The essay is based on the book The Journey of One Buddhist Nun: Even against the Wind. To accomplish the desired task, the two questions are being answered purely using this book. The book generally tells a story of a woman known as Wabi who resorted and sought to become religious.
In her quest to doing so, she faces various huddles as well as difficulties. Ideally the story is told of her experiences as she worked towards being a maechi (Sid 23). The first question is with regards to why did Maechi Wabi ‘go forth’. According to the author, Wabi decided to go forth after realizing that she was fully discontented and dissatisfied with the idea of reaching adulthood and becoming a mother like her own mother. She hated the idea of constantly taking care of the others and working (Sid 74).
It was predetermined during her time that when she grows up, she is to assist her mother to take care of her siblings and work hard to earn money to buy food. In Buddhism, going forth simply means the act or situation where one, especially a monk or a nun, leaves his/her homes and decides to lead a homeless life, so that they can be deliberated from lust. Based on Buddhism, those who go forth are usually individuals who seek to get rid of the sorrows of birth and diseases, old age and death.
According to Buddhism, Buddha decided to go forth so that he could teach people what he had learned and discovered. The four major things that he taught were the following ones.
First, life usually ends in death; second, the cause of human suffering in life is because of our bad deed; third, end of desire results in end of suffering, and the last issue is that the man has to follow the right way and seek for divine truth which is within us. The story is indeed basis for Buddhism as it tells us about the day to day activities of those who practice the faith (Sid 34).
Maechi Wabi developed a very negative attitude towards men because the society honored religious men and scorned at religious women, thus disrespecting the females. The behaviors of her father contributed greatly to her resentment of men, this is because her father was greatly opposed to her will of being a nun because he wanted her to grow into a woman who would be able to take care of her own family and raise her own children, thus contributing to the societies development.
Wabi’s father was not pleased with the way the society and the women in particular were transforming. This is evident from the change in the roles and behaviors of the Thailand women. He stated the society to become promiscuous and females to begin developing anti-social behaviors that were not expected of them.
This is the issues that Wabi expressed in the book later on. Wabi’s father played a very significant role in developing his daughter’s religious life and also making her more determined to meet her goals; this is a result of his constant resent to her idea of being a nun. Wabi’s father realized that his resentment to his daughter’s decisions would not change her view, but would only contribute to her desire to fulfill her dream and support her in her quest of becoming a nun (Sid 98).
As suggested by Sid (100), Wabi’s father encouraged his daughter to be what she wanted to be without backing down on her ambitions. These words of encouragement definitely played a significant role in ensuring that she would become a nun and thus achieve her goal; her father is also involved in altering the mindset of the men in the society, thus they should have started appreciating the religious females in the society. This definitely changed the society’s perception on religious women.
I think that Wabi’s father was a role model to her in some way. This is because he was a very hard working man who would not take anything to chance and would also stand straight to his words without changing his mind. This attitude gave her the courage to pursue her ambitions without second thoughts.
Work Cited
Brown, Sid. The Journey of One Buddhist Nun: Even Against the Wind. New York: State University of New York Press, 2001. Print
In The Monkey & the Monk: an Abridgment of the Journey to the West, the Monkey is one of the main protagonists of the book, as is apparent from its title. He is portrayed as a multifaceted, almost controversial figure. It seems to consist of incompatible qualities and traits of character, not easily found in one person. From his mysterious origins at the beginning of the plot to becoming Victorious Fighting Buddha at the end, the Monkey fascinates readers with his lively and rebellious nature.
He is always ready for a fight, has a zeal for longevity as well as devotion and physical strength. In the book preface, Yu explains that the narration is based on historical events that influenced the Buddhist culture in China for many centuries to come (x-xi). It is worth analyzing the plot to better understand what the figure of the Monkey represents in the book and how it reflects Buddhist teachings.
Everything that is connected to the Monkey is magical and divine – from his birth to his adventures to earthly transformations to his weapon, hair, and supernatural powers. It is not for nothing that the first seven chapters of the book are devoted to his life story (Yu 1-111). The Monkey comes from an immortal stone, the essences of Heaven and Earth. Upon his birth, he immediately attracts the Jade Emperor’s attention. With that, the Monkey’s epic journey through time, distance, and self-cultivation begins.
It is manifested in transformations of his body to almost any object he wishes, possibly hinting at his overall ability to adjust and reform, which is essential for the plot but in a spiritual sense. As the tale of the Monkey unfolds, readers see how his mind transforms. His name changes throughout the narration symbolize the protagonist’s evolution from the stone monkey to “Handsome Monkey King to Great Sage to Pilgrim” (Wang and Humblé 506). One of his other names is Sun Wukong, given by his first teacher, Subodhi. In it, the word “Wukong” means “awakened to emptiness”, and awakening is the underlying concept of Buddhism. Thus the name suggests the Monkey’s role in the narration.
In his first identity of a monstrous beast, the Monkey is depicted as wreaking havoc and causing uproar in Hell and the heavenly kingdom, constantly battling warriors and messengers of Jade Emperor. The Great Sage craves the most prestigious positions among the equals, and at the court of the Celestial Palace. He clings to his desires to rank higher in the hierarchy of immortals. Due to his vanity, the Monkey is incensed that in Heaven, he is ordered to tend to horses, rebels against guarding the Peach Garden, and is angry at not being invited to a banquet. For all the perceived insults, he takes his revenge in any way he can.
So the Great Sage is a sinner who is, at some point, punished for his deeds and needs to repent. His repentance is attending to Chen Xuanzang, a Tang monk, on a mission to bring to China Buddhist scriptures from India. The topics of atonement for one’s sins and of constant self-improvement are well within the Monkey’s path through the narration. There are plenty of faults in his behavior – pride, defiance, and arrogance, which can all be found in humans and which propel the cycle of suffering. The Great Sage’s following the monk and conversion to Buddhism look to be evidence of the fact that the Monkey epitomizes Buddhist teachings. The attraction of this religion and its values is such that even the animal, almost a monster, is imbued with Buddhist concepts.
In the book, a pursuit of immortality is indicative of the Monkey’s actions throughout his depiction before joining Xuanzang. The Monkey is afraid of death and does everything he can to prolong his life, usually in ways denounced by Heaven. From Subodhi the Monkey learns spells that bring eternal life. Then he wipes off his name from the book of mortals in Hell, goes on to eat peaches of immortality in the garden he has been ordered to look after, stealthily drinks the heavenly wine, and surreptitiously devours pills of longevity. These deeds are uncharacteristic of a Buddhist, but that of a transgressor, they lengthen the list of the Great Sage’s misdeeds, producing more bad karma for him.
The Monkey’s life story seems to correspond to some extent to the circle of rebirths postulated by Buddhism and fundamental to it. Every living creature goes through rebirth cycles until it is freed from them by reaching nirvana, the ultimate goal of a Buddhist. In Chapter Seven, the narrator describes how the Monkey, who has already proclaimed himself the Great Sage, is condemned to be killed for his multiple infractions in Heaven (Yu 97-111). Upon several unsuccessful attempts to execute the Monkey, he is being distilled into an elixir in a crucible for 49 days. Yet he survives and even gains more supernatural qualities than before, like recognizing evil. It appears this plot development demonstrates an attempt to show that the Monkey is going through at least one cycle of rebirths and getting closer to the path of enlightenment.
However, being reborn does not seem to liberate the Monkey from his vain cravings of glory and immortality. The Great Sage challenges the Buddha again – by betting, he can escape from the deity. The Monkey mistakes the latter’s five fingers for pillars at the end of Heaven and urinates on them. The punishment from the Buddha comes in the form of the Monkey’s imprisonment under a five-phase mountain for five centuries, which influenced the Great Sage profoundly. The recurring theme of the digit five appears to be connected to the idea of the Five Precepts in Buddhism to be observed for a virtuous life. Besides, the Monkey’s long captivity is probably a hint at asceticism, which lies at the core of much of Buddhist teachings.
When given a chance at freedom and redemption by Bodhisattva Guanyin, the Great Sage is impatient to be released, meet Xuanzang, also called Tripitaka, and join him to fulfill his mission. Now readers witness the second identity of the protagonist, and he appears to be thankful and devoted to his master, less arrogant than before. Upon accompanying the monk, the Monkey, now called Pilgrim, acts as his bodyguard because this priestly person is incapable of defending himself. With every good deed and thought Pilgrim improves his karma.
