Category: Buddhism

Introduction

Remarkable aesthetic qualities of images depicting Gautama Buddha’s encounter with the nirvana or Nehanzu (the nirvana images) suggests that of all the events in the sage’s life, his death occupied an extremely important place in the imagination of Japanese artists. Paintings of the event are rare artifacts of the cultural tradition of Japan; therefore, a hanging scroll Death of Historical Buddha, which is owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, is justly famous. The moment of historical Buddha’s nirvana is “one of the quintessential motifs in Buddhism” that is of particular interest from the iconographic and historical perspectives.[1]

Buddhism reached Japan after its Indian heritage has undergone remarkable transformations in China. It arrived on the island with thousand-year-old canons of thought that directed a pious act of the creation of hanging scrolls.[2] The Buddha, who is also known as Sakyamuni, occupied the highest position in the Buddhist iconographic rank; therefore, both composition and the artists’ brushwork were guided by the strict rules of iconography.[3] The astonishing depiction of historical Buddha’s death carries important implications for practitioners of Buddhist doctrine: the promise of nirvana was fulfilled with the sage’s attainment of final release that was witnessed by numerous commoners and monks. As such, the nirvana images were used as harbingers of hope that compelled their beholders to abandon their anxieties caused by Sakyamuni’s absence from the realm of mortals and accept the tenets of Zen Buddhism.

The aim of this paper is to analyze the hanging scroll Death of the Historical Buddha in the context of Zen Buddhist doctrine and practice. The paper will argue that naturalistic traditions of Japanese art were developed as a result of an encounter of Japanese canon of thought with visual and theological canons of Chinese Buddhism.

Visual Analysis

The hanging scroll Death of the Historical Buddha is a perfect example of an idiosyncratic subgenre of the nirvana images, which permeated Japanese art in the sixth century after the adoption of Buddhism.[4] The composition of the nirvana images rests on two essential elements: a golden body of the sage with his head pointing to the West and feet to the East, and a group of lamenting followers who observe his nirvana.[5] The scroll depicts canonical nirvana narrative, in which the enormous body of reclining Buddha is strategically positioned at the physical midpoint of the composition, thereby directing the viewers’ attention to the most important stage of his spiritual enlightenment. Gautama lies on his right side with his head turned to the viewers; he is positioned in such a manner in order to immediately reveal that he has actually met the final stage of enlightenment. This tradition of representing the final life event of the teacher was borrowed by Japanese Buddhist artists from the traditions of Chinese and Gandharan art.[6] The figure of the first person who was able to escape the wheel of continuous reincarnations dominates the hanging scroll. In accordance with Japanese Buddhist canons, the Buddha’s dimensions surpass those of the surrounding figures. According to Visser, “this important feature is certainly no Japanese innovation, as is clearly proved by two nirvana paintings in Tun-Huang.”[7]

The Buddha is surrounded by lamenting followers who cannot comprehend the significance and joy of the process of casting down the shackles of carnal existence by their teacher and, therefore, are overwhelmed with grief. Unlike laypersons who have not achieved a high level of understanding of the negation of desires, Bodhisattva Jizo, whose head is free of an elaborate headdress and whose face is touched by a charm of calm dignity, observes nirvana in peaceful serenity.[8] He stands next to Gautama collected and composed, and holds what appears to be a jewel. Eight other Bodhisattvas stand behind the teacher; their faces and postures show signs of enormous grief. The creatures dressed in princely garbs, flowing scarves, and golden necklaces of great beauty that contrast with ascetic features of the nearby trees. Their heads are adorned with jeweled crowns that are different one from the other and show their high-ranking within the iconographic canon of Japanese Buddhist art. Bodhisattvas are grayish-green and red. The colors underscore the vociferousness of their emotions: they stretch their arms and weep. The extreme agitation of other witnesses of nirvana, whose twisted in anguish figures suggest that they are not as free of passion as Bodhisattva Jizo is, fills the forefront of Death of the Historical Buddha. The monks and laypeople are overcome with sorrow to such an extent that they seem to be oblivious to their surroundings.

Amidst the followers of the Buddha are grieving, colorful animals and birds who make an interesting contrast with the cold, olive ground. Even the distribution of white, black, yellow, blue, olive, red, brown, green, and orange colors surrounding the golden body of the Buddha creates an almost uniform color pattern.

