Four major kinds of rituals practiced in Confucianism
In Confucianism, rituals contain a very important mission, because they help to keep and unite all parts of the universe (Oxtoby & Amore 266-270). However, despite other religions, Confucianism does not have a strong range of rituals that people have to follow every day. Four major kinds of rituals practiced in Confucianism are four life stages: birth, reaching maturity, marriage, and death.
Birth as the first stage of human life is supported by rituals that have to protect the woman and her child. Mother has a special diet and other family members help her to be healthy. In the first, fourth, and twelfth months of child family members give presents for the child.
Reaching maturity includes such rituals as a group meal where a young adult has to prepare chicken.
Marriage includes several steps such as a proposal when the future couple has to exchange their dates, including date of birth, engagement, dowry, procession, marriage, and reception. Every special day has its own set of rules and rituals that should be followed to have a strong family.
Death is the last stage of life that supports by such rituals as mourning and crying to inform neighbors who bring money and incense. After the ceremony, family members prepare a special altar.
The teaching of no-self in Buddhism
The teaching of no-self is one of the key principles of Buddhism indicates that human existence is the illusion of permanent. Therefore, people should not be concentrated on their physical conditions and body which is only part of the human essence. For Buddhists, people have to be free, believing in reborn, reincarnation and do not get accustomed to various things around them. Man is not a separated creation; man exists only in cooperation with nature as the inseparable structure. Therefore, it is impossible to consider oneself as an independent structure that can exist without others. Nature changes and the world can move on without a particular person and any “I” cannot prevent it. For Buddhists, to be a part of nature physically and spiritually is the same as to be a part of an eternal universe. Everyone should be free of the concrete experience or attachment, comprehending that permanence of life and selfish desires do not have any reason.
Works Cited:
Oxtoby, Willard G., and R. C. Amore. World Religions: Eastern traditions. 3rd ed. 2010. Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press. Print.
In the Bhagavad Gita, three yogas, or paths to liberation (=to moksha), are outlined: jnana yoga, which liberates one via knowledge; karma yoga, which liberates one via actions; and bhakti yoga, which liberates one via devotion. (Raja yoga was created as a complementary practice by the Yoga School.)
Karma yoga means practicing disciplined action, acting in a karmically positive manner. The motives for such actions need to be deontological, that is, one should do these actions because they are right rather than to achieve certain goals.
Jnana yoga means achieving moksha through knowledge, which is achieved via study, usually under the supervision of a guru. The knowledge that needs to be achieved pertains to the awareness of the unity of atman (= one’s “real” self,) and brahman (=the absolute and impersonal reality). The study needs to include not only personal reflection but also philosophical scrutiny.
Thus, karma yoga is practiced via acting deontologically in a karmically positive manner, while jnana yoga is practiced via gaining knowledge and conducting reflection.
In Buddhism, nirvana (“quenching”) is the key aim of the path of a Buddhist, the cessation of dukkha (=suffering) via the riddance from its causes; nirvana also means the end of the samsara (=the endless circles of deaths and rebirths).
The four noble truths of Buddhism state that
there is suffering which is
caused by the desires but
can be get rid of via eliminating the causes of it through
following the madhyama pratipad (=the Middle Way).
Doing so allows one to eliminate the desires (passion, ignorance, and aversion), as well as one’s individuality, and, thus, to end the suffering. The state in which these desires are eliminated, or nirvana, is the state of the quietude of one’s heart; it transcends human comprehension. Nirvana means that one loses one individuality and breaks free of the samsara.
Thus, nirvana is the final aim of a Buddhist, the release from all suffering. Importantly, it is open to any human who practices Buddhism.
Holocaust is a significant challenge to Judaism because, according to Judaism, God actively participates in the history of humanity, and it is difficult to explain how He allowed for such a phenomenon as genocide of His chosen people.
According to Judaism,
only one God exists,
He is involved in history,
Israelites are His “chosen people,” with whom he made covenants.
Because of 1 and 2, it is possible that God “arranged” Holocaust (and no other supernatural force could have done so), or at least allowed it to happen, which is a challenge. This is especially strange considering that Israelites are his “chosen people.” Thus, it is unclear if God let the Holocaust happen, and if yes, then why; can a good God even allow let such things happen; did Israelites violate the terms of the contracts, or have they lost their status as the “chosen people”; and so on?
It is also unclear whether to interpret Holocaust as a punishment for Jews’ sins, or as an atonement for the sins of other peoples. It is also hard to tell whether Judaists should preserve their traditional views, or reject them in the light of this catastrophe.
Thus, the phenomenon of the Holocaust challenges the very basis of Judaism, according to which Israelites are the “chosen people”, the God is good, He intervenes in history, and should not have allowed for such a catastrophe to occur.
A “miracle” can be defined as a happening in which the laws of nature have been violated; thus, it cannot occur due to natural causes on their own and is inconsistent with and incomprehensible from the point of view of science. In Christianity, a miracle occurs as a result of an intervention of God or a certain supernatural agent. The examples of Christian miracles include the resurrection of Christ (the pivotal miracle), as well as the virgin birth of Jesus, certain actions done by Jesus, etc.
Numerous objections have been raised against the actual occurrence of miracles; one of the most prominent of them was offered by skepticist David Hume. It is hard to state that Hume claimed miracles could not occur; he questioned the rationality of believing in them based on testimony. In particular, he states that a law of nature is the regularity with no inclusions observed to it; thus, the evidence for a law of nature is extremely strong.
On the other hand, a miracle is a violation of the laws of nature; thus, all the experience of humanity contradicts the claim that a miracle occurred. Besides, a miracle, as a highly improbable occurrence, needs extremely strong evidence to confirm it; on the other hand, the testimony is rather weak if compared to the evidence which shows that a miracle cannot take place. Thus, Hume concludes that a belief in miracles is unreasonable.
Noteworthy, Hume’s argument is epistemological, but it is hard to object against the reality of miracles in principle. A miracle is by definition a violation of the laws of nature, so it cannot be objected to by referring to the laws of nature.
Therefore, a miracle can be defined as a violation of the laws of nature; in Christianity, it is believed to be caused by a divine or otherwise supernatural intervention. There are some arguments against the reality of miracles; Hume’s epistemological argument is one of the most well-known ones.
The five pillars of Islam are
shahadah or the confession of faith;
salat, or prayer;
zakat, or the obligatory tax in favor of the poor;
sawm, or fasting during the month of Ramadan,
hajj or a pilgrimage to Mecca.
The five pillars of Islam are believed to be obligatory by the adherents of the faith and thought to constitute the foundations of a Muslim’s life.
Shahadah. Every Muslim is required to state: “there is no god but God (=Allah), and Muhammad is his prophet”. It must be recited at least once in the life of a Muslim, but is, in fact, the most common act of an Islamic adherent, resembling a prayer.
Salat. Muslims are required to pray 5 times a day: in the dawn, midday, afternoon, evening, and night. A Muslim must face Kaaba (in Mecca) while praying.
Zakat. A Muslim is obliged to pay a special tax to help the poor; usually, it equals 2.5% of a Muslim’s capital and income per year.
Sawm. Muslims fast during the month of Ramadan, which occurs at various times of the year. Muslims are not allowed to drink, eat, smoke, or have intercourse during daylight time. Only after dusk, the prohibition is lifted.
Hajj. Hajj is a pilgrimage to Mecca, which an adult must carry out at least once in their lifetime if they are capable of doing so. It occurs during the month of Dhu al-Hijjah.
Thus, the five pillars of Islam are obligatory practices for any Muslim and are believed to form the basis of a Muslim’s life.