Still, the Monkey’s temper and behavior are controlled by the monk, with the help of a headband. Once the Great Sage is tricked into putting it on his head, he can not get rid of it till the journey ends. Tripitaka uses the band to cause pain if the Monkey misbehaves. Along the journey, the Monkey subdues and converts to Buddhism several pagan monsters who are after his master as they want to devour Xuanzang because his flesh is thought to give them eternal life and immense power. Wang and Humblé write that during the pilgrimage with his master, “Monkey accumulates his “fruits” and “merits” or “good stock” by converting the other monsters into Buddhists” (518). Due to his ability to see evil, Pilgrim can recognize the true nature of any demon whatever disguise it uses, thus helping Tripitaka to avoid dangers.
The scripture seeker, Pilgrim, and three more of the monk’s disciples are successful at their mission. The Monkey stays with the Tang monk through all of 81 misfortunes and disasters, cleansing karma along the way. After 16 years of traveling to the Land of the West and back, they deliver the Buddhist scriptures to China, bringing knowledge of the religion to the Land of the East where people were unenlightened and sinful. The Monkey’s reward for the arduous pilgrimage is that he achieves the condition of a Buddha – meaning he evolves from a mortal creature to the rank of deity.
To conclude, it can be said that the Monkey looks like an allegory of Buddhist teachings. Through the depiction of the Great Sage’s life before and after the quest to get the scriptures, the protagonist’s two different identities are juxtaposed, and he is shown as, first, an unruly challenger to heavenly creatures, seeker of great posts and a ruthless warrior. On the pilgrimage with Tripitaka, the Monkey walks the path of repentance and reaches Buddhahood by atoning for his sins.
Works Cited
The Monkey & the Monk: An Abridgment of the Journey to the West. Translated and edited by Anthony C. Yu, The University of Chicago Press, 2006.
Wang, Feng Robin, and Philippe Humblé. “Analysis of the Buddhist Conversion of Great Sage.” Chinese Semiotic Studies, vol. 14, no. 4, 2018, pp. 505-527.
The Monkey is one of the masterpieces of literature that contains the ethics, morality, religion, and culture of the Eastern world. In the tales about Monkey and his companions, the reader can notice the features of such religions as Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, on which all the stories are built. However, the principles of Buddhism are more often and more prominently displayed in the main characters of the story. Each of them represents the shortcomings that Buddhism considers as obstacles to enlightenment and the virtues that are necessary to achieve Nirvana. This combination of vices that Tripitaka, Monkey, Pigsy, and Sandy need to overcome on the path of enlightenment and their merits that coincide with Buddhist ideals proves that the Monkey is an allegory of Buddhism.
Monkey
The monkey appears in the story in the first chapter and is one of the central characters in fairy tales. In the beginning, the reader sees Monkey as a self-confident, strong leader who rules the flock and wants to self-develop. However, he is led by selfish desires to become immortal, to learn magic, and to be better than others, which demonstrates his inconstancy and fussiness (Wu, 1942/2015). The monkey represents the mental side of Buddhism with these traits since according to Buddhism, a person must master and direct his or her mind towards harmony to achieve enlightenment (Keown, 2017). Besides, according to Buddhist teachings, a person must renounce everything cruel, and find peace in his or her soul (Keown, 2017). However, at the beginning of the story, the reader discovers that Monkey kills the Six Robbers. Later he sees and wants to join the fight with words: “I am going off to have a bit fun with the creature” (Wu, 1942/2015, 38). Thus, Monkey is an allegory of the mental state of a person in Buddhism and one of the vices that he or she must overcome to comprehend Nirvana.
At the same time, Monkey also symbolizes the concept of vacuum, which underlies Buddhist teachings. One of the names of Monkey is “Aware-of-Vacuity”, that is, a person who knows absolute harmony, renunciation of desires, and identity (Wu, 1942/2015). In Buddhism, this concept is also reflected in the idea of “no-self,” which means the emptiness and absence of “myself,” since it interferes with the merging with Nirvana (Keown, 2017). Therefore, the name of Monkey and its journey is an allegory of this concept. Besides, at the end of the story, the reader sees that Monkey managed to settle his mind, overcome vices, and achieve enlightenment (Wu, 1942/2015). Thus, this character contains an allegory to one of the spiritual principles of people in Buddhism, the development of which leads to the achievement of Nirvana.
Tripitaka
Tripitaka is a monk who, in the past, was a disciple of the Buddha and was punished because of his disobedience. He is a pilgrim who goes his way in search of redemption and enlightenment, and he takes Monkey, Pigsy, and Sandy as his students (Wu, 1942/2015). He is the personification of the physical and material things that must be rejected to achieve Nirvana. Tripitaka is a monk, so he knows a lot of Buddhist teachings, and he does not forget to remind his companions. For him, the external observance of the rules is essential; however, he does not understand their deep meaning. Unlike Monkey, he renounces any violence, and it is easier for him to die than to fight his enemy. This fact is especially evident in the story of the battle of the Monkey with Six Robbers, whom he kills (Wu, 1942/2015). These Robbers are symbols of the six senses that a person must defeat to refuse desires and find enlightenment, according to Buddhism (Keown, 2017). However, Tripitaka accepts only the visible following of the rules, so he scolds Monkey for his act.
However, throughout the story, the reader can see Tripitaka’s empathy and compassion, as well as the progress he made. During the trip, he often assists his disciples with understanding and devotion, which helps him get rid of the physical dependence that prevented him at the beginning of the journey. As a result, he ultimately gets rid of the physical body to cross the river on the way to the Buddha Lands (Wu, 1942/2015). This denial of physical desires is also the basis for achieving enlightenment (Keown, 2017). Thus, the Tripitaka path is an allegory for the physical side, which Buddhists try to get rid of to comprehend Nirvana.
Pigsy and Sandy
Pigsy and Sandy, in this story, are the embodiment of vices that impede the attainment of enlightenment. Pigsy, who was punished for sexual misconduct towards the goddess in heaven, accidentally fell into the womb of a sow and now looks like a pig (Wu, 1942/2015). He embodies sins such as greed and gluttony, stealing, and sexual misconduct; however, at the same time, Pigsy is a vegetarian. Buddhism promotes the abandonment of the killing of animals and life in harmony with nature (Keown, 2017). For this reason, Sandy is the symbol of the opposite behavior; he kills all living beings, including humans, to eat their flesh (Wu, 1942/2015). Both characters are students of Tripitaka, who must go with him and fight with their evil virtues.
During the journey, Pigsy and Sandy gradually overcome their vices and purify karma with their actions. For example, Sandy creates a boat of nine skulls that he wears around his neck so that the pilgrims cross the river (Wu, 1942/2015). At the end of the journey, the reader feels that the characters changed and beat their bad habits, and although they have not yet reached enlightenment, they transformed into creatures of a higher level (Wu, 1942/2015). This fact coincides with Buddhist ideas about karma and reincarnation, according to which people reborn into their best or worst incarnation due to the actions of a past life (Keown, 2017). Thus, Pigsy and Sandy are an allegory of vices that interfere with the attainment of Nirvana and the successful path to their deliverance.
Conclusion
Therefore, the characters of the novel the Monkey are an allegory of Buddhist teachings since they embody the positive and negative qualities essential for achieving enlightenment. The adventures of the heroes symbolize the path that everyone walks on the way to understanding the truths of Buddhism and achieving complete harmony. Besides, such concepts as reincarnation, karma and the theory of “no-self” also coincide with the traditions and ideals of Buddhism. Thus, the main characters of the novel are an allegory of the basic principles of Buddhism, and their journey is a symbol of the search for enlightenment.
References
Keown, D. (2001). The Nature of Buddhist Ethics. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Wu, C. (2015). Monkey: Journey to the West. (A. Waley, Trans.). Huddersfield, UK: Dalriada Books. (Original work published 1942).