The aesthetic value of Death of the Historical Buddha lies in the harmony of the colors, impeccable composition and vigorous poignancy of the brush strokes, which is especially evident in the fauna that seems to be mourning along with the manifold figures depicted on the scroll. Even if one were to apply the most unforgiving standards to this remarkable exemplar of Japanese Nehanzu, they would discover that it exhibits artistic precision of the highest degree. Touching the Buddhist atmosphere and numerous details that merit appreciation helps to create emotional value that is inextricably connected with the hanging scroll’s aesthetic value.

Naturalistic Traditions of Zen Buddhism

The subject of scrutiny cannot be separated from its religious context: Zen Buddhism regarded nature as a continuation of universal consciousness; therefore, Japanese artists wanted to externalize their inner Buddha through intense concentration on subjects of their works. In words of Waley, “the Buddha-nature is immanent not in Man only, but in everything that exists, animate or inanimate.”[9] Hence the obsession with the naturalistic representation of visual details, which was not inherent to Japanese art tradition before its encounter with philosophical tenets of Zen Buddhism. In order to better understand emerging naturalistic elements in the hanging scroll, it is necessary to consider the historical context in which the art piece was created.

Zen Buddhism was transmitted to Japan from China around the thirteenth century.[10] The religion quickly took hold and underwent substantial transformation because of the unrelenting influence of kami worship and native cults such as Shinto that through a process of syncretism merged discrete traditions.[11] The assimilation of Zen Buddhism in Japan was facilitated by the samurai class that showed a substantial level of cultural acceptance for the new worldview that also brought into Japan an elaborate writing and political systems, music, and technologies.[12] Furthermore, samurais opposed the privatization of the religion by elites and assisted its propagation among all social strata. As a result of the support from the samurai class, which was highly-respected in Japanese society, and the incorporation of syncretic elements in the Buddhist doctrines, religion became one of the most popular systems of spiritual beliefs in Japan. The popularity of Zen Buddhism in Japanese society can also be attributed to the fact that it supported personal expression, and encouraged intuition, and naturalism.

The introduction of new religious practices resulted in the emergence of a distinctive naturalistic aesthetic, which can be described by amorphous concepts Wabi and Sabi that “express a sense of rusticity, melancholy, loneliness, naturalness, and age.”[13] The Buddhist doctrines hold that the Buddha is manifested in “both man and nature, in both human activity and natural phenomena.”[14] The expression of the wabi-sabi aesthetic and the accompanying naturalism of Zen Buddhism is evident in the loneliness of grief-stricken witnesses of nirvana depicted in Death of the Historical Buddha. The irregular shapes of the Buddha followers, a general state of disheveledness of their robes, and the sense of movement that almost morphs all figures into an abstract force of melancholy are all parts of the iconographic layout of the nirvana images that was borrowed from the traditions of Chinese visual culture. It should be noted that despite appropriating numerous visual elements from works of Chinese artists, the emphasis on the naturalistic representation of pictorial subjects that was inherent to Japanese Buddhist doctrines led to notable changes of the nirvana images both in form and content.[15] The development of a unique Japanese microcosm of image creation was also predicated on the existence of disparate historical, ethnic, and cultural configurations between the two countries. The form was more autonomous in Japan; therefore, the pictorial representation of the moment of nirvana was substantially influenced by the unique socio-cultural conditions of the country.

The motif of perpetual transformation inherent to the nirvana images was used to introduce “further changes in the images’ formal configuration that, in turn, helped generate different kinds of responses” from their beholders.[16] The conceptual richness of this approach is especially evident in Death of the Historical Buddha, in which a lack of prescriptions on the number of mourners is used to portray a widespread acceptance of Zen Buddhism by flooding the hanging scroll with characters. Another use of the motif of perpetual transformation that warrants notice is the conspicuous coloring of flora on the scroll. On the right side of the painting, trees are fading and yellow; on the left side of the nirvana image, trees are vividly green and are blooming with life and vigor. Just like Gautama, who broke symbolic boundaries between death and everlasting presence, Zen Buddhism in Japan broke boundaries between different religious beliefs. It can be argued that the incorporation of these visual elements into the traditional Chinese nirvana image, was a sign of syncretism that helped to spread the new religion on the island.