One of the key similarities between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam is that all of them (at least partially) use what is called the Bible by Christians. On the other hand, they use it to a different extent. Judaism only uses 24 books divided into 3 sections: Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketubim, together abbreviated as Tanakh. Christians utilize all these books, calling them (and some additional books, in some Christian groups) the Old Testament, and also use the New Testament. Finally, Muslims only use certain parts of the Bible, believing them to be a revelation from God, but believe that Bible is partially corrupted; the Quaran is regarded as the main book in Islam and is believed to have been dictated to Muhammad by God via Gabriel the angel. Interestingly, Muslims call Christians and Judaists “the people of the book”, and believe they still can be saved.
All the three religions are considered to be monotheistic. However, Judaism and Islam are strictly monotheistic, believing in one God. On the other hand, the Christian God is believed to be one and to be three simultaneously; the Trinity comprises the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The Christian God is “one essence”, but, at the same time, three persons.
All the three religions believe in messiahs and prophets, in the Judgment Day, in Paradise, and Hell. All the three religions have their Commandments, and their adherents practice fasting.
In Christianity, Jesus is the son of God. In Islam, he is *a* prophet. In Judaism, he is a false messiah.
In Islam and Judaism, it is obligatory to have several prayers during the day.
There are several dominant religions in the world. Christianity and Islam are considered some of the most numerous and well-represented around the world. They are very similar to one another in many ways, including religious teachings and the concept of One God. Buddhism, however, is different. It is a religion widely-spread in the Far East, particularly in India, China, Japan, and some portions of the Middle East. Buddhism has no specific god to worship, which differs it from other religions. Instead, Buddhism focuses on how to solve real-life problems. One of its defining traits is the absence of the concept of revenge. Buddhism is not about who stabbed you with the sword but about how to pull it out.
Buddhism is like a journey on a boat towards the shore. It provides the boat, but it is up to the person to sail. There are 2 major schools of Buddhism, called “The big boat” and “the small boat.” The Big Boat focuses on allowing others to accompany you on the journey to Nirvana, while the Small Boat only allows room for oneself. On the journey to Nirvana, traditions of donation of money and donation of the body are important, as charity is said to benefit those around you and make the journey easier.
When people die, they are brought to the mountains, where the body is given to the vultures. Without the spirit, the body is useless, so it is viewed as the last step of separating the spirit from the body.
Before Buddhism, Tibet had the religion of Bon. Similar rituals and symbols, different in history and religious authority. Buddhism has different wings. The Chinese, Indian, and Tibetan Buddhism. Chinese Buddhism is about Oa Chun – big boat. Sothern (Indian) – Show Chun (small boat). Tibetan Buddhism is very close to Bon – the religion it merged with during the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet.
In Bon, as it is in Tibetan Buddhism, there are three regions – evil, human, and divine. Human lies in between and is in this world to find its path between good and evil. Witchcraft is used to communicate. Bon and early Tibetan Buddhism have strong ties to witchcraft.
In Tibet, Buddhism and Bon competed with one another, being supported by different social groups. Royalty supported Buddhism, while rich and noble families – Bon. Eventually, Buddhism won. The two religions became incorporated into one another, with Buddhism taking some elements from Bon while disregarding those considered faulty.
Buddhist temples play an important part in preserving the legacy of Buddhism, its history, traditions, and beliefs. They are scattered all around the world, but the majority of the temples can be found in China, India, and Japan. Afghanistan holds one of the largest Buddha statues in the world. In Tibet, Buddhist temples are few and far between due to the scarcity of materials necessary for construction. It is the reason why the concept of “Temple within oneself” is so important for Tibetan Buddhists – as long as they have it, they can conduct the rituals and practice their faith whenever they go, with no need for walls and altars to justify the divinity of their experience.
These are the main points of the lecture about Buddhism that I attended. It was fairly informative, and the translator did a good job explaining to us the meaning of the lecturer’s words. However, I believe that having a foreign lecturer and a translator is not a very effective model. It takes twice the time to deliver the information. Instead, the foreign lecturer should have written his script on the paper, had it translated, and let someone else read it to us. It would have been much more efficient and informative.
Buddhism was established in India by one man on a journey to find enlightenment. His name was Siddhartha Gautama (Huston, 40). He was brought up in a wealthy family. One day, he was exposed to poverty outside his home and his life changed. He then began to find a solution to pain and anguish.
His teaching became popular, and he made disciples. Originally Buddhism commenced as a branch of Hinduism. However, the followers of this religion then turned their backs on the mother religion. The basis of Buddhism is found in the answers to two questions that Gautama attempted to answer. The answers were classified under in to the “Four Noble Truths” and the ‘Eightfold Path” (Huston, 40). This paper describes the fundamentals of Buddhism and how it later embraced other doctrines contrary to the original message.
Buddhism had various beliefs. The first principle Gautama believed was that pain was not part of the plan. His thought was that selfishness was the source of pain and suffering (Huston, 49). He taught that the solution could be found by training the human mind, soul and body to do right. If human beings would stop being greedy, then there would be no anguish or pain.
According to Buddha, understanding the cause of human pain was the first step to victory. This was followed by real intentions, right communication, selfless behavior, integrity, sincere efforts and focus (Huston, 52). These steps are described as the eightfold paths of Buddhism.
Although the answers to the questions posed by Gautama were precise, the followers held different views over three questions. These questions related to human independence, the intention of the universe and the finest part of the human body (Huston, 58). This division birthed out two branches Theravada and Mahayana (Huston 60).
Unity existed among the Theravada followers. On the other hand, Mahayana followers were once again divided amongst themselves. As a result, Tibetan and Zen Buddhism were established (Kärkkäinen, 103). Buddhism was spread to other parts of the world with different doctrines and beliefs.
Initially, there was not mention of a deity. Nevertheless, as the religion grew many people began to look at Gautama as a god and started worshiping him. Others believe there is no deity or a supreme power. Consequently, they hold no worship service or believe in redemption. In essence, reflection and understanding the four truths and the eight fold path is their goal in life.
This concept differs from Hinduism which believes in several gods concerning the different areas of their lives. Additionally, Hinduism supports the pursuit of objectives like wealth, happiness and Nirvana. In Buddhism, equality among all human beings is essential. However, the caste organization is forbidden. In contrast, Hinduism advocates for the caste structure and holds that women are inferior beings.
Currently, Buddhism is more prevalent in other nations in Asia except India where it was birthed. Even though its popularity has declined, there are several Buddhist doctrines or truths that have been adopted into Hinduism (Huston, 120). Most importantly is the elimination of the caste organization as a way of life.
Several Hinduism supporters have accepted that men are equal. Moreover, Hinduism has embraced some of the steps in the eightfold path such as tolerance, right effort, honest livelihood, selflessness and peace (Kärkkäinen, 171). These steps have enriched Hinduism and made it a more compassionate religion.
Buddhism began because one person desired a world full of happiness. Gautama lived his life wanting nothing but he still had sympathy when he saw the pain of a homeless person and an old man. He sacrificed his life to seek answers about the problems of life. He did not attempt to make himself a god, although he was later worshipped by his followers. His answers to pain have been embraced by other religions such as Hinduism.
Works Cited
Huston, Smith. The World’s Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1991.
Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti. An Introduction to the Theology of Religions: Biblical, Historical, and Contemporary Perspectives, Madison, WI: InterVarsity Press, 2003
The spread of Buddhism to China is a controversial topic that raises more than one issue about its diffusion, acceptance, and assimilation. Buddhism started to enter China during the Han dynasty, probably through the ancient Asian silk routes between the first century BCE and CE. The transmission of the Buddhist doctrine was not linear, and the reasons for its success are not always plain and predictable.
After providing a short framework of Buddhism in China, from its introduction to the communist take over in the twentieth century, this paper offers some insights on the spread and signification of the Buddhist teaching within the Chinese society. This paper will focus on how multicultural factors, including an initial misconceiving of the doctrine and ingenious translations of the Buddhist texts, contributed to making Buddhism one of the main Chinese religions.