Reading Chinese classics is always interesting, educative, and difficult at the same time. On the one hand, a reader gets an opportunity to learn one of the oldest cultures in the world with its beliefs and ideas. On the other hand, it is easy to be lost in an offered variety of adventures and allegories. Therefore, it is expected to choose one path and follow it through the course of reading. The Monkey and the Monk is a great Chinese novel that was created in the 16th century and translated and edited by Anthony C. Yu in the 2000s.
It is characterized by the presence of a true Chinese spirit of Buddhism and its valuable impact on human lives, traditions, and an understanding of history. The author mentions that the novel depicts changes in people and discusses them through the prism of “itinerant adventure, fantasy, humor, social and political satire, and serious allegory built on intricate religious syncretism” (Yu x). This essay aims to analyze The Monkey as a successful allegory of Buddhist teachings, where pilgrims travel and comprehend the worth of knowledge, cooperation, support, and power.
Main Ideas of the Story
Ancient China was not easy, and people continue improving their understanding of this culture. The Monkey and the Monk is not an ordinary story with a list of characters with the ability to develop particular relationships, grow in their specific ways, and demonstrate necessary lessons to the reader. There are 100 chapters that represent a journey that began when “Pan Gu broke up the nebula” and “humaneness supreme enfolding every life” (Yu 1). One of the main characters, Sun Wukong, a monkey, wanted to grasp the secrets of immortal life. Being exposed to the wind, “a stone egg about the size of a playing ball” transformed into a monkey “with fully developed features and limbs” (Yu 3). His transformation continues under the Five Phases with their challenges and opportunities, knowledge and doubts.
Tripitaka is another character whose traveling symbolizes the development and self-improvement through becoming a monk, desire to bring new standards to the damaged land, and the necessity to deal with personal demons and sins. Zhu Bajie, or Pigsy, Sha Wujing, or Sandy, and the Dragon-Horse are three other pilgrims in the journey that determine the influential qualities of people – greed (Pigsy), obedience (Sandy), and courage (Dragon).
In stressful situations, these heroes demonstrate their worst and best abilities to support, run, or betray. However, in total, the combination of loyalty to humans and respect for Buddha’s orders contributed to the successful completion of the mission (Wang and Xu 105). Each character got what he deserved, including Golden-Bodies Arhat (Sandy), nagi (Dragon), Janitor of the Altars (Pigsy), Buddha Victorious (the Monkey), and Buddha Candana (Tripitaka) (Yu 494). Multiple lessons about how to control personal behavior, how to respond to danger and external kindness, and how to live with sins and redemption were given between the lines of The Monkey and the Monk.
Allegory and Its Essence
In a variety of sources, the authors try to discuss the nature of the novel and its relation to Buddhism. One of the most common statements is that The Monkey and the Monk consists of perfectly developed supernatural adventures, humorous situations, and religious allegories (Wang and Xu 103). An allegory is a story the meaning of which may be hidden between the lines to promote moral or religious aspects in society. For example, when the Monkey King could not help but jumping joyfully to demonstrate his grateful salutation, the Patriarch made a decision to teach him and control his emotions (Yu 19).
On the one hand, this situation seems to be harsh and diminishing people’s intentions to follow their needs and desires. From another angle, the same lesson helps to recognize true intent, promote obedience, and explain the worth of following orders set by supreme powers. The allegory is hard to catch, but its impact remains critical for further development.
This literary device is frequently used by writers; however, its success is determined by the possibility of the reader to grasp the truth and achieve the goals set. The allegory of The Monkey and the Monk is represented in terms of three levels that are revealed through reading the novel, including the idea of adventure, karma, and self-cultivation (Yu as cited in Wang and Xu 103). This method does not only depict the nature of Buddhism but also helps to identify the difference between Chinese and Western religions and philosophies. Instead of focusing on the identification of good and evil aspects like it is inherent to the western regions, China remains under the impact of Indian traditions, where Buddhism enhances salvation and self-improvement.
Allegoric Examples of Buddhism in The Monkey and the Monk
One of the main distinctive features of The Monkey and the Monk is a combination of several stories and religions within one great novel. The goal is to prove that “to harmonize the Three Schools is a natural thing/One word’s elucidation in accord with truth/Leads to birthlessness and knowledge most profound” (Yu 20). The author touched upon a variety of aspects of three religions, including Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. Despite the intention of this essay to focus on Buddhism teachings, none can diminish or neglect the role of other traditions and cultures in the story. There are many examples of how The Monkey becomes an allegory of Buddhist teachings, starting from the decision of Tripitaka to travel and ending with received honors and ranks.
The journey of the main characters remains the main evidence in the discussion of allegory in Buddhism. As soon as they decide to change something in their lives, people understand the need to improve and find out better virtues and values. Analyzing human actions, Tathāgata explained that “people neither honor the teachings of Buddha nor cultivate various karma; they neither revere the three lights nor respect the five grains” (Yu 457). As a result, it becomes hard to control humans with their negative qualities of “greed and killing, lust and lying” (Yu 457). Redemption turns out to be an internal part of their adventure, which leads to enlightenment and forgiveness.
There are multiple obstacles due to their karma that must be recognized and understood. The story underlines that “sinful karma is very deep”, and even the current redemption cannot promise a safe future and the avoidance of the same mistakes with time (Yu 126). Sometimes, it is easy to take a step, hurt someone’s feelings, and ask for forgiveness. Still, Buddhist teachings are not about forgiveness only but about the necessity to understand the worth of karma and behave respectfully.
At the same time, the strength of The Monkey and the Monk is the possibility to identify personal mistakes, think about the consequences, and share the lessons with other people. Each of the characters is never introduced as a perfect man with good intentions only. Their behaviors during teachings, uncontrollable powers, and unexplainable superiority over ordinary people took place and determined who they were. With time, new knowledge and explanations felt in their minds, and they changed.
Tripitaka got a better understanding of what it means to behave with circumspection, “don’t even enter a house without permission”, “wait until someone comes out”, and “request lodging politely (Yu 292). Such simple rules introduce the whole of idea of Buddhist teachings because this faith cannot be imposed or order. It has to be voluntarily accepted and developed in human minds and souls.
Conclusion
In general, it is correct to consider The Monkey and the Monk as an allegory to Buddhist teachings due to a number of urgent themes raised by the author. A life-long journey, an understanding of karma, redemption, and enlightenment are the critical elements in human development. It is not enough to know the rules and follow the standards in order to become a religious and cultural person.
The examples of Tripitaka, the Monkey King, Pigsy, Sandy, and the Dragon Horse as the main five pilgrims whose concerns, decisions, and purposes explain a true worth of Buddhism with its strong demands and expectations. As well as a journey, Buddhism is unpredictable for people who do not know the details but try to take as much as possible from it. The Monkey and the Monk can be a good guide for those who come to the conclusion that enlightenment is the goal to be reached to fulfill life with memorable events and lessons.
Works Cited
Wang, Richard G., and Dongfeng Xu. “Three Decades’ Reworking on the Monk, the Monkey, and the Fiction of Allegory.” The Journal of Religion, vol. 96, no. 1, 2016, pp. 102–121.
Yu, Anthony C, editor and translator. The Monkey and the Monk: An Abridgment of the Journey to the West. The University of Chicago Press, 2006.
The work, Monkey is an informative text that gives a detailed analysis of the Chinese views, religious practices, and culture. Although this text focuses on the diverse philosophies and ideas associated with this society, it is evident that the novel emerges as an allegory of Buddhist teachings by detailing the major processes for being religious and achieving nirvana or enlightenment in this religion. The purpose of this paper is to explain why Monkey is an allegory of Buddhist teachings in the selected novel.
Reasons why Monkey is an Allegory of Buddhist Teachings
The original author of this book developed the targeted characters in such a way that they allegorized the Buddhist religious culture. There are several attributes and explanations from this book that support the notion that the text is an allegory of Buddhist teachings. To begin with, these characters in this book are required to take a long journey that is characterized by numerous challenges and obstacles. These include Monkey, Sandy, Tripitaka, and Pigsy.i The entire journey is comparable to the path that followers of Buddhism should go through if they are to attain nirvana or enlightenment. The reader also observed that Tripitaka is a representation of the physical outcomes and experiences that Buddhists have to experience or go through (Yu, 2006). At the same time, Monkey is an allegory or representation of the unseen or imaginable. This becomes a representation of the human psyche.