Conclusion

The analysis of the hanging scroll Death of the Historical Buddha in the context of Zen Buddhism doctrine and practice showed that intertwining relationships between the religion and art led to the emergence of new naturalistic approaches to the visual expression of Japanese artists. Specifically, the naturalistic traditions of Japanese art were developed as a result of the encounter of the Japanese canon of thought with visual and theological canons of Chinese Buddhism.

Bibliography

“Buddhism in Japan.” Khan Academy. Web.

“Death of the Historical Buddha (Nehan-zu).” Met Museum. Web.

Fisher, Felice. “Japanese Buddhist Art.” Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin 87, no. 369 (1991): 3-27.

Ishida, Ichiro, and Delmer Brown. “Zen Buddhism and Muromachi Art.” The Journal of Asian Studies 22, no. 4 (1963): 417-432.

Lee, Sonya. Surviving Nirvana: Death of the Buddha in Chinese Visual Culture. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2010.

Priest, Alan. “A Note on Japanese Painting.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 11, no. 8 (1953): 201-240.

Sherwood, Moran. “The Death of Buddha: A Painting at Koyasan.” Artibus Asiae 36, no. 1 (1974): 97-146.

Visser, Herbert. “A Japanese Painting of the Death of the Buddha in the Museum of Asiatic Art, Amsterdam.” Artibus Asiae 10, no. 1 (1974): 43-55.

Waley, Arthur. Zen Buddhism and its Relation to Art. London: Luzac & Co., 1922.

Watanabe, Masako. Storytelling in Japanese Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011.

“Zen Buddhism.” Met Museum. Web.

In the creation hymn of the Rg Vega, Aditi is acknowledged to be the god of all gods because he is the creator and has equally been granted the status of five men. Aditi is the god through whom all has been born and shall be born from because he is a god. He has an everlasting law that forgives all the wrong doings of people. The hymn of this everlasting law is exciting and radiant, because it has enlightened the deaf ears of the living people.

The external rules of the law are fundamental and deep rooted and the law is impressive because it is unbiased. The central question on the creation hymn of the Rg Vega is the following ‘Why should sin be condoned by the gods of all gods?’

According to the lessons of philosophy found in Changdoya Upanisad, everything that exists in the world originates from life and pulsates in it. The dialogue between Svetaketu and his teacher Uddalaka Aruni illustrates the lessons of the philosophy. The upanisad also declares that when all these things are converted into someone, no one can be able to identify who is known by whom. The supreme spirit is inevitable to everybody because it has light and exists above, below, to the front and back, before, and sideways.

The reality of Atman can be defined as the supreme essence in which the whole universe has as itself. This is illustrated by the way in which the body is reduced to ashes and the mind dies when a person passes away. The Atman is the self in which there is existence, wisdom, and delight. The Atman is equally universal and eternal. The objective world is reliant to the reality of Atman.

Buddha’s doctrine of dependent origination as a response to the problem of dukkha can be defined as one thing being dependent on another entity. Buddha claims that life is a flow of development into something else. Everything passes away from tears, people’s aspirations and dreams. The universal preeminence of death is inevitable to every single person in the world. Buddha thus claims that there is nothing everlasting in the pragmatic self. The law of independent origination illustrates that the self is a combination of person’s emotions and perception.

Buddha’s doctrine of dependent origination is attributed to the ignorance of people which has been listed as comprising of reliance. The ignorance of people can instigate from any of the constituents of being, for instance, karma and the rest. Dependent origination can only exist when people are reliant on one another and in this particular case, when none of their details is absent.

Buddha’s doctrine of dependent origination may equally exist when people can have eradication of existence in the world. Other factors such as nihilism and inefficiency of karma also contribute to the dependent origination theory. These aspects by all means together define the complete expression of dependent origination. As much as such characteristics of being may come into existence, there can also be a continuous succession of their complete harmonization in the law of dependent origination.

Buddha’s doctrine of no-soul can be defined as the theory of no existence for human beings. It originates from the theory of believing that self can also fail to exist. This is illustrated by the assumption that the entire human race will not live forever.

Buddhist Philosophy by Nagarjuna

There is no use denying the fact that Buddhism is one of the most ancient religions in the world and it has a great influence on people and their minds. Additionally, it is possible to say that it is not just a religion, however, it is the way of life and philosophy.