Spread and Sinification of Buddhism in China
The coeval official Chinese historiography attempted to link the spread of Buddhism into the Han court through mythical and miraculous narratives. The most famous episode was the emperor Ming’s dream of a golden Buddha flying over his palace in 64 CE. However, the dream should not be taken literally, but framed in a broader context where both the Chinese rulers and the Buddhist élite tried to give legitimacy to a foreign doctrine (Sen, 2012). Zurcher (2007) highlights how the introduction of Buddhism into China became a favorite theme of apocryphal literature to enhance the prestige of the Buddhist monks. As will be discussed below, apocryphal texts became a powerful means to spread and adopt Buddhism to the Chinese environment.
One of the first reliable official documents dates back to 65 CE and testifies the presence of Buddhism in the area north of the Huai, in Eastern Henan, Southern Shandong, and Northern Jiangsu (Zurcher, 2007). The greatest flourishing of Buddhism took place during the T’ang dynasty (618-907), and it continued to thrive until the thirteenth century. When the Communists took over in the middle of the twentieth century, Buddhism was still the most significant religion in China (Gethin, 1998). The thriving of Chinese Buddhism over this long span cannot be studied without the understanding of the cultural environment of the early medieval Chinese society and of the factors and connections that influenced the spread of Buddhism.
While the document of 65 CE establishes a fixed point, it is plausible that Buddhist doctrines had already started to circulate in China at least one century before. The lack of material concerning the early spread of Buddhism into China and the appearance of a dignified form of Buddhism has suggested a series of factors that contributed to filtering the original Indian doctrine to adapt it to the Chinese society, to its common beliefs and thoughts.
The first aspect that affected the signification of Buddhism was linguistic: only a few foreigners had some knowledge of the Chinese language and, until the late fourth century, the Sanskrit was unknown to the Chinese (Zurcher, 2007). This linguistic gap had two main consequences of the diffusion and perception of Buddhism. Firstly, the translations were hardly understandable, with large use of Chinese terms that had already established philosophical meanings and non-Buddhist associations, therefore leading to a general misconception of the original doctrine.
Secondly, it implied a more or less conscious selection of the original material to those texts that were congruent with the existing Chinese ideas and were easy to be adapted. As a consequence, the canonical Indian Buddhist corpus was never translated into Chinese following a coherent plan, and the most important Chinese Buddhist collection of texts, the Tripitaka, was more a container for translations of sūtras, without any specific logic or chronology (Gethin, 1998).
Moreover, this scenario mirrored a total ignorance of the cultural milieu where Buddhism had originally thrived, even enhancing misconceptions and misunderstanding. For example, it was widely accepted that the Buddha was actually Laozi who happened to travel west to convert the Indians (Eno, 2008). Further consideration on the corpus of the Chinese Buddhist texts cannot fail to notice how the Tripitaka included many apocryphal texts which did not belong to the Indian tradition.
When Buddhism started to spread into China, the Mahāyāna canon was not yet fully developed. Hence, apocryphal works played a crucial role in molding the Buddhist ideas that spread into China (Sen, 2012). Translators, missionaries, and monks created an indigenous Buddhist doctrine, which contributed to disseminate Buddhism among people by framing it within the Chinese system of beliefs and even producing pilgrimage sites. One of the most important examples is the Treatise on the Mahāyāna Awakening, an indigenous Chinese work that had a huge influence on the development of Chinese Buddhism from several perspectives.
The text revolves around several essential concepts of Buddhism through an innovative approach that testifies how the Chinese doctrine was able to change its form and style to adapt to the new environment. Within this work, some of the most influential ideas include the ultimate reality (Zhen Ru), the two aspects in one mind (er Zhong me and Exin), and the Buddha bodies (fishery) (Aśvaghoṣa, 1967). Notably, it entails the intrinsic possibility for all beings to reach enlightenment (Tarocco, 2008).
Also, the Treatise, despite dating to the sixth century CE, was traditionally attributed to Ashvaghosha, an Indian Buddhist patriarch of the second century CE, while the translation from Sanskrit was accredited to Paramartha, another outstanding medieval Buddhist scholar: such a background made the text an autonomous and powerful spiritual reference point, able to influence society (Tarocco, 2008). However, the Chinese culture was dominated by Confucianism and Taoism, and the question of how Buddhism managed to become the third religion of the nation raises spontaneously.
When Buddhism began to spread across China, Confucianism was the main religion and regulated Chinese society through its complex system of rituals and canons. On the other hand, the new-Taoism resonated with some of the ideas and meditations typical of Buddhism (Gethin, 1998). Also, the Buddhist doctrine provided some philosophical justification to the status quo of the coeval society.
For example, through the concept of karma, Buddhism offered a theological argument to the rigid class distinction in medieval China (Zurcher, 2007). The periods of maximum spread of Buddhism coincided with particular historical moments where Confucianism was perceived as weak and inadequate to ensure stability in the society (Sen, 2012). In this context, Buddhism was flexible and able to start a dialogue with the other religions, while the spreading of texts, monks, and sacred pilgrimage sites constituted a solid popular basis.
Conclusion
Buddhism was introduced into China between the first centuries BCE and CE during the Han dynasty. Its early spread should be considered as a random series of episodes that followed the mercantile routes across Asia. The lack of knowledge of both the Sanskrit and the Indian environment where Buddhism had previously thrived led to ingenious translations of some of the Buddhist texts, without a solid organization.
However, the flourishing of apocryphal works created an indigenous corpus of signified Buddhist doctrine, while the proliferating of pilgrimage sites rooted the new religion into the Chinese fabric of the society. Finally, signification entailed the ability of Buddhism to start a dialogue with Confucianism and Taoism, even integrating some unresolved philosophical concepts.
References
Aśvaghoṣa (1967). The awakening of faith / attributed to Aśvaghosha; Translated, with commentary by Yoshito S. Hakeda. (Y. S. Hakeda, Trans.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. (Original work published 6th Century CE).
Eno, R. (2008). Buddhism and Buddhism in China. Web.
Gethin, R. (1998). The foundations of Buddhism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Sen, T. (2012). The spread of Buddhism to China: A re-examination of the Buddhist interactions between ancient India and China. China Report, 48(1-2), 11-27. Web.
Tarocco, F. (2008). Lost in translation? The treatise on the Mahayana wakening of faith and its modern readings. Bulletin of SOAS, 71(2), 323-343. Web.
Zurcher, E. (2007). The Buddhist conquest to China. The spread and adaptation of Buddhism in early medieval China (3rd ed.). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
Buddhism emerged in northeastern India at an unspecified time between the early 4th century and late 6th century. Intense religious activities and social change characterized this era. During the time of Buddha, this religious outfit differed significantly from Hinduism and other organized religions in terms of doctrines and way of life. Followers of this religion lived a solitary life of meditation in the wilderness only emerging from time to time to beg for food and clothing. However, this lifestyle has changed drastically over the last century. Currently, institutional and corporate characteristics define Buddhism and this change has occurred due to several factors. This paper discusses the different factors that may have contributed to this change in the organization of Buddhism in the contemporary world. Colonization of Buddhist countries by western powers and globalization are noted as the two major factors that have contributed to this change.
Buddhism in the Modern World
The 19th and 20th centuries brought challenges and opportunities for Buddhism, as a religious sect, which underlined the need for change from an amorphous and disorganized outfit to the formation of institutions of governance and organization. The first aspect was colonization by western powers and the associated cultural, economic, political, and religious influences (Turner et al. 76). Even Buddhist countries that avoided direct conquest were subject to external pressures from western religious ideologies. In addition, during this period, modern scientific and rationalistic modes of thinking emerged to shape notions of liberal socialism and democracy together with capitalism as a form of economic organization. These revolutionary elements were introduced to the life and thought processes of Buddhists in Asia. Moreover, with globalization, this religion spread quickly to the West whereby further developments took place to shape modern-day Buddhism as an organized institution. Buddhists responded to these challenges in different ways and ultimately the outfit became an organized entity like many religions of the world.