According to the law of karma, the actions of people who engage in sinful or wrongful acts against others will eventually evolve and result in misery. Individuals who engage in actions that have the potential to benefit others will eventually result in happiness. Most of the characters have accumulated bad karma throughout the journey. For example, the depicted monkey is seen to have caused disharmony in heaven while Tripitaka slept amid a lecture focusing on Buddhism. With such bad acts, Tripitaka is forced to go through 81 hardships (Wright, 2017). When they experience their hardships, the monkey retrieves the body of the dead king and eventually accumulates good karma. This kind of happening describes why Buddhists should do good to have their bad deeds forgiven or canceled.
The teachings of the Buddha encourage followers to support others through the use of compassion. Monkey and Tripitaka achieve this obligation by turning to Kuan-yin when they encounter the dragon-horse. This means that Buddhists are obliged to consider the attribute of compassion in an attempt to resolve emerging issues correctly. Similarly, the Middle Part is a critical concept taught to Buddhists. Amid their pilgrimage, the characters presented in the book endure unique suffering that remains hard to evade. For instance, the author writes: They had been traveling for many days in December, with its cold North winds (Wright, 2017). The pain associated with such weather conditions appears to allegorize the Middle Path in Buddhism.
Additionally, when the characters described in this book encounter different forms of suffering, it is agreeable that Tripitaka is always willing ready to identify his situation with those of others.ii This kind of depiction explains why it would be hard for the reader to distinguish the development of this story and the Middle Path. However, one who is aware of the teachings of Buddhism will be able to connect such teachings with this pilgrimage (Yu, 2006). This concept of the Middle Path described in Monkey becomes a starting point for those who are willing to have a clear understanding of Buddhism and its beliefs.
In the selected novel, the reader realizes that Tripitaka and monkey eventually become enlightened. This kind of occurrence resonates with the concept of Buddhist enlightenment. This is the case since Tripitaka eventually gets this new name: Candana-Punya Buddha (Wright, 2017). The text portrays a literal shedding of their physical bodies. It is also notable that Sandy, Pigsy, and the dragon-horse are eventually reincarnated at the end of the story, thereby being able to achieve high status. Although these characters do not achieve enlightenment, such kind of process appears as a form of reward for their good deeds along the way. The ending of this story is critical since it fulfills or supports the argument that the novel is an allegory directed at Buddhism.iii This happens to be the case since the entire journey and its conclusion described in the novel appears to echo the major teachings and ideas of this religion. The ending of the story is a clear representation of enlightenment whereby all those who do good and help others are eventually reincarnated or rewarded. It becomes a powerful guideline for people or believers who want to follow this religion and eventually realize higher states after the end of their lives.
Although the reader observes that Tripitaka was on a religious pilgrimage, the journey he undertakes gives a detailed analysis of the steps and practices that Buddhists should consider to attain enlightenment.iv The entire narration becomes a representation or portrayal of the unique physical hindrances and issues associated with the life of every Buddhist. The author succeeds in explaining why there is a need for Buddhists on the path towards enlightenment should beg for the most appropriate necessities and avoid any malpractice or violent behavior that can affect their goals. Tripitaka appears to follow such guidelines and scolds those who fail to consider them (Yu, 2006). It is because of this reason that he scolds the monkey for killing the robbers they encounter along the way. This means that Buddhist priests should always be ready to die instead of promoting violence or pursuing inappropriate behaviors.
Conclusion
The above discussion has answered the intended question successfully by explaining why Monkey is an allegory of Buddhism and its teachings. This is the case since the characters described in the novel have to go through a tedious and challenging journey that informs or reminds that about the issues that true believers have to go through before attaining nirvana or enlightenment. The end of the pilgrimage makes it possible for every reader to understand the requirements and practices that are essential for every Buddhist believer. In conclusion, Monkey is an informative novel that can present a detailed or subconscious understanding of this religion to any individual.
References
Yu, A. C. (2006). (Ed.). The monkey & the monk: An abridgement of the journey to the west. London, UK: The University of Chicago Press.
Wright, R. (2017). Why Buddhism is true: The science and philosophy of meditation and enlightenment. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Endnotes
Other names for these characters appear in different translations of the Monkey.
The life of every Buddhist revolves around good karma and bad karma.
Buddhists can go further to follow religious teachings by observing rituals, engaging in meditation, and following the teachings of Buddha (also known as merit).
This kind of enlightenment resonates with the idea of nirvana.
The Buddhist culture places special attention on mental health. To understand the traditional healing in Buddhist culture in mental health, it is important to start by understanding the origin of Buddhism as a religion. According to Calabrese and Dorji (2014), most of the currently existing religions originated from the fear of danger. Issues such as lightning, thunder, floods, and earthquakes cause fear among people.
In those early days, it was not easy for them to understand the source of such destructive forces. As a way of finding comfort in the world full of life-threatening forces, many religions were found. God was believed to be the source of these forces and that He would use them to punish people because of their sins. Buddhism, on the other hand, was founded because of the fear of suffering. The religion emphasizes the need for its followers to lead a life free from any form of suffering. Mental suffering is one of the bad forces that this religion is keen on eliminating. As Deane (2014) notes, mental suffering is just as undesirable as any other form of physical pain.
In Buddhism, one is expected to give mental health priority because the mind controls all the activities and the decisions that one makes. Whenever one has a mental health problem, he or she can make a wrong decision that may prove dangerous to oneself and others. In this paper, the researcher will focus on traditional healing in Buddhist culture in mental health.
This topic is very important, especially in modern society, where many people work in a highly stressful environment. Mental health has not been given a lot of emphasis on the general population. Whenever one develops stress, it is easy to assume mental suffering hoping that once the stressors are eliminated, the pain will disappear. However, there are cases where such incidences lead to depression and cause numerous other medical conditions that may not be easy to treat.
Medical experts have come up with medicines that should be used under such conditions, besides counseling. However, some people have complained that such medication only works for a while. Others have stated that such medication becomes addictive as one continues to take them, forcing him or her to rely on it always. The Buddhist culture comes up with a solution to the problem that does not involve taking any medicine.
It means that this topic focuses on providing an alternative means of addressing mental health that is increasingly becoming common in modern society. In this paper, the researcher will cover how the Buddhists perceive mental health and determine whether they use medication as a cure and what they consider as mental health. The paper will also look at how they do the assessment for abnormal behavior and how they treat it using traditional healing methods.
How the Buddhists Perceive Mental Health
According to Paonil and Sringernyuang (2002), Buddhist culture has a broader perspective on mental health compared with the views held by medical experts. According to this culture, a mind is an important tool that controls every other action that a person engages in at all times. As such, they perceive mental health as the most important health status that one can achieve. In Buddhism, mental health is viewed as the ability of a person to control mental activities rationally. It is the state of mind that determines how one approaches the forces of life he or she encounters. It is important to look at the fundamental issues that define mental health as perceived by the Buddhists.
Ability to Serve and Remain Positive
Life is often full of challenges, and more often than not, it is easy for one to make a wrong decision. It is easy for one to focus on issues that are self-centered and forget about the need to do good to the rest of society and to the environment. According to Buddhists’ culture, mental health is viewed as the ability to rise above personal, self-centered desires in life. It is the ability to make difficult decisions at a time when one is tempted to take an easy way out.
When one is in a good mental state, according to this culture, he or she will be able to sacrifice personal gains just to make society a better place. Managing ego is another factor that is given priority when assessing mental health (Calabrese & Dorji, 2014). This religion involves the training of the mind to view others as being servants. It highly promotes servant leadership as a virtue. As such, being able to serve and let others be served first is not a sign of weakness.
On the contrary, it is a sign of mental strength. A person can take control of the ego and ensure that it does not dictate the decisions that one makes. Mental health is often perceived as the ability of one to remain positive even in the face of serious challenges. Deane (2014) says that Buddhism emphasizes the need to be rational. It means that even when one remains positive, positivity should be grounded on rational reasoning. It also means that when faced with starvation, people should remain positive that a solution will be found, but must remain realistic that they have to do something about the issue or they may end up starving. The positivity will help them not to despair, while the ability to remain realistic will help them to find a solution to the problem.