A great number of ideas peculiar to Buddhism are nowadays popular all over the world and people try to understand their inner sense. There are many different sacred texts which are taken as the main source of this religion and philosophy, which, additionally, help people to get to know more about the main sense of Buddhism. Written many years ago, these works, however, are very often reviewed by different people and philosophers who try to find another or hidden sense in these words.

Nagarjuna was one of these people. He is very often taken as the most important person for Buddhism after Buddha. He deserves such attitude by his great work devoted to the development and investigation of the philosophy of Buddhism. He is also famous for his philosophy of the middle way which centers around the notion of emptiness. Being rather influential, the work, devoted to the discussion which is based on this issue, triggered the appearance of a great number of different debates all over the world.

Moreover, in Tibet, it became part of the official religion. That is why it is necessary to analyze Nagarjunas work connected with his vision of emptiness to understand his ideas better. Moreover, analysis of the work can help to understand Buddhism better.

First of all, it should be said that the main concept of Nagarjunas work and philosophy is emptiness and all arguments are connected with it. Under this term, the absence of something is meant. However, the English word emptiness cannot express all complexity of the term which is used by the philosopher. There are at least two fields or dimensions to which this concept can be applied. The first one refers to how the object exists and the second one refers to a way in which an object is taken by people. In his work, the philosopher tries to investigate different dimensions and ways in which emptiness can be seen and cogitates about the nature of this phenomenon.

Moreover, he tries to suggest his vision of the given text. Nagarjuna does not argue with Buddha, as he accepts his vision of the world and religion, however, he tries to show his vision of the ideas peculiar to Buddhism and suggests his cogitations which main aim is to make the main concepts of Buddhism more understandable to common people and explain to them how the world functions. Another important part of his work is devoted to the vision of action, its nature, and its aftermath. The traditional Buddhist approach has its image of actions. According to it, any action is like a seed. This simile is used to show that any action has its aftermath.

Just as any seed will result in the appearance of some fruit so any action will cause some change in the world. However, the intention to act is also vital and Dharma also gives much attention to its analysis and outlines its unique character. The action is the intention and no action is possible if a person does not have a clear vision of the purpose and definite intention to obtain some result. Moreover, according to Nagarjuna action is like an uncancelled promissory note as it is impossible to get rid of it. Moreover, he also describes it as the illusion of an illusion. All these ideas are presented in his karika which cogitates about some main aspects of Buddhism.

In his Examinations of Actions and Their fruits, Nagarjuna says that “actions are either intentionally or intentional” (MMK 17.2). It becomes obvious that this verse can be taken as the evidence of great attention given to action and its character by the philosopher. This statement shows that he follows Buddha, though, he wants to analyze different ideas. He then explains that intention is “mental desire”(MMK 17.3) while intentional “comprises physical and verbal” (MMK 17.3).

This explanation helps to understand the main idea of the whole chapter. It becomes clear that Nagarjuna wants to determine what the action is and to cogitate about its character. He shows that three elements comprise any action. These elements are mental desire combined with physical and verbal aspects. This triad is very important for every person as he/she should act according to it. Moreover, as it has already been said, the philosopher wants to show a causal relationship between action and result. He says that the sprout “comes from a seed from that arises a fruit” (MMK 17.7). This verse shows that everything has a beginning.

The author wants to show that without the action a person and the world, on the whole, will not be able to develop. However, Nagarjuna also states that there is “neither nonexistence nor permanence” (MMK 17.8). By these words, he wants to say that as everything comes from the continuum, both the seed and the fruit, so intention starts to play a significant role. In the following parts of the text the author tends to show that nothing will arise without intention as “since from the intention comes the continuum” (MMK 17.10) and as we already know, the continuum leads to the appearance of the fruit.

The author ends his cogitation with an already mentioned simile comparing action with the “illusions illusion” (MMK 17.32). This comparison comes from another one, when the author says that teacher by magic creates an illusion which, in its turn, leads to the appearance of another illusion. The same deals with the action. One leads to another and in this way the world is organized.

Having analyzed the given text and the main ideas presented in it, it is possible to make a certain conclusion. It should be said that this very chapter is part of a great work done by this philosopher. Within the framework of his cogitations about the role of emptiness and its peculiarities, it is possible to say that Nagarjuna’s ideas are very similar to Buddhas vision of the world. Moreover, the great similarity between Buddhas dependent arising and Nagarjunas emptiness can be observed.