First, Buddhists sought to preserve their cultural and religious identities in the face of domination by western doctrines. Specifically, the spread of Christianity across Asia through missionary work posed an existential threat to Buddhism. Therefore, Buddhists responded by adopting some of the Christian practices including the establishment of places of worship, Sunday schools for children to be taught religious fundamentals, distribution of tracts, and formalizing days of worship (Turner et al 119). These early steps to counter the force of Christianity form the basis for the institutionalization of Buddhism. Officials also advanced the Buddhist cause by promoting missionary activities across Asia and later in the West. Such activities demanded the establishment of an organized structure to ensure success against the domineering western doctrines.
After globalization helped spread Buddhism to the West, new strategies were needed to advance this noble cause. Therefore, Buddhists adopted some of the Christian practices, especially in the United States. For instance, the word “church” was officially adopted into Buddhist with the formation of the Buddhist Churches of America under the US branch of Japanese Pure Land (Jōdo Shinshū) (Skilton 178). Consequently, designated places of worship (temples) were designed and built to accommodate believers similar to Protestant congregations. In 1891, the Moha Bodhi Society was formed adding to other numerous similar outfits to promote and coordinate cooperation among Buddhists across the country (Skilton 23). Other such organizations included the World Buddhist Sangha Council, which was formed in 1965, and the World Fellowship of Buddhists in 1950 (Skilton 104). Therefore, such societies needed a high level of organization to thrive and spread to other regions of the world, hence the institutionalization of Buddhism.
In addition, reforms were introduced to make Buddhism more appealing and competitive in a quickly changing modern world. For instance, leaders adopted a rationalized interpretation of the fundamental doctrines by deemphasizing the ritualized and supernatural aspects of the religion. The focus shifted to establishing continuity between modern science and Buddhism together with considering the centrality of morals and ethics. In China, the Buddhist reform movement arose during this time with the embrace of new scientific values, rationality, and progress (Ashiwa and Wank 222). At the time, Buddhism in China was associated with passivity and detached attitude, which were perceived as major causes of backwardness. Therefore, several renewal movements emerged across China to advance Buddhist education. Seminaries were formed to train Buddhist clergy as part of winning the war against proselytization and the threat of Christianity in the region (Ashiwa and Wank 222). Running these institutions required some level of organization, and thus Buddhism slowly became a corporate entity being witnessed in the modern world.
Engaged Buddhism also arose during this time to foster the implementation of socio-economic and political activities within the fundamental practices of this religion. This aspect was a departure from the pre-modern way of thinking that emphasized ritualized and supernormal aspects of Buddhism. In addition, socially active followers sought to infuse Buddhism teachings as the founding concept of modern democratic societies. At this level, the organizational foundations of this religion had to change to accommodate all the divergent views and fit into the dynamic globalized society. Buddhist institutions and organizations became a necessity.
Another widespread factor that led to drastic changes was the emergence of charismatic leaders and their associated popular movements within Buddhism. For instance, in Thailand, the Dhammakaya group emerged in the early 20th century under the leadership of Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro (Dubus 41). This group commands a huge following with commercialized sectarian interests. According to Dubus, Dhammakaya “is an attempt to adapt Buddhism to contemporary Thailand, by blending religious teachings and the consumerist ideology that has engulfed the kingdom in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries” (41). The group is also highly hierarchical, and such patterns could not be achieved without institutionalizing Buddhism. Dhammakaya is one of many Buddhist charismatic movements that exist in the contemporary world. Most of these groups promise the immediate attainment of nirvana and prompt financial and business success by observing certain rituals of donation. Consequently, the proliferation of such movements has necessitated the structured nature of Buddhism to give it the current corporate characteristics.
Conclusion
When Buddhism started under the guidance of Buddha, its main characteristic was a life of solitude with divine seekers living in the wilderness to meditate. However, the colonization and globalization phases of the 19th and 20th centuries forced Buddhists to change their way of thinking and adopt a modernistic approach towards religion. Christianity threatened to decimate Buddhism and thus leaders strategized by forming organizations to counter such threats. Temples were created and seminary schools were established to train clergy for the spread of Buddhism around the world, specifically in the West. Such objectives could only be achieved through organized Buddhist institutions as being witnessed in the world today. The emergence of charismatic movements within the religion also facilitated the institutionalization of Buddhism to give it the current corporate features of a formally organized religious outfit.
Works Cited
Ashiwa, Yoshiko, and David Wank. “The Globalization of Chinese Buddhism: Clergy and Devotee Networks in the Twentieth Century.” International Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 2, no. 2, 2005, pp. 217-237.
Dubus, Arnaud. Buddhism and Politics in Thailand. Research Institute of Contemporary Southeast Asia, 2017.
Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. Windhorse Publications, 1994.
Turner, Alicia, et al. Saving Buddhism: The Impermanence of Religion in Colonial Burma (Southeast Asia: Politics, Meaning, and Memory). University of Hawaii Press, 2017.
Japan is a civilization with many unique cultural and religious aspects which has dictated its people’s behavior for many centuries. Unlike in different European and American nations, the citizens of this country uphold unique ideas informed by the concepts of Buddhism and Shintoism. Analyzing the nature of these attributes and insights can make it easier for many scholars and historians to learn more about this region’s belief system. The purpose of this research paper is to give a detailed description of these three major Japanese religions: Buddhism, Shintoism, and Daoism.
Background Information
For hundreds of years, the selected society has followed a unique belief system characterized by different ideologies and faiths. The most unusual observation is that followers of such religions do not contradict or challenge each other. Instead, they coexist and focus on concepts that can support their goals and expectations in life. Before the end of the Second World War, the leading religions in Japan supported the notion of powerful emperors (Hardcare 22). These leaders were seen as gods, respected, and even followed. The end of this global upheaval triggered a new model whereby many citizens began to separate issues of faith from those of existence. However, they continued to follow or support various rituals, practices, and ideas that had defined their culture for several centuries.
Today, the idea of religion in Japanese society exists as a mish-mash of ideologies and teachings from Buddhism and Shintoism. Another pertinent observation in this country is that worship is not organized as is the case in the West. This means that people treat religion as a source of inspiration and guidance that dictate the way they should pursue their goals in life (Hardcare 29). It is a moral code that forms the integral aspects of the people’s cultural and social values.
Ellwood goes further to reveal that Japanese religion remains a family or personal affair that lacks the influence of the state or community leaders (15). Many people do not claim to be religious or worship frequently. The major practices of spiritual ideas tend to occur during rituals, such as the ones for death, birth, and marriage. Such ceremonies are known as matsuri and take place throughout the year.
Religious Beliefs
After many centuries of cultural influence and transformation, several traditions and practices form an integral part of the Japanese religion today. Some of the leading faiths or belief systems include Shintoism, Daoism, and Buddhism. Confucianism is also a religion commonly found throughout Japanese society which has many followers all across the country. New religions that arose from the 19th century are becoming a common feature of life in Japanese society (Ellwood 11). The discussion below gives a detailed analysis of the leading belief systems in this country.
Shintoism
This remains a common religion in Japan since it is associated with the history, origin, and nature of all Japanese people. This aspect explains why many researchers and historians examine it as the country’s indigenous spirituality (Hardcare 17).
According to followers of this faith, all-natural and living things have some form of god or kami. These include animals, water, flowers, and trees. This kind of thought explains why the leading principles of Shinto are identifiable in every aspect of Japanese culture. For example, the Japanese consider the naturalness or order of things to the designing of their buildings and gardens (Ellwood 34). The annual celebration called sakura depicts the blossoming nature of flowers and plants.