Ability to Take Ownership
According to Mehraby (2009), Buddhists’ culture perceives mental health as the ability of a person to take ownership of both good and bad outcomes. In life, one can either succeed or fail in the given undertaking. It is easier for one to own successes and blame others for failures. The behavior of apportioning blames perceived as a mental illness in Buddhist culture. A person cannot appreciate that both success and failure are part of life and that they are just stages that one must pass through to reach their final destination in life.
Mentally strong people will be capable of appreciating when they have succeeded or failed because it determines how they approach future forces. When they appreciate that they failed, it is a sign that they have learned something out of such a process and are keen on avoiding their mistakes so that such a failure is avoided.
On the other hand, when they fail to own their mistakes and blame others for them; instead, they tend to view themselves as people who can make mistakes. They will consider the decisions made previously as being correct and, as such, can repeat them in the future. It means that it is easy for them to have the same undesirable results because they did not appreciate the need for them to change the strategy. That is a mental health problem that only causes pain and frustration. That is so because even if one blames others, there is always a constant reminder that what was desired was not achieved.
Ability to Control Desires
According to Dudley (2016), there are numerous desires that a person can have in life. Everyone wants to experience the good things which life can ever offer. The private jets, private yachts, good homes, expensive cars, good food, and service at all times are some of the desires that people often have. However, only a few who have been able to accumulate wealth can have it all. Desires must be controlled for one to be considered of good mental health as per the Buddhists’ practices.
One must understand the personal limits and be able to appreciate that certain things are beyond personal reach. Having such an understanding eliminates the chances of one engaging in criminal activity to meet selfish desires in life. Such mental strength means that one cannot easily fall into a trap. They cannot be manipulated into engaging in activities they do not approve of just to get what their hearts desire.
Ability to be Just and Fair
Justice and fairness are virtues that are defined by one’s mental health. Sometimes one may be in a position of power where they determine what happens to others and themselves. It is a common phenomenon among those who find themselves in positions of leadership. In most of the cases, they can determine the future of specific people or the entire country. It takes strong mental health for people in power to remain just and fair when making decisions.
Most leaders are carried away with power and try to make decisions, which favor them. They forget that they have a responsibility to the people and only focus on the need to enrich or make themselves happy at the expense of others. Buddhist culture considers such practices as a lack of mental health.
People who are of good mental health will look into the future and understand that their actions today may benefit them, but if they fail to protect the future generation, then they may end up suffering when they come out of power. Sometimes their children shall be exposed to pain and suffering because of the self-centered decisions that they make. It means that mentally strong people will make decisions based on what is considered standard practice. In their mind, they must appreciate that unfairness is a vice that must be eliminated by all means. The perception that Buddhists’ have towards mental health defines their actions.
The Use of Meditation as a Cure
According to a report by Akita (2017), it is not common for Buddhists to use medication as a cure for mental illness because they believe the problem can be addressed through meditation. To understand this concept of curing mental health, it is important to revisit the perception that Buddhists have towards mental illness. Stress and depression are believed to be leading mental illnesses within the medical society.
However, Buddhists consider the two as symptoms of a more serious underlying mental problem. The cure for mental illness, as per the practices of Buddhists, should not focus on addressing the symptoms. Giving a person sleeping pills and medication to ease their suffering is not a cure for mental health problems. Counseling a patient on how to overcome stress without understanding the root cause of the stress cannot be a cure. The patient may feel better for a short while when under medication, but the problem may set in soon after. As such, they consider meditation as a cure for mental health.
Meditation, as a Buddhist practice for curing mental health, must be done sincerely, and focus should be on the cause, not symptoms. A person who is depressed must understand the cause of the problem. Tirch (2016) notes that through meditation, the person must be able to explain the role he or she played and own up the mistakes that led to the current situation. When meditating, the person should identify the reality that he or she failed to see, causing the current mental problem. It may be an over expectation problem, underestimation of a challenge, unrealistic desires, among others.
The patient must appreciate that they made a mistake, even if others also contributed to their current problem. Sometimes one’s mistakes can simply be over-trusting strangers or even friends, which may lead to stress if they end up betraying the trust. Through meditation, one must wake up to the reality, admit that a mistake was made, and be willing to make a tough decision based on the realities he or she is faced with. When used properly, meditation can cure mental illnesses.
What the Buddhists Consider as a Mental Illness
In a report by Hughes, Kinder, and Cooper (2012), what Buddhists consider to be a mental illness is slightly different from the conventional definition in medical terms. As mentioned above, they have a broader view of mental health than the views embraced by Western medical experts. According to this culture, mental illness majorly focuses on the inability of the mind to see reality. In the world we live in, being happy is determined by one’s capacity to see realities.
York (2012) defines realities as a state of things as they exist, contrary to the idealistic nature that one may desire. The mind must be capable of seeing reality. It must know the capacities and limits of an individual. It should be clear what one can or cannot do and goals, which are within an individual’s reach. Understanding reality makes it possible for one to control expectations and desires. It emphasizes on the need for one to limit his or her desires to the achievable levels without engaging in criminal activities. When the mind is capable of such rational reasoning in the face of realities, then other mental problems can easily be eliminated.
Living Beyond One’s Means
Mental suffering is often caused by an inability to achieve what the mind desires. Leaving beyond one’s means is one of the best examples of mental health problems according to Buddhist culture. It is caused by the inability of the mind to comprehend the facts, and as such, one would be forced to spend more than they can generate. The result of such practices is that in a short while such a person will run into debts and may even be tempted to steal as a way of meeting the costs of such expensive lifestyles.
When finally, such a person is arrested, then stress and depression sets in. According to Sommers-Flanagan and Sommers-Flanagan (2012), in Buddhist culture, the focus is often given to what causes stress and depression as opposed to viewing stress and depression as mental health. In this culture, stress and depression are only the symptoms of a more serious problem. They are symptoms of a mind that is unable to see the reality and adjust to it as would be necessary.
Immoral Practices
Tirch (2016) says that Buddhist culture places a massive emphasis on managing mental health because it is the source of all the suffering. Sexual immorality, stealing, robbing, getting into unnecessary fights are all caused by mental weaknesses. Given that Buddhist culture places serious emphasis on the need to eliminate all forms of suffering, they consider mental health to be very important for one to lead a normal life.
A healthy mind will make it easy for one to lead a normal life where self-control and restraint are practiced. Such practices help in avoiding trouble that may cause pain. It helps in ensuring that one avoids unnecessary desires that may lead to psychological torture or engagement in practices that may lead to mistakes or crimes. The moment one develops stress in mind, it is always an indication of a more serious issue that was not addressed at the time. It can be a goal that was not achieved, physical pain caused by engaging in unlawful or immoral practices, or such other issues related to one’s inability to be rational.
Aggression and Intolerance
According to Elder, Evans, and Nizette (2013), Buddhists also view mental health from the perspective of being able to relate well with other members of society. One of the important mental practices that are often taught to young children who want to become monks is how to live with others harmoniously in society. One must avoid causing deliberate pain and suffering to other members of society. Stealing, killing, sexual immorality, and unnecessary fights are all classified as a mental problem.
People who cannot lead peaceful lives have a mental problem. Their aggression and desire to harm others is only a symptom through which a serious mental problem manifests itself. Addressing the symptoms through punishment or imprisonment may not solve the problem. It may only deter one from engaging in such crimes when they know they can be detected. The real solution lies with understanding the cause of their behavior, which may sometimes require an understanding of their background.
Irrational Decisions
According to the Buddhist’s culture, when one is unable to make a rational decision, he or she may be considered to have a mental problem. Suicide is one of the irrational decisions. This religion teaches its followers how to avoid suffering in all its forms. It is irrational for one to take his or her own life because it involves inflicting pain on ones’ self. The mind should guide one on what is rational and what is not. The moment one is faced with a situation where one has to make a decision, it is expected that reason, morality, and kindness would guide the entire process. As such, the decision made will not be a source of pain to the decision-makers and others who may be affected directly or indirectly.
How the Buddhists Assess for Abnormal Behavior
According to Chung and Bemak (2012), assessment for abnormal behavior is critical because Buddhists believe it is a symptom of a mental illness that may need to be addressed before it can degenerate to serious problems. One of the earliest abnormal behaviors of one who is having mental problems is a situation where a person speaks to oneself as though he or she is having a conversation with another person.