This similarity is quite obvious as the philosopher did not try to refute Buddha, he just wanted to make some ideas more clear for people to be able to follow them. With this in mind, it should be said that stating the fact that every action appears from intention which, in its turn, is the part of a continuum, Nagarjuna comes close to traditional Buddhist philosophy.

Works Cited

Nagarjuna. The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way: Nagarjuna’s Mulamadhyamakakarika. Trans. Jay Garfield. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. Print.

Abstract

Zen Buddhism is one of the common religions in China. Many historians agree that religion has its roots in India. Subsequently, most of the concepts associated with various Chinese philosophical thoughts, such as Taoism, influenced Buddhism in the region. This essay aims to analyze how the concept of Wu Wei (or nothingness) in Daoism influenced Zen Buddhism.

Introduction

The three traditions of Taoism (also known as Daoism), Buddhism, and Confucianism have defined Chinese philosophy for very many centuries. Daoism remains a primary philosophy based on the teachings of Chuang-Tzu and Tao-te-ching.¹ These ideas mainly focus on the most practical approaches that can be used to deal with the challenges in life and look at the universe differently. Lao-Chuang is a school of thought that supports Taoism philosophy.² This school guides people to express their ideas through the absorption of nature or music. These guidelines of Lao-Chuang explain why it has become a critical aspect of the mystical tradition of China. Zen Buddhism is believed to have an Indian background. However, the traditional Indian belief was transformed and changed before becoming an integral Chinese culture attribute. Most of the concepts associated with various Chinese philosophical thoughts, such as Taoism, influenced Buddhism in the region. This essay analyzes how the concept of Wu Wei (or nothingness) in Daoism influenced Zen Buddhism.

How the concept of “Wu Wei/Nothingness” in Daoism influenced Zen Buddhism

Buddhism and Daoism appear to have similar ideas, thoughts, concepts, and beliefs. Emmanuel also argues that the two can be described as interrelated traditions.³ Buddhism in China was introduced by Bodhidharma. The arrival of the philosophy in China led to new transformations that redefined the region’s religious culture forever. For instance, Buddhism would be influenced by the existing traditions in China, such as Taoism. This kind of influence and encounter is what gave birth to what many people call Zen Buddhism today. The notions of reality in Taoism have influenced most of the ideas and practices embraced by Buddhists for many centuries. This fact explains why Zen Buddhism and Daoism appear to have numerous similarities.

Understanding Emptiness in Daoism

One of these similarities emerges from the conception of emptiness. In Daoism, Wu Wei is an important concept that refers to natural action. This kind of action does not entail the use of excessive force or struggle.⁴ Believers can use the Wu Wei notion to develop new ideas or practices. For example, every action can be completed without using a lot of strength or effort.⁵ This kind of effortless approach is associated with ease and perfection. People who embrace the concept of Wu Wei will find it easier to do desirable things spontaneously and effortlessly.

Therefore, the original ideas and thoughts of Taoism are believed to have influenced the development of Zen Buddhism in China. Daoism presents two meanings of the concept of emptiness. The qualities of the Tao indicate that emptiness is the direct opposite of fullness.⁶ This definition of emptiness in Taoism matches with that of Buddhism. However, emptiness is treated as a resonance that can be attained by Buddhists.

Emptiness in Zen Buddhism has a second meaning, given the name Wu. This kind of emptiness is characterized by the inner realization whereby the individual experiences frugality, patience, quietude, and simplicity. To achieve this state, the individual should be ready to get rid of every worldly desire. The mind is expected to take over and control the feelings of the individual. In Taoism, Wu is a powerful concept that aligns believers with the rhythms of the Tao.⁷ Individuals should always strive to achieve this kind of emptiness to attain patience and restraint. Those who achieve this state of mind will find it easier to empty their minds and get rid of desires and aspirations contrary to Tao’s teachings.

As described earlier, Wu Wei is another form of emptiness that is closely associated with the concept of Wu. Davies argues that Wu Wei in Taoism is a form of empty action.⁸ Some followers of the thought go further to indicate that Wu Wei is the action of non-action. This means that Wu Wei is a powerful Taoist ideal of openness, simplicity, and ease. These attitudes are useful because they make it easier for followers to express themselves using their bodies and minds. With this kind of understanding, it can be easier to identify the influences of Taoism on Zen Buddhism.