The Japanese believe that Shintoism is what guides human beings to focus on the spirituality of life and that of the natural world. This religion encourages many people to celebrate marriage and birth (Ellwood 17). They also use its principles and teachings to engage in prayers whenever expecting good harvest seasons. Religion is associated with shrines that tend to have huge gates known as torii (Hardcare 51). Such places of worship usually have water troughs or fountains to symbolize life.
Historians acknowledge that the nature and originality of Shintoism explain why there are no sacred texts. This is true since it emerged from the people’s rituals and ideologies and has been inherited from one generation to the next.
The founders of this religion focused on the nature of the seasons and how people are connected to this (Baffelli 59). They went further to combine such notions with harvests, tree planting practices, offerings, and birth ceremonies. Members of the community engaged in all rituals in an attempt to transform their relationships with the kami (Hardcare 83). Even though many people considered the ideology of Shinto to legitimize the country’s involvement in the Second World War, it has always been a religion of communities, agriculture, and nature.
Buddhism
The ideologies and concepts of Buddhism became common in Japan around the 6th century. This religion is believed to have originated from India whereby its followers focused on the best approaches to get rid of suffering (Ellwood 20). According to the teachings of Buddha, all people at some point become sick or weak and eventually die. With this kind of understanding, religion explains how the idea of rebirth is possible.
Those who want to expel pain should, therefore, pursue a journey to a new form of reality or understanding. This achievement is usually known as nirvana (Baffelli 81). The religion indicated that all human beings and things on earth existed in an interdependent network. This meant that all people were required to pursue a new form of thinking and ignore the problem of self-centeredness. Such a practice would guide them to embrace the concepts of Buddhist morality, wisdom, and meditation.
By the 8th century, Japanese society managed to appreciate the teachings and ideas of Buddhism. The establishment of Nara city encouraged the Japanese court to take the idea of Buddhism seriously. During this time, many scholars supported the creation of different Buddhist sects, thereby fostering a strong foundation for this religion. Over the years, new ideologies and branches of Buddhism continued to emerge, including Mahayana, Zen, Nichiren, and Pure Land (Dessi 48).
Today, this religion has leaders, priests, and monks who guide their followers to meditate and achieve nirvana. Around 90 million citizens in this country consider themselves Buddhists and follow its ideology (Baffelli 102). This belief system does not influence or affect the life of its followers strongly. However, funerals are usually informed by the ideology and concepts of this faith. Many people also have altars or visit temples to pay respect or honor their ancestors.
Daoism
Another religion many Japanese follow is that of Daoism. Having originated from China, this belief system inspires and guides people to engage in shamanistic practices. This means that believers focus on high states of consciousness in an attempt to interact with their gods and introduce the acquired ideas to the world (Dessi 29). This approach is what makes Daoism a superstitious religious practice. There are specific rituals that followers of this system take into consideration, such as uchi-soto and setsubun. Believers chant and repeat different phrases depending on the intended goals or outcomes.
Daoists engage in practices whereby they call upon ogamiyasan. These forms of consultation are essential to ensure that activities are completed efficiently or successfully, such as house construction. Followers of this religion also embrace the idea of fortune-telling or Tengenjutsu and are usually aware of the best actions or activities to consider. After the establishment of this religion, a practice called Shegundo was developed (Ellwood 57). This is a form of worship whereby followers visit mountains and engage in shamanistic practices. This religious model has also influenced different aspects of Shintoism, including Ise (Dessi 98). Daoists are also known to stay awake during the night and the day to perform specific rituals to achieve their objectives in life.
Conclusion
The above discussion has identified and described the nature of religious worship and practice in Japan. It has analyzed the three major belief systems that people in this country associate with. It is also evident that the aspects, norms, and concepts of the three religions appear to converge. Nonetheless, each ideology has continued to exist without affecting the survival or effectiveness of the other while guiding people to achieve their spiritual goals.
Works Cited
Baffelli, Erica. Media and New Religions in Japan. Routledge, 2016.
Dessi, Ugo. The Global Repositioning of Japanese Religions: An Integrated Approach. Routledge, 2017.
Ellwood, Robert. Introducing Japanese Religion. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2016.
Hardcare, Helen. Shinto: A History. Oxford University Press, 2017.
Buddhism originated in the middle of the first millennium BC in northern India as an opposition to the religion of Brahmanism that dominated in those days. In the middle of the VI century, Indian society was in the midst of a socioeconomic and cultural crisis (Hawkins 18). The clan organization and traditional ties disintegrated, and the formation of class relations took place. At this time, in India, there was a large number of roving ascetics, who offered their vision of the world. Their opposition to the existing order evoked the sympathy of people. Among the teachings of this kind was Buddhism, which gained the most significant influence in society. Within the framework of this paper, key factors that contributed to Buddhism taking on institutional and corporate characteristics will be discussed. This paper will outline the factors that have contributed to institutional and corporate changes in Buddhism and discuss its implications in the contemporary world.
In the modern era of globalization, Buddhism has begun to actively go beyond its former local historical and national geographical borders, encompassing all new cultural areas. Today, Buddhism is no longer a purely eastern religion. Hundreds of organizations and centers of Buddhism operate in forty-five countries in Europe, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand (Cooper and James 33). The most Buddhist country in the West is now Germany, where since the 1920s, more than 200 Buddhist organizations have appeared; in Germany and France, Buddhism has already become the third largest denomination (Cooper and James 34). There is a European Buddhist Union, which regularly holds its congresses in European capitals.
In this regard, attention is drawn to the analysis of the following fundamental values of Buddhism, which attract people who are not native Buddhists born in India. Indeed, in present days, Buddhism is tightly connected with specific institutional and corporate characteristics that are intrinsic to the modern world, and some critical factors have contributed to this change. The first factor is the presence in Buddhism of a developed system of psychology. From the very beginning of the emergence of scientific Buddhism, this religion has been evaluated not so much as a religion, but as a type of spiritual therapy. Interest in Buddhist psychology as a method of changing human’s psychological qualities and solving personal psychological problems remains one of the main reasons for the spread of Buddhism in Western Europe and the United States (Lopez 55). Many people there are looking for balance in life, temporary peace, avoiding severe problems and troubles. Recently, one can observe a significant increase in interest in Buddhism as a system that gives practical results already in contemporary life.
Buddhism attracts its followers by the pure practicality of its psychology, which allows solving real everyday problems associated with the high psychological tension of modern life. The fidelity of this statement is illustrated by the fact that in the West, there is a spread of Buddhist practices of the Annuttara Yoga Tantra, that is, the psychology that gives quick practical results in the management of one’s psyche (Lopez 56). People are also interested in Buddhism as part of psychological training in various types of oriental martial arts. Although this is not entirely true in terms of prioritization, most of the people who came to Buddhism based on this motivation engage in Buddhist practices quite profoundly and seriously.
The second factor is the rationality of Buddhism and its proximity to modern science. This means that Buddhism does not offer its followers to perceive anything simply based on faith. The criterion of truth is practical experience in its broad sense. Such a category as faith is absent among spiritual perfections and the eight steps of the Buddhist Path. In addition, many concepts of modern science find parallels in Buddhist thought. For example, Siderits, in search of worldview guidelines, found that modern physics does not fit into the traditional Western worldview and suggests looking for worldview foundations on the way of rapprochement with the East, in particular with the Buddhist, worldview (77). He claims that the worldview of modern physics reveals so many similarities with eastern philosophy that these two areas cease to contradict each other, both in general philosophical terms and in particular issues of the matter.
In addition, several new areas of modern science not only do not contradict Buddhist provisions regarding the nature of being and human psychology but even have their foundations in them. Buddhism falls into the circle of integral research in the field of philosophy, medicine, ecology, physics, transpersonal psychology, and others. Thus, in particular, the famous scientist and thinker Ken Wilber, who develops a general theory and methodology of cognition on new integral principles, with all the obviousness draws inspiration from Buddhist traditions (Siderits 78). For example, his definition of integrality as the radiant clarity of enduring awareness is very similar to the description of the nature of the mind of modern Buddhist masters.