It is normal for one to make audible prayers, even in the absence of other people. However, in cases where an individual starts speaking to himself, especially on issues that are unpleasant to them, then it is an indication that the person is having a problem in mind. It may be a verbal outburst, a constant curse, or a warning to the imaginary people they have in their minds. Akita (2017) says that another abnormal behavior that people with mental problems often have is the tendency to avoid other people. When people who were previously social and liked interacting with people start avoiding their presence, it is a sign that they have a mental problem.
The new behavior may be motivated by their inability to maintain conversations as they used to before. The fear of becoming boring for others or being out of place when with others forces them to keep to themselves instead of interacting freely.
When the issue is not addressed, then the affected individual may start having more serious behavioral problems. Tirch (2016) says that Buddhist monks are often keen to identify irrational anger and reactions, especially among people who were previously behaving normally. Their resentment towards other people and sometimes towards themselves makes them easily irritable. They become defensive at the slightest provocation, keen to avoid any blames. Akita (2017) would describe it as a self-defense mechanism, especially if their mental pain and suffering were caused by people who betrayed them.
They tend to view everyone as being less trustworthy and as try to build a wall around them to protect them from future manipulations. Their abnormal behavior may deteriorate to paranoia, where they become disillusioned, embrace unnecessary jealousy, obsessed with specific things, and exaggerate their self-worth. This aspect of personality disorder needs urgent attention because it can quickly degenerate to depression if the patients fail to achieve what they desire through their abnormal behavior.
How to Treat Mental Illness by Using Traditional Healing
According to Baker (2012), the approach that Buddhists take to cure mental illness is very different from that approach that medical doctors take. In a conventional hospital, a person suffering from a mental health problem is often subjected to medicine and professional psychological counseling. However, Buddhists have a completely different approach to addressing mental illness. The following are the main ways through which mental illness is addressed among Buddhists:
Monastic Counseling
According to Fernando (2014), just like professional counselors, Buddhist monks are trained to counsel people who are suffering from mental health problems. Once one appreciates that he or she has a mental health problem and need help from the monks, the mentally sick person will have a one-on-one session with the monk at a pre-determined time. In such sessions, such a person will explain the nature of the mental problem.
The monk will help the person understand the possible cause of the mental problem and try to find a solution from within. Often it involves a series of sessions where the monk and the mentally sick individual discuss the issue believed to be the cause of the problem. The monk will try to determine if the person is making progress towards finding a solution to the problem. The monk will try to make the individual own-up personal shortfalls and be ready to address them without blaming others.
Self-Meditation
One of the best-known treatments for mental health problems among the Buddhists is self-meditation. When one is undergoing a stressful situation or conditions where the mind is troubled because of a very challenging decision that they have to make, self-meditation is highly recommended. The individual is required to find a quiet ground, take time to think through the problem, identify their position, and try to find ways through which they can address the problem.
They are encouraged to be guided by the desire to do good because such deeds tend to create internal peace and satisfaction, especially if the actions they take end up benefitting others. Self-meditation is considered a strategy where one is empowered to take full control of their mental state. They are required to overcome ego, worldly desires, and unnecessary competition and instead focus on the need to practice kindness, compassion, fairness, and the ability to protect the environment. It is believed that through such meditation, one would understand personal limits and avoid stressors that one has no control over.
It is important to appreciate that Buddhists’ traditional healing methods cannot treat madness, especially at advanced stages. This traditional method works well with people who can reason and differentiate between good and bad. When a mental problem reaches the level of madness, then it is prudent for one to seek medical help in mental institutions where doctors can assess their conditions, and necessary medical assistance offered appropriately.
Conclusion
Traditional healing in Buddhist culture concerning mental health has become a focus of study in the recent past because it is finding its way in the Western world. Some people believe in the therapeutic benefits of meditation as practiced in the Buddhist culture. The practice emphasizes the need for only to take full control in managing one’s mental health. In a society where stressors are numerous, this culture encourages people to remain realistic.
It defines mental illness as the inability of one to reason rationally when faced with various forces. The desire to have excessive wealth, inability to consider the needs of others and understand their pain and the practice of viewing one as being special over others are some of the mental weaknesses that should be eliminated. Through meditation, one can have a debate with his or her conscience, appreciate the need to respect and value others, and always act and live within one’s means. Meditation is a tool that helps in strengthening the mind and addressing mental problems.
References
Akita, I. (2017). A Japanese Jungian perspective on mental health and culture: Wandering madness. New York, NY: Cengage.
Baker, D. B. (2012). The Oxford handbook of the history of psychology: Global perspectives. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Calabrese, J., & Dorji, C. (2014). Traditional and modern understandings of mental illness in Bhutan: Preserving the benefits of each to support gross national happiness. Journal of Bhutan Studies, 30(1), 1-27.
Chung, R. C.-Y., & Bemak, F. (2012). Social justice counseling: The next steps beyond multiculturalism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Deane, S. (2014). From sadness to madness: Tibetan perspectives on the causation and treatment of psychiatric illness. Religions, 5(1), 444-458.
Dudley, J. (2016). Spirituality matters in social work: Connecting spirituality, religion, and practice. New York, NY: Routledge.
Elder, R., Evans, K., & Nizette, D. (2013). Psychiatric and mental health nursing. Chatswood, Australia: Mosby/Elsevier.
Fernando, S. (2014). Mental health worldwide: Culture, globalization and development. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hughes, R., Kinder, A., & Cooper, C. L. (2012). International handbook of workplace trauma support. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
Mehraby, N. (2009). Possessed or crazy? Mental illness across cultures. Psychotherapy in Australia, 15(2), 43.
Paonil, W., & Sringernyuang, L. (2002). Buddhist perspectives on health and healing. The Chulalongkorn Journal of Buddhist Studies, 1(2), 94-104.
Sommers-Flanagan, J., & Sommers-Flanagan, R. (2012). Counseling and psychotherapy theories in context and practice: Skills, strategies, and techniques. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Tirch, D. D. (2016). Buddhist psychology and cognitive-behavioral therapy: A clinician’s guide. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
York, W. H. (2012). Health and wellness in antiquity through the Middle Ages. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood.
Buddhism believes that all diseases come from a person’s mind, so it is this aspect that is most often paid attention to. Thus, problems with the psychological state of people become one of the main reasons. Moreover, the body and mind are interdependent; thus, Buddhists consider greed, anger, and ignorance as the main aspects affecting the deterioration of human well-being.
Healthcare Providers
The Buddhist religion has a fairly open positive attitude toward healthcare providers. Thus, modern representatives of this faith are willing to seek medical assistance from doctors, nurses and NPs (Kalra et al., 2018). However, some supporters of Buddhism are reluctant to trust healthcare providers and prefer alternative methods of treating diseases.
Healthcare
Regarding treatment and medications, one of the main prohibited treatment methods is euthanasia and any methods of artificial continuation of life. Research stated that “according to Buddhism, the pure and wonderful Dharma is the perfect medicine for an ailing mind, as well as a sick body” (“Buddhism, medicine & health,” n.d., para. 2). Thus, representatives of this regalia believe that an individual’s body should to fight the disease on their own, and doctors should do everything to provide the most effective help.
Health-Seeking Behaviors
As mentioned earlier, followers of Buddhism have a positive opinion about going to doctors. Even though alternative methods of providing care are also practiced, Buddhists do not wait until the last moment to contact medical specialists.
Rituals
In Buddhism, parents take their children, during the first month, to the Buddha statue and ask for a blessing. Moreover, they believe that after death, people are washed and placed in a coffin with wreaths and candles.
Foods
Buddhists adhere to vegetarianism and are forbidden to drink alcoholic beverages. It is believed that a person is there to live, and not to live to eat.
Body Language
Buddhists adhere most often to nonverbal communication, so eye contact, touching and hand gestures are common among them.
Religion
A special place in the Buddhist religion for people has a temple as a place where all the main rituals related to religion take place. Thus, there they “pray, meditate participate in religious ceremonies, make offers, light incense and candles” (“Buddhism rituals,” n.d., para. 25). Moreover, in this place they can meditate and chants mantras.