Understanding Emptiness in Zen Buddhism

In modern Zen Buddhism, emptiness is a powerful concept that has been translated by many people as openness or void. The principal terms used to denote emptiness in Buddhism include Kung, Stong-pa-nyid, and Shunyata. The concept goes further to indicate that things of the universe exist as dependent entities. Such entities, according to Zen Buddhism, are causes by infinite conditions.⁹

To perfect wisdom or attain Dharmata, followers should embrace this concept of Shunyata. Dharmata refers to the innate nature of the human mind. This discussion shows clearly that emptiness in Buddhism points to dependent origination as the true nature of phenomena.¹⁰ In Daoism, emptiness or Wu is something that refers to psychological or emotional attitude. It is the state of the human mind that is usually characterized by frugality or simplicity.

From this discussion, it is agreeable that Shunyata in Zen Buddhism is defined as a technical concept. From a Taoist perspective, the idea is expressed implicitly to guide the followers’ worldview and practice. Buddhists agree that every phenomenon is caused by dependent origination. In Taoism, phenomena arise from elemental cycles. Therefore, the two thoughts show conclusively that the human body should be treated as something that connects heaven and the earth.¹¹

The concept of Shunyata in Zen Buddhism goes further to produce a quiet state of the human mind. This kind of approach shows conclusively that the concept is consistent with Daoism’s Wu Wei ideals. This is the case because the concepts produce a feeling characterized by simplicity, ease, and flow. The new situation makes it easier for Buddhists and Taoists to relax their minds and get rid of their earthly ideas.¹² The other important thing to note here is that emptiness is defined differently in these two traditions. The exciting part is that the notions take different paths but eventually deliver similar outcomes. It is, therefore, agreeable that all human religions focus on the same knowledge or truth.

Influence of Wu Wei on Zen Buddhism

The above analysis conclusively shows that the perception of emptiness embraced by Zen Buddhists borrows a lot from the ideas and beliefs of Tao. Chinese historians have argued that the encounter of Chuang-Tzu with Buddhism dictated the ideals of the philosophy on different planes such as action, cosmology, and psychology. The emptiness was embraced as a powerful approach whereby human beings forget all attachments. This would be defined as a form of mystical liberation from the challenges of the universe. Tao-an, one of the earliest Buddhists, decided to ignore his Chinese past and embraced most of the ideas promoted by Taoists. According to Tao-an, it was appropriate to embrace most Chinese classics to lead an admirable and complete life. That being the case, Tao-an’s teachings, such as the “The Original Nature of Dharmas,” gives a complex mixture of Lao-Chuan and Buddhism.¹³ This is a clear indication that Zen Buddhism in China has been influenced significantly by the three major philosophies embraced in the region.

Knaul goes further to argue that the concepts of Daoism can be interpreted differently by individuals who want to achieve their goals in life. The conception of Wu Wei (or emptiness) encourages Taoists to use minimal efforts to deal with the challenges affecting them. The school of thought goes further to encourage its followers to avoid being worried or angry. This is the case these emotional responses consume a lot of energy. With the idea of emptiness, the believers can forget the challenges affecting their lives and eventually realize their goals.¹⁴ Many Taoists have embraced this interpretation to overcome the unique challenges associated with human life on earth.

In Buddhism, similar ideas and notions are supported by the perception of emptiness or Shunyata. Zen Buddhism’s Shunyata is a powerful concept that mainly focused on the idea that things are not permanent. Since things are impermanent, the most important thing is for human beings to avoid them. This means that they should not be attached to things that might affect their lives or experiences. When human beings avoid every little thing that affects their lives, they will eventually use their energies wisely.¹⁵ Buddhists will also never waste their energy worrying about the events and things experienced in the universe.

Therefore, it should be observed that the concepts of Wu Wei and Shunyata are tied to one another. The ultimate goal is to use energy wisely and stop worrying about specific things that can affect a person’s life experiences. The two concepts have evolved in such a way that they encourage believers to deal with the issue of permanence. This kind of illusion makes it hard for people to understand that things are not bad or good.¹⁶ Zen Buddhists believe that a bad situation can eventually produce something admirable. That being the case, energy should be used properly to overcome every obstacle or challenge encountered in life.