The third factor includes tolerance and principles of dialogue with other faiths. Like any other education in life, religion is woven from many contradictions that serve as the causes of clashes of its various forms, often leading to acute or even military conflicts. The peculiarity of almost all monotheistic religions is that they were affirmed in a fierce struggle with previous religions. This historical fact left a deep mark on the religious consciousness of all people (Albahari 42). Buddhism, even when it originated, was distinguished by tolerance, rare for the ascendant religions; therefore, the history of Buddhism is not connected with wars against other religions.
Buddhism allows Christians or Jews, without breaking the law of their religions, to practice the teachings of the Buddha. Therefore, for example, the famous Buddhist mentor from the USA, Sylvia Burstein, at the same time, considers herself an Orthodox Jew (Albahari 42). In China, depending on the nature of the religious mood or current need, the believer can turn to Confucius, and then to the practice of Taoism or Buddhism. Shintoism and Buddhism coexist peacefully in Japanese religious consciousness. Tolerance of Buddhism undoubtedly contributes to its attractiveness in the modern world. That is why Buddhism, contrary to official statistics, is sometimes considered the most widespread world religion.
Overall, the factors that have contributed to the changes in Buddhism are tightly connected with its implications in the contemporary world. The spirit of self-realization and the value of individual freedoms are harmoniously in tune with the current cultivated values of global liberalization in the form of human rights, ideas of the market economy, and modernism. Thus, Buddhist ideas are primarily consistent with the ideals of modern democracy. Humanism, tolerance, and high ethical standards of Buddhist culture suggest the possibility of putting into practice fundamental civil rights. At the same time, the Buddhist position is characterized by the perception of citizenship and civic consciousness through the prism of altruistic love, compassion, and universal responsibility, rather than personal initiative stimulated by the opening up opportunities for social self-realization.
Works Cited
Albahari, Miri. Analytical Buddhism: The Two-Tiered Illusion of Self. Springer, 2016.
Cooper, David E., and Simon P. James. Buddhism, Virtue and Environment. 1st ed., Routledge, 2017.
Hawkins, Bradley K. Introduction to Asian Religions. Pearson & Longman, 2003.
Lopez Jr, Donald S. Prisoners of Shangri-la: Tibetan Buddhism and the West. 2nd ed., University of Chicago Press, 2018.
Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as Philosophy: An Introduction. Routledge, 2017.
Taiwan is one of the states in East Asia that practice Buddhism. It borders Japan, the Philippines, and the People’s Republic of China. Around 35 percent of its population believes in Buddhism. This means that this religion is one of commonest in this state. Some of the sects in this nation include Mahayana Buddhism and the local practices informed by Taoism culture and tradition. Unlike in other countries, the original Taiwanese Buddhism developed in such a way that it promoted a practice known as vegetarianism.
This religion has also become diverse since there are specific followers or believers who pursue specific faiths that are unique to this region, such as Yiguandao. Many people have appreciated modern values that have the potential to support the integrity of the natural environment, promote freedom and equality, and address their common problems. The purpose of this paper is to give a detailed history of Buddhism in Taiwan. It goes further to discuss and analyse the nature of this religion in modern-day Taiwan.
History of Buddhism
The origin and development of Buddhism is attributed to the life experiences and achievements of the Buddha. According to many historians, the Buddha was an Indian by the name Siddhārtha Gautama. He undertook a journey that would eventually result in enlightenment or nirvana. Over the years, many scholars and philosophers have translated and studied the teachings of the Buddha, thereby giving rise to different religious beliefs, practices, and ways of attaining nirvana.
Although this form of worship emerged in India around the 5th century BCE, the first ideas of Buddhism were recorded in Taiwan in the early 1600.1 The Dutch colonialists and settlers from China presented the teachings of the Buddha to the people. However, the Dutch government in Taiwan during the time was keen to disallow any form of idol worship.
The outcome was that the people were unable to exercise or follow the teachings of Buddhism. It was in the last half of the 17th century when the first temple was constructed in Taiwan.2 During the time, the number of Buddhist priests and monks increased significantly despite the fact that they were only allowed to perform during specific functions, such as funerals. The Dutch colonialists were also keen to flog and even banish those who were caught practicing any form of idol practice. After the end of this era, a new wave of ideas and practices emerged in China. The number of monks originating from different Chinese provinces to Taiwan increased significantly. These religious leaders presented new ideas and concepts that created new opportunities for the foundation of Buddhism in Taiwan.
A few years to the end of the 19th century, Buddhism remained an unfavorable or weak in Taiwan.3 Many historians believe that this region remained untamed and continued to experience numerous challenges, such as natural disasters, plagues, and untapped opportunities. During the Qing dynasty, the government of the time failed to put the needs of the people into consideration. Many people continued to languish in poverty, thereby creating ideal conditions for launching a revolution.4
With such conditions, the citizens of Taiwan began to oppose different ways of being religious in Buddhism, such as meditation. Instead, they decided to design new temples intended for these purposes: local community building, divine protection, and trade-guild association.5 These situations discouraged monks from guiding laypeople in different parts of Taiwan. With such issues and developments, a lay form of Buddhism emerged that many scholars and religious historians have continued to ignore. This was attributed to the works of different monks during the Qing dynasty. Followers of this religion promoted the concept vegetarianism.6
Without proper or established Buddhist doctrines, ideas, or scriptures, temples became the best places for pursuing political ambitions and cultural rituals. Such practices were considered as an effective way to oppose the teachings and views of these foreigners.
From 1895 to 1945, Taiwan was colonized or ruled by the Japanese.7 The ideals of Japanese Buddhism began to emerge in this state. However, the colonial powers witnessed a scenario whereby many people continued to focus on the lay form of Buddhism that had existed during the Qing dynasty. Some of the teachings that different Japanese monks presented during this period were Tendai and Shingon. The Japanese managed to construct and support three major temples in Taiwan. These included Tainan in the South, Miaoli, and Keelung in the North. The founders of such temples were Chueh-li and Shan-hui.8
Despite the efforts to start a new form of Buddhism that resonated with the one practiced in Japan, very few achievements were made. For instance, the Japanese wanted to present priests and monks who could be allowed to marry in Taiwan. This kind of thought or practice was the direct opposite of the trends and practices pursued by many people in this country.
Due to the social, cultural, and economic developments recorded at the time, majority of the people of Taiwan continued to favor the Chinese Buddhist teachings. Such an approach was also seen as a form of rebellion against the Japanese rule. Those who protested against the activities and missions of these colonial powers continued to put more emphasis on the concepts associated with lay or vegetarian Buddhism.9 They took the issue of priest celibacy more seriously than ever before. These efforts and practices were essential since they continued to encourage more people to launch or stage anti-Japanese revolts and protests.
Historians acknowledge that the development and evolution of Buddhism during the era of colonialism can be grouped into several periods. The initial or first one was characterized by a new wave of forbearance. This means that majority of the colonial leaders and their monks remained tolerant to the existing cultural beliefs and practices. This kind of approach created a new opportunity for preserving most of the Buddhist views and teachings that are pursued in this country today.
During the time, several temples emerged in different parts of Taiwan. This phase came to an end after the Tainan temple, also called Kaiyuan, became the center for opposing Japanese ideas and activities. Those behind such protests were guided or led by Yu Ching-fang.10 This development forced the colonialists to consider new approaches to control the uprising and ensure that all followers of the vegetarian Buddhist sect remained under total Japanese control.
After the end of the First World War, a second phase emerged whereby the Japanese focused on the most appropriate strategies to introduce and propagate their teachings in Taiwan. The colonial authorities constructed and established a number of educational centers the introduced additional ideas. Some scholars acknowledge that this second era was critical since it resulted in additional religious ideas and practices.11 A new form of dialogue emerged that encouraged the people to pursue and promote superior religious notions.