Kalra, S., Priya, G., Grewal, E., Aye, T. T., Waraich, B. K., SweLatt, T., Khun, T., Phanvarine, M., Sutta, S., Kaush, U., Manilka, Ruder, S., & Kalra, B. (2018). Lessons for the Health-care Practitioner from Buddhism. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 22(6), 812.
Various religious architectural structures were developed as early 1400 BC; in which various religions have been associated with them for a long period up to date. In this paper, a critical appraisal of various architectures in Buddhism, Christianity and Islamic religions and their significance will be presented.
Perhaps, these religious architectural structures have great significance in the religions associated with them; as they portray some untold beliefs and ideas that constitute such religious organizations. More specifically, each religious architectural structure can be described to be having a number of explanations concerning the beliefs and rituals of such religions. Among the many religious organizations in the world, each of one of them has its architectural designs and buildings associated with it; in which their ways of living are associated with (Behrens 100 – 127).
The Architectural Structures in Buddhism Religion
In Buddhism religion, various architectural structures like Stupas which are oldest in Buddhism and Pagodas which are major form of architectural structures in Buddhism have been used for long time up to date.
An example of a PagodaAn example of Stupas
In Buddhist religion, various architectural structures have been developed and associated with the religion for more than 700 years; where the structures depicted the uniqueness of Buddhists. Initially, Buddhism originated from Indian culture; where Buddha teachings were strongly emphasized. In this regard, there are two basic architectural structures associated with Buddhism which include the Stupas and the Pagodas. As Buddhism is an old religion, the architectural structures associated with it have developed sequentially from one era to another; indicating various beliefs and values of that religion. In this regard therefore, the followers of Buddhism have been associating themselves with these architectural structural which represented better, their way of spiritual life up to date (Ajanta 143 – 155).
In this case, Stupas are among the oldest architectural structures in Buddhism; whose main function was to safeguard the historical object of Buddha, the founder of Buddhist religion. As depicted by the structural appearance of Stupas, the relics displayed represent a religion whose belief in their gods was endless and relishing. In this regard, the symbolic representation of these architectural structures meant an endless reliance on their gods; whom they believed never let them down. One of the most significant features of Stupas is that, they were conical in shape and had broad base indicating the massive strength of their gods. In this case an example of a Stupa is Jetavanaramaya which is a brick-clad in Sri Lanka (Ajanta 143 – 155).
On the other hand, Pagodas formed the major form of Buddhism architectural structures; where they were modified structures and incorporated specific symbols in Buddhist religion. Perhaps, Pagodas symbolized royalty and were constructed to form structures like an umbrella, symbolizing the Buddha. In fact, Pagodas with time became so deeply incorporated in Buddhism that; they became inseparable structures in the countries which practice Buddhism like in India, Southern Asia and Korea among others. As depicted in Pagodas, the erected towers on them has been believed to represent the five basics of the society which include, air, fire, water, soil and ether. Further, the outside profile of pagodas represented the domicile of their gods and the hub of the creation. More so, the internal subdivisions of the Pagodas represented the periphery for various activities like offering of sacrifices, confession of sins and thanks giving among others. Generally, a Buddhist architectural structure became divergent in style, and with time dominated the northern countries’ art in building and prevails even today. On this basis, a good example here is the Mahamuni Pagoda which is found in Mandalay (Ajanta 143 – 155).
The Architectural Structures in Christianity Religion
In Christian religion, various architectural structures like the church building and the cross-used to represent the Christians’ beliefs and practices.
An example of a church with various decorationsAn example of the cross on a church wall
In Christian religion, various architectural structures have also been developed in response to the beliefs and practices by its followers. From the onset of Christianity several centuries ago up to date, Christians have developed various architectural designs; in which the most significant structures developed include the highly decorated churches and the cross. Generally, the decorations in various churches like the Salisbury Cathedral church, represents the ultimate ideality expected of all Christians and the life they ought to lead especially in this awful society. In this case, these structures were used to depict various values and beliefs that Christians had and still have, whose their main purpose was to gather people together for various encouragements. As the structure of the buildings depicted, the symbols found within such buildings had one or two interpretations (Schloeder 87-113).
Certainly, the cross on the Basilica of the early church was developed during the early Christendom when the persecution of Christians in Rome was taking place. From that time, various churches were built and a cross was always included at one end of the church, which was always elongated. As it was interpreted, the cross on the church buildings indicated the death of Jesus Christ whom they believed had come to redeem them from their sins. After passing a hard time of tribulations, Christians found it crucial to establish a the cross on the church buildings which would reflect their faith and hope in their God. In this regard, this architectural structure was adopted by all Christians corresponding to public and majestic forms; as their God was not selective and offered for all people to come and worship Him. Being a large hall which was rectangular in shape, Basilica was meeting point for all Christians where they worshiped their God. It is of great importance to note that; the cross was always fixed on one end of the church which extended upwards above the roof of the building. As indicated earlier, this cross indicated the death of Jesus Christ; whom they believed had come to redeem them from their sins. On the sides of the church, there were also windows and doors which had rounded corners indicating the smoothness, coherence and harmony that existed within the Basilica (Howard 12-29).
On the other hand, the various decorations on the church like the ones on the Salisbury Cathedral church, which was completed in 1265 AD, also represents the Christian architectural structures in the modern society. In fact, the Salisbury cathedral church is one of the most decorated public places in the world. As the building depicts, church represented the belief and the lifestyle by Christians that, they should live an ideal life which is pure and free from earthily practices as their God was Holy and righteous. As it was interpreted, God’s gracious actions were represented by the upward tower in the building which indicated His eternity and love to human race. To the Christians, the numerous decorations found in the church indicated purity and loyalty of their God whom they believed came down from heavens to commune with them during worship days. Further, the sub-towers on this building represent church leaders who ought to lead all the followers of Jesus in truth and sincerity. Lastly, the openings of the building are smoothly rounded at the corners which further reflects the harmony and peace expected of Christians in all aspects and wherever they are. Generally, the decorations in the Salisbury Cathedral church represents the ultimate ideality expected of all Christians and the life they ought to lead especially in this awful society. Generally, the numerous decorations on and in the church indicated that; the church is a holy place where the Christians went to meet with their God (Howard 12-29).
The Architectural Structures in Islamic Religion
An example of The T-Type MosqueAn example of the Central Dome Mosque
Among the three religions, Islamic religion has been revealed to be having the widest range of both worldly and sacred styles since the foundation of the religion. On this basis, various influential designs and architectural structures in the Islamic culture have been revealed where the main architectural buildings include the ‘T-Type Mosque’ and the ‘Central Dome Mosque’. It has been revealed that, these types of Islamic structures form a foundation for the building of other buildings of less significance in the religion like domestic architecture among others. More so, among the other religions in the world, Islamic architectural structures have been revealed to be the most decorated and having the best designs (Schloeder 87-113).
In this case, the ‘Central Dome Mosque’ is one of the most decorated architectural structures in the Islamic religion; which forms the nerve center of worship among the Muslims. Being an old religion, Muslims were believed to be the most creative identities whose works of art and design were unique and exceptional. As it was revealed in their mosques, Muslims can be described as very creative in nature; where this creativity has been revealed in their highly decorated mosques. During the time of Muhammad, the architectural style of Islamic religion was remarkable in the world; in which they developed unique structures which had specially decorated patterns for the mosque. It is of great importance to note that; the decorations found in the Mosque indicated the endless supremacy and ability of Allah, in safeguarding his people. On a close study of Islamic Mosques, one would find that there is a high order of repetition, radiation and rhythm of patterns which further implies the peaceful and unchanging Allah. Generally, the Mosque has been revealed to be one of the most unique architectural structures in Islamic religion by being one of the most decorated structures in the world. In this case an example of the ‘Central Dome Mosques’ include the Mesquite Mosque in Cordoba, Britain (Cruickshank 38-77).
On the other hand the T-Type Mosques were made of a broad base and an elongated tower, which contained a bell. As the name suggests, the T-Type Mosques had a shape similar to small letter t, which was also smartly furnished and well decorated. Mosques of this type had numerous support pillars which made them very strong and durable. This could be interpreted to mean that; Allah, their God was protecting them endlessly as his power was unlimited and used many ways of communicating to His people. An example of T-Type of Mosques is the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca, Morocco (Schloeder 87-113).