Taoists have presented numerous concepts that have reshaped the nature of Zen Buddhism in China. Taoists strongly believe that everything in the world has the potential to go to the extreme. To deal with such extremes, Daoism encourages its followers to embrace the best approaches towards establishing a perfect human order. This kind of order can emerge from the concept of nothingness or Wu Wei. Philosophers have argued that the pioneers of the thought were not pessimistic. Instead, they were great thinkers who acknowledged that human actions were limited and could not alter everything in the universe.¹⁷ These notions led to the development of the notion of emptiness in Buddhism.

Therefore, it would be argued that the first Zen Buddhists to land in China found these notions promising. Consequently, they came up with the idea of Shunyata to guide the followers of the belief system. The concept was aimed at guiding more people to avoid specific uncontrollable things or events in the world. The concept has ever since continued to empower many Buddhists in China and across the region.¹⁸ The notions borrowed from the major Chinese philosophies have continued to influence the behaviors of many Zen Buddhists today.

Concluding Remarks

Emptiness is defined differently in Zen Buddhism and Daoism. However, the concept in the two thoughts can be described as the manifestation of the same latent tendency whereby followers search for the best way to lead a free life. This is a clear indication that the concepts in these religions are more or less the same. The outstanding fact is that Zen Buddhism developed the concept of Shunyata after reviewing the major notions and practices embraced by the major Chinese philosophies.¹⁹ The adequacy of Wu Wei in Daoism made it a unique aspect that could be embraced by the first Buddhists to arrive in China. Therefore, it should be agreed that the concept of Wu Wei in Daoism influenced the development of Zen Buddhism. Consequently, the influence led to the development of the concept of Shunyata that guides people to use their energies wisely in an attempt to realize or attain Dharmata.

Bibliography

Davies, Roger. Japanese Culture: The Religious Philosophical Foundations. North Clarendon: Tuttle Publishing, 2016.

Emmanuel, Stephen. A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2013.

I-Ying, Yu. Being Formless: A Daoist Movement Practice. Northampton: The University of Northampton, 2015.

Keown, Damien. Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Knaul, Livia. “Chuang-Tzu and the Chinese Ancestry of Ch’an.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 13, no. 1 (1986): 411-428.

Trungpa, Chogyam. The Path of Individual Liberation. London: Shambhala Publications, 2013.

Footnotes

1. Stephen Emmanuel, A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2013), 52.
2. Roger Davies, Japanese Culture: The Religious Philosophical Foundations (North Clarendon: Tuttle Publishing, 2016), 36.
3. Chogyam Trungpa, The Path of Individual Liberation (London: Shambhala Publications, 2013), 44.
4. Livia Knaul, “Chuang-Tzu and the Chinese Ancestry of Ch’an,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 13, no. 1 (1986): 414.
5. Chogyam Trungpa, The Path of Individual Liberation (London: Shambhala Publications, 2013), 44.
6. Roger Davies, Japanese Culture: The Religious Philosophical Foundations (North Clarendon: Tuttle Publishing, 2016), 73.
7. Damien Keown, Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 19.
8. Roger Davies, Japanese Culture: The Religious Philosophical Foundations (North Clarendon: Tuttle Publishing, 2016), 52.
9. Damien Keown, Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 74.
10. Stephen Emmanuel, A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2013), 59.
11. Yu I-Ying, Being Formless: A Daoist Movement Practice (Northampton: The University of Northampton, 2015), 18.
12. Damien Keown, Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 78.
13. Livia Knaul, “Chuang-Tzu and the Chinese Ancestry of Ch’an,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 13, no. 1 (1986): 421.
14. Roger Davies, Japanese Culture: The Religious Philosophical Foundations (North Clarendon: Tuttle Publishing, 2016), 29.
15. Chogyam Trungpa, The Path of Individual Liberation (London: Shambhala Publications, 2013), 104.
16. Yu I-Ying, Being Formless: A Daoist Movement Practice (Northampton: The University of Northampton, 2015), 38.
17. Damien Keown, Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 63.
18. Livia Knaul, “Chuang-Tzu and the Chinese Ancestry of Ch’an,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 13, no. 1 (1986): 424.
19. Yu I-Ying, Being Formless: A Daoist Movement Practice (Northampton: The University of Northampton, 2015), 99.