The third stage emerged in 1936 whereby the colonial leaders began to promote a new cultural policy. During the same period, the Japanese were keen to use the ideals and teachings of Buddhism as the best tools for controlling the entire state. A new mobilization program supported by the military was founded on such practices. Buddhist teaching centers emerged, thereby encouraging more people to be part of the upcoming war.12 Throughout the early 1940s, the true or original picture of indigenous Buddhism in this state had been obliterated.
After the Second World War in 1945, Taiwan entered into a new period of transformation and development. The changes recorded in the state continued to influence the established Buddhist beliefs and practices. In 1949, the government of Koumintang introduced what would eventually become the martial law.13 A new idea emerged whereby the ruling class began to pursue a new direction in cultural practices and religious views. The government was keen to destroy any Japanese Buddhism trace or ideology that existed in Taiwan. One of the approaches for achieving this objective was to destroy or rebuild temples that were associated with the Japanese style. The main goal was to make the original Taiwanese practices desirable to the greatest number of people.
During this same period, many religious leaders emerged in Taiwan. Some of them presented the teachings and beliefs of Catholicism and Protestantism to the people of this state. From the 1960s, the economy of Taiwan improved significantly. People found new career opportunities and jobs that were unavailable before. These achievements created a better environment that encouraged more people to present additional ideas to Buddhism.14 For instance, the emergence of the Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation and the Chun Tai temple became new opportunities for disruption or disseminating the existing Buddhist views in Taiwan.
The Martial Law became obsolete in Taiwan in the year 1987. This was the case since the state promulgated the famous Organic Act of Civil Organizations (OACO), thereby setting the stage for another transformation of Buddhism. The new guidelines allowed more citizens to engage in tourism activities and travel across the region. The strength of the existing Buddhist associations declined.15 This trend made it possible for the people to embrace a pluralist approach to the teachings of the Buddha. The outcome was that the supporters of indigenous Buddhism had to accept the changes and ideals recorded in mainland China. These achievements resulted in a new direction or sense in religious thinking. With these developments and transformation in this religion, many historians acknowledge that its leaders and priests will continue to borrow or consider emerging ideas and concepts from different sources.
Post-war Taiwan was associated with significant changes and developments that made it possible for Buddhism to prosper. The leaders of this country presented adequate funds to support monks and construct additional temples. A liberal approach to different religious views created the best opportunity for the proliferation of Buddhist ideas in this country. Unlike in China, Buddhism was not viewed as an obstacle to economic prosperity and growth. In the same country, monks and priests were forced to abandon their monastic ways and practices since they were seen as unproductive members of the society. The ideas and views promoted in Taiwan made it possible for these religious immigrants to get a new environment to pursue their goals.16
Many scholars, philosophers, and teachers were able to pursue their objectives in Taiwan. These issues were instrumental in supporting the development of Chinese Buddhism. Additionally, many organizations and schools of thought emerged in this state. Different stakeholders collaborated to construct temples, shrines, and institutions that promoted the diverse notions of Buddhism.
The presence of charismatic and committed religious leaders encouraged more people to engage in public events and fundraising activities. This model created a new opportunity for the utilization of new technologies. Consequently, many people began to appreciate the teachings and ideas associated with different forms of Buddhism. Today, Taiwan has a unique way of worship that adds up to the diversity of Buddhism across the world.17 The teachings and guidelines of the Buddha continued to be merged with emerging ideas in an attempt to empower the people to achieve nirvana and at the same time emerge successful in life.
Modern Buddhism in Taiwan
The historical development of Buddhism in Taiwan has resulted in diversity. Over the decades, this state has absorbed many ideas and religious thoughts from different regions. This means that modern Buddhism remains complex since there are many people and organizations that promote and pursue their religious ideas. One of the outstanding sects or practices in Taiwanese Buddhism is that of vegetarianism.
The outstanding observation is that this kind of belief has maintained most of the teachings and beliefs that different Dutch settlers and monks from China introduced.18 The primary way of pursuing religious objectives or enlightenment is that of rituals and practices. Majority of this religion’s followers do not eat meat and animal products, such as eggs and meat. Instead, they prefer plants as the main source of food. They also engage in meditation in an attempt to achieve their spiritual aims.
Humanistic Buddhism is also common in this state and it grew during the time of the Qing dynasty. During this period, many people in Taiwan were guided and encouraged to follow the lessons and teachings of the Buddha. Its believers focus on the ideas of good and bad karma, enlightenment, and reincarnation. According to this faith, people should do what is good if they are to receive their ultimate price or reward. It goes further to encourage followers to place much emphasis on ritual that support the living. This kind of Buddhism has continued to attract additional insights and philosophies from Taoism and Confucianism.19 One issue to consider about this kind of religious practice borrows or follows most of the original ideas of Buddhism.
Another unique feature of present-day Taiwanese Buddhism is the adherence or existence of the centralized organizations. These institutions were founded by different Buddhist teachers who have remained influential in this state. These are usually given this name: Four Heavenly Kings. These include Nantou, Dashau, Jinshan, and Hualien.20 These modern organizations have been keen to introduce and promote modern values that can make it possible for the people of Taiwan to achieve their aims in life. For instance, they encourage citizens to pursue the ideas of reason, equality, empowerment, and freedom.21 The changes recorded in this country empower more people and leaders to consider strategies that can take them to the next without losing focus on the old ways or ideas.
Taiwanese Buddhism is unique since it has over the years been involved in issues to do with the wider society. For instance, monks and priests from different practices or organizations usually participate in various public events, processes, and services. This means that such priests will be found in hospitals and learning institutions. Most of the institutions encourage their followers to provide aid and relief whenever there are disasters. They are also expected to help the needy and engage in actions that can maximize happiness for different citizens.22 Such ideals have become common since they are practical and attractive to Taiwan’s emerging middle class and empower them to realize their potential.
Within the past two decades, new ideas and thoughts have found their way into Taiwan. This is the case since different monks and teachers from Tibet, Burma, and Sri Lanka have managed to introduce new beliefs that have become part of the wider Buddhism practice in Taiwan. For instance, spiritual and meditative practices have emerged whereby people focus on the best ways to attain nirvana.
Those who have attained basic education in this country have devised their unique strategies for borrowing ideas from each of the existing institutions and beliefs. Majority of them have been keen to embrace the concept of vegetarianism while at the same time being followers of the Humanistic Buddhism.23 The notion of protecting the natural environment has become a core feature of Buddhism in different parts of Taiwan. This is a clear indication that new debates have emerged that are aimed at combining modern thoughts with traditional beliefs or teachings of the Buddha.
Despite the diversities recorded in Taiwanese Buddhism, it is agreeable that the original ideas and teachings associated with this religion are still maintained. This is true since all followers acknowledge that human beings can achieve enlightenment and become a Buddha.24 This goal is realizable when people focus on the best ways to cultivate wisdom and pursue merit. This means that they should always consider the concepts of karma and nirvana.
They should always do what is good and avoid sinning against others and their surroundings. They should engage in desirable practices, be ready to help others, and solve every unique problem they encounter in their lives. Such approaches will set the stage for reaching or achieving the final stage of wisdom or compassion. These attributes reveal that Buddhism is an ever-changing religion that depends on the way monks, priests, philosophers, and followers interpret the achievements and the life of the Buddha.
Conclusion
The above discussion has presented a detailed analysis of the history and development of Buddhism in Taiwan. The description has outlined several periods and eras that reshaped the ideas and beliefs of many people for decades. The influences from the Dutch, the Chinese, the Japanese, and modern philosophers continue to dictate the beliefs and practices Buddhists in Taiwan pursue today.
