxiety and stressful situations when the outcome is unknown, causing suffering. Making decisions that work towards particular desires establishes a sense of responsibility and entitlement, leading to suffering as there is no free will.

Deciding to follow desires that are unending wants creates an unsatisfied living leading to suffering. When I was in high school, I desired to become a pilot. I worked towards achieving high grades. I was disappointed because my parents had chosen a different career path for me, and I did not have an option. Before the year began, I had set a goal to travel to other parts of the world, but with COVID-19 restrictions, I did not manage to visit all the places I had planned. I had anticipated happiness and fulfillment after achieving the set goal, which caused me to suffer due to frustration and disappointment.

Reference

Steel, P., Svartdal, F., Thundiyil, T., & Brothen, T. (2018). Examining procrastination across multiple goal stages: A longitudinal study of temporal motivation theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(9), 327. Web.