Conclusion
In general terms, various architectural structures found in different religions imply a lot in explaining the untold beliefs and values of its followers; as revealed in the cases of Buddhism, Christianity and Islamic religions. As it has been revealed, the various architectural structures in different religions have their significance; where they reflect the beliefs and lifestyles of such religions. By so doing, a religion becomes identified well in terms of the structures associated with it in various aspects. Generally, the architectural structures found in all religions impact a lot in the followers of such religions and the subsequent lifestyles they lead.
Works cited
Ajanta, Eduardo. “The world of Buddhism in Architectural Development”. New York:Prentice Hall Publishers. (2005): 143 – 155.
Behrens, Abouseif. “A History of Architecture and Its Culture”. New York: Macmillan Publishers. (2008): 100 – 127.
Cruickshank, Dan. “Sir Banister Fletcher’s History of Architechture”. London: Architectural Press. (1996): 38 – 77.
Howard, Fraud. “The mediaeval styles of the English Paris Church”. London: Routledge Publishers. (1937): 12-29.
Schloeder, Steven. “Architecture in Communion”. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. (1998): 87 – 113.
Zen Buddhism has had a big influence on the development of tea ceremony in Japan. The Tea Ceremony was a custom which came to Japan from continental China and had a dramatic influence on the country’s culture.
Zen Buddhism has strengthened the relevance of this ceremony because it is done within tranquil surroundings influenced by nature. This tea is served in a tranquil environment and involves a set of practices which hold a lot of relevance to all those who participate in the ceremony. The ceremony is organized by a skilled expert who needs to be familiar with different types of tea.1
This practice is deeply rooted in Zen Buddhism and gives more relevance to the ideas of harmony, respect, purity and tranquility. These ideas are combined with the design of the gardens, art forms, external and internal décor, within settings where the ceremony takes place.
Zen Buddhism makes followers have a world view which is mainly influenced by nature. Therefore, it makes followers appreciate the harmony which exists in the simplicity of nature and the way it influences form and beauty. 2Zen Buddhism encourages all those who take part in the Tea Ceremony to meditate more, to enable them have a deeper reflection of themselves and the kind of lives they are leading.
The ceremony encourages strong spiritualism and those who participate in it must make their minds and bodies relax, to help them meditate fully on their purpose in this world. This makes people who participate in the tea ceremony to have a more intellectual insight into all things which contribute to existence. The four concepts which influence the discipline of the tea ceremony will be discussed below.
The ‘Wa’ (Harmony) principle emphasizes a feeling of unity between nature and human beings. This is reinforced in the tea ceremony in the way the host relates with his guests and the way guests relate with each other. The principle focuses on the changing season because it helps to bring out the mood in the ceremony. 3
The Kei (Respect) principle emphasizes the importance of showing gratitude to oneself and to the life one lives everyday. It also emphasizes the importance of showing respect to the external environment and other physical objects because they have a special place in worldly existence.4
This principle makes the host to be hospitable to his guests. Guests are required to care about the welfare of other people and handle other inanimate objects around them more respectfully.
The Sei (Purity) principle emphasizes cleanliness and holiness, both physically and spiritually. This cleanliness is deeply associated with enlightenment and is a crucial practice in Zen Buddhism. Guests are required to clean their hands and mouths before entering the venue where the tea ceremony is performed. This makes them more pure in body and spirit to enable them become more enlightened.5
The Jaku (Tranquility) principle is attained by people who focus attentively on the first three principles of harmony, respect and purity. This requires every individual who takes part in a tea ceremony to have inner drive which helps him or her stay calm and still.6 It requires participants to have a more spiritual outlook to life to enable them attain tranquility in their bodies and in their minds.
Bibliography
Dumoulin, Heinrich. Zen Buddhism: Japan. London: World Wisdom Inc, 2005.
Towler, Solala. Cha Dao: The Way of Tea, Tea as a Way of Life. Tokyo: Singing Dragon, 2010.
Footnotes
1 Heinrich Dumoulin, Zen Buddhism: Japan (London: World Wisdom Inc, 2005), 58.
2 Ibid., 59.
3 Solala Towler,.Cha Dao: The Way of Tea, Tea as a Way of Life (Tokyo: Singing Dragon, 2010) 237.
Over the years, Buddhism has been significantly disconnected from its religious aspects by the market-driven values of capitalism. Buddhism is represented within specific contexts that relate to mindfulness, meditation, and other alterations that do not necessarily represent the actual religious ideology. This popular association that has been created by advertisers for the purposes of commodification has transformed Buddhism into a resource of imagery and concepts for vendors within the context of a modern marketplace (Wilson 109).
A wide variety of products and businesses openly utilize Buddhism-inspired symbols, terminology, and cultural associations. An investigation showed that the products are not always a part of certain “trends,” with Buddhism symbols becoming such an integrated part of marketing that they have become used for simply decorative purposes. For example, Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 are simple jewelry items that serve no religious purpose or significance, aimed at wearable decorations for women.
However, the company selling the ring actively uses the lotus symbol as its brand logo with an image of a meditating woman in the background. Meanwhile, the pendant product description indicates a metaphorical aspect of the dharma wheel symbol in Buddhism and the “spirituality” it represents.
Fig. 3 which is an incense set and Fig. 4 meditation necklace is the closest products which can be associated with some religious significance. Both items are used in religious practices. However, the aspect of commercialization remains. The product descriptions attempt to establish the origin of the products as countries in Asia with significant Buddhist associations. Furthermore, the products are once again broken down on a symbolic level to indicate how each element represents a specific ancient tradition or ideology within the Buddhist context.
Figure 3: Buddha garden incense set.Figure 4: Handmade Buddhist meditation necklace.
Some products, however, do not focus as much on symbolism as creating a brand or atmosphere around a Buddhist oriented word. Fig. 5 shows a restaurant sign, Fig. 6 is a soundtrack, and Fig. 7 is a yoga wheel. All three of these have one or two words in their title to indicate a connection to Buddhism, but their brand symbols are not recognizable iconic symbols. However, it is evident that the businesses have built a brand around the concept of Buddhism association.
Figure 5: Jade Buddha Restaurant Chain.Figure 6: Zen Garden Soundtrack for Meditation.Figure 7: Yoga Dharma wheel.
The restaurant has an atmosphere of Asian ambiance with an abundance of Buddhism imagery and artifacts in its decoration that are misused for secular purposes despite the restaurant serving mostly non-Asian foods (Lam). The soundtrack uses the word “zen” and is aimed at meditation practice according to the description. The linguistically ubiquitous use of “zen” has become synonymous with peaceful and focused. It has been created by the dramatic semiotic transformation led by marketing media which sought to establish a brand around this word and other religious terminology (Irizarry, 57).
The remaining products, such as a backpack (Fig. 8), meditation cushion (Fig. 9), and iPhone case (Fig. 10) are essentially the most secular and fundamental commercialization of Buddhism. Businesses producing these goods simply take symbols associated with the religion and place them on any commercially viable product. These have little to no association with religious or cultural affiliations of Buddhism besides popularly commercialized symbols which seem to be used only for decorative and marketing purposes.
Figure 8: Backpack with Three Jewels Buddhism imprint.Figure 9: Meditation cushion pillow.Figure 10: iPhone case with Unalome symbol.
These products are aimed at the majority public that is driven by certain “fads” of fascination with Buddhism without having any knowledge or understanding of the religion besides the popularly commercialized symbolic associations. These symbols and impressions are virtually free marketing, resulting in no design or copyright costs for businesses. An appropriation of commercialized Buddhism by the public presents an opportunity for enterprises to profit significantly.
Works Cited
Irizarry, Joshua. “Putting a Price on Zen: The Business of Redefining Religion for Global Consumptions.” Journal of Global Buddhism, vol. 16, 2015, pp. 51-69.
Wilson, Jeff. “Selling Mindfulness: Commodity Lineages and the Marketing of Mindful Products.” Handbook of Mindfulness: Culture, Context, and Social Engagement, edited by Ronald Purser, David Forbes, and Adam Burke, Springer, 2016, pp. 109-119.