The leading beliefs common in this country include Humanistic Buddhism, vegetarianism, and the Four Heavenly Kings. It is also evident that this religion will continue to grow, expand, and change due to the ideas foreigners present and encourage more people to take into consideration. Despite these developments, the discussion has supported the fact that the original teachings of the Buddha continue to inform most of the religious practices and rituals in this state today.
Bibliography
Jones, Charles B. Buddhism in Taiwan: Religion and the State, 1660-1990. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999.
Powers, John, ed. The Buddhist World. New York: Routledge, 2016.
Rubinstein, Murray A., ed. Taiwan: A New History: A New History. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2015.
Footnotes
Murray A. Rubinstein, ed., Taiwan: A New History: A New History, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2015), 16.
Rubinstein, ed., Taiwan: A New History, 34.
Charles B Jones, Buddhism in Taiwan: Religion and the State, 1660-1990 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999), 9.
Jones, Buddhism in Taiwan, 9.
Ibid., 9.
Ibid., 13.
Ibid., 29.
Ibid., 37.
Ibid., 46.
Ibid., 63.
Ibid., 83.
John Powers, ed., The Buddhist World (New York: Routledge, 2016), 19.
Buddhism is known on all the continents as one of the prominent world religions. While remaining integral regarding the most significant points of the religion, several distinctive features are observed in different countries. According to Powers, new practices and doctrines develop in the process of adaptation to the context of another cultural environments (1). Buddhism has spread predominantly in Asia, reaching vast areas and an extensive number of people. Buddhism differs according to the major schools in most of the countries, either Mahāyāna or Theravāda, but there are other minor differences in local schools. Although such aspects of Buddhism as the ritual activity, meditation, and merit remain essential in all countries, the emphasis on each of them varies in different areas due to historical reasons.
The Origin of Buddhism and its Major Aspects
Buddhism takes its origin from the Ganges River Valley in Northeastern India and the story of the first Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama. As the narratives state, once he remembered all his lives in the past and realized how what consequences his actions had on his subsequent reincarnations (Powers 60). He became Buddha and gathered disciples in the valley of the Ganges who spread the knowledge and contributed to the scripture.
Owing to the activity of the disciples and royal support, Buddhism has rapidly spread through the whole territory of India. Its popularity later decreased to individual regions, such as the state of Himachal Pradesh, but instead, it advanced across the entire continent. Economic relations with other countries, especially the close location of the religious center to the Silk Road, served as the ways to transfer Buddhism to East and Southeast Asia. Southeast countries have developed the doctrines of Theravāda school, while Eastern countries and the Himalayan region adhere to Mahāyāna principles.
Although Buddhism is widely perceived as the intellectual and spiritual practice, ritual activity is the factor that helps to maintain its popularity through generations. The religion comprises a relatively small percentage of monastic life, and the majority of the population generally does not relate to religion intellectually, so the rituals are essential. According to Powers, Buddhist rituals are religious practices strongly connected to lunar phases and characterized by chanting (mantra), worship of the image of Buddha, and meditation (319). Such annual rituals as the celebration of the Buddha’s awakening, birth, and liberation are universal in all countries with differences in dates and minor details.
Merit is an essential aspect of Buddhism as it is the basis of the reincarnation belief. According to Buddhism, future rebirth depends on what karma a person developed in the previous life. Thus, all the activity, thoughts, and words have consequences at some point in the future. That is why the Buddhist scripture has elaborated on several ways of accumulating merit. For example, Powers highlights the acts of gift-giving as the starting practice (321). Meditation is probably the most popular aspect of Buddhism, known even as a secular practice in the modern world. Mindfulness meditation is the Buddhist practice that is viewed as the first step to awakening.
Historical Regions of Buddhism
Today, Buddhism is known in most parts of the modern globalized world due to the migration of its adherents, even in traditionally Christian or Muslim areas. Nevertheless, the countries where this religion originated and developed are limited to Asia. Although Buddhism occurred in India, it is now not a Buddhist country except for several small areas that, together with Buddhist centers of Nepal and Tibet, comprise the Himalayan region of Mahāyāna school. China, Japan, and Korea adhere to the same tradition, while Theravāda doctrine prevails in Southeastern Asia.
Buddhism in Southeast Asia
Theravāda Buddhism is the prevailing religion in most Southeastern Asian countries. According to Powers, it is the national religion in Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Thailand (76). Theravāda Buddhists adhere to the traditional step-by-step meditation and guided mindfulness. Rituals are widely incorporated into everyday life through such practices as wedding rituals, or transition to other life ceremonies. However, merit is emphasized most in Theravāda Buddhism, where it is believed to be an essential way to be religious. It is the primary goal of the religious life as it is the foundation of good karma and grants happy rebirth. The Buddhists believe that meritorious actions, such as gifts, donations, or offering food to monks, “improve” one’s karma.
Buddhism in East Asia
The expansion of Buddhism in East Asia started in China, where it arrived from India owing to the trade ways. Mahāyāna tradition has developed in China in several schools and later was transferred even further east – to Japan and Korea. The reason why it has spread so fast and so successfully is its resonance with dominant philosophical views of these countries, such as Daoism, Confucianism, or folk beliefs.
Unlike in Theravāda Buddhism, here, knowledge plays a significant role, and meditation is an essential practice “as the path to insight aimed at attaining liberation” (Powers 96). Some cultural differences have also developed in different countries in this region. Gardiner, for example, notes the esoteric nature of Japanese Buddhism in Mahāyāna. Different Japanese schools promoted the idea of the monks as socially integrated individuals who can marry and play an active role in society’s life.
Buddhism in Himalayan Region
Such parts of the Himalayan Region as Kashmir Valley or Kathmandu Valley are the early centers of indigenous Buddhism tradition where it has been preserved for more than 2,000 years. Here, the religious ways of ritual, meditation, and merit are treated with equal emphasis. Kapstein notes “the importance of securing rebirth in a divine realm of the Buddhist teaching” as the main aim for accumulating merit (143). However, Mahāyāna Buddhists believe that copying, reciting, or teaching a particular sūtra are the main ways to get merit. In contrast to other regions where rituals are less emphasized, in this region, they have a crucial meaning.
The Spread of Buddhism to the West
The Western expansion of Buddhism began in the US with large-scale immigration from Japan and China. While ethnic representatives of these countries in the US and the rest of the world adhere to Buddhist doctrines, the local population has adopted several practices taking them out of the ethical context minimizing “public acknowledgement of its Buddhist connections” (Watt 455). Mindfulness is often seen as a separate practice used even in psychotherapy as a secular movement (Helderman 937). Despite its increasing popularity, Buddhism is perceived in a limited way, and its transmission to the West cannot happen according to such a scenario as in Asia. The main barrier is established cultural and religious tradition with significant differences in philosophical views.
Conclusion
Key aspects of Buddhism, merit, ritual, and meditation, are essential in all the regions where this religion has spread, but certain cultures emphasize different ways of being religious. The followers of Theravāda tradition in Southeast Asia value merit as the fundamental aspect of reincarnation. Mahāyāna Buddhism in East Asia and the Himalayan area highlights the importance of meditation and religious rituals. The reason for such disparities is the influence of previous religions and cultures on the lands where Buddhism has expanded. Western countries have established an influential culture, so Buddhism is applied there, mostly in the secular context.
Kapstein, Matthew T. “Tibetan Buddhist Afterlife Beliefs, and Funerary Practices.” The Routledge Companion to Death and Dying, edited by Christopher M. Moreman, Routlege, 2017, pp. 143–152.
Powers, John, editor. The Buddhist World. Routledge, 2016.
Watt, Tessa. “Spacious Awareness in Mahāyāna Buddhism and Its Role in the Modern Mindfulness Movement.” Contemporary Buddhism, vol. 18, no. 2. 2017, pp. 455-480. Web.