In the Koryo dynasty, three major patterns of thought dominated the collective perceptions of its people. The first of these can be described as indigenous belief… Under the guise of Buddhism, such indigenous ideas at times caused major shifts in the way people viewed the world (Lancaster, Suh & Yu, p. 1).

Introduction

Buddhism made its way in the Koryo society in the Three Kingdoms period by breaking through the clutter of deeply ingrained locally held convictions and beliefs. (The History of Science and Technology in Korea, n.d.). Although some of the concepts similar to the teachings Buddhism had spread to Paschke and Koguyo, the places inhabited by the Koryo people, the religion preached by Buddha could not be firmly established in two kingdoms.

Had it not been for the king, it would have been rather difficult for Buddhism to make its mark in the Koryo culture and society. He made efforts to make Buddhism the religion of the state. However, in order to accomplish his goal, he had to mix the Buddhism teachings and ideas with those of the “indigenous beliefs.” The local “cults” did resist the new faith. However, he did not have enough power to overrule the king. (Lancaster, Suh & Yu 4).

The spread of Buddhism and its establishment as a national religion bore its fruits in uniting the Shilla and Koryo societies and integrating their faith. The founder of Koryo, Taejo Wang Kon, was a staunch Buddhist and an ardent follower of Buddha. He was born in an orthodox Buddhist family in the capital city, Kaesong.

The combination of Buddhist practices with indigenous beliefs resulted in an expansion of the boundaries of consciousness (Lancaster, Suh & Yu 1).

Buddhism as a Way of Life

Impact on the Political Sphere

Buddhist principles became so entrenched in the Koryo society that they actually impacted the social and political developments in the state. Religion ruled every sphere of life of the Koryo dynasty from A.D 918 to A.D 1392. The king implemented ten injunctions in the state. These define the manner of leading life the Buddhist way.

In Buddhism, the king and all those in power, including the soldiers, are required to be revered and even worshipped as rulers. This strengthened the power of not only the king but also of political advisors, tutors, and soldiers. Besides, all those holding high and powerful positions practiced Buddhism with immense fervor. Their religious enthusiasm and affiliation further exerted referent authority on the Koryo people, and they more firmly began to follow the Buddhist faith.

Kuksa was a political advisor, and Wangsa was a tutor to the princes. As they both were very close to the rulers and provided with valuable insights and education, they were held in great esteem by the Koryo society. If a Wangsa taught a prince and that prince was crowned a king, the respect and reverence for the teacher elevated among the Koryo people. Similarly, Seungbyung was a monk soldier. They protected the society against enemies and fought courageously for the people of Koryo. They also helped to invade other lands and states. Therefore, Buddhism gave them significant power and authority too. Society also looked up to them as their messiahs.

Impact on the Social Sphere

Buddhist practices and concepts governed the lives of the Koryo people. The kings tremendously contributed to the spread of religion by establishing schools dedicated to teaching Buddhism and by promoting Buddhist convictions via rituals and ceremonies. King Taejo, King Munjong, King Sunjong, and Monk Uichon are the main force behind instilling Buddhist spiritual practices in the Koryo society. They built temples, encouraged religious teachings in schools, and brought about doctrines placing magnificent emphasis and elaborating on the teachings of Buddha. The religious festivities, which also had a taste of local culture and beliefs, were actually useful in motivating and inclining people towards religion. The two primary national ceremonies were the lantern festival and the harvest festival. The former ritual was also called Yondung-Hoe and is a combination of Buddhist and shamanist rites. The latter was also called Palawan-Hoe, which included special dance and songs.

Strength of Faith During Mongol Invasion

During the days of the Mongol invasion, the people of Koryo felt assured that they would be sheltered by the Buddhist blessings and their nation would be protected because of their strong faith in Buddha. A Tripitaka was formed by the then king, Go-jong, and Buddhist monks, which a holy doctrine is containing Buddhist scriptures, literature, commandments of Buddha, and treatises. It was believed to have spiritual power and enough to defend the nation against enemies. Although Korea was eventually invaded by Genghis Khan, Tripitaka did serve its purpose for many years providing innate and spiritual strength to the society and the rulers. The psychological impact which the doctrine had on the people was enormous and overwhelming. The Koryo people did believe that they would not be harmed as long as their faith was strong.

Conclusion

Buddhism in Koryo was brought by the king. Some of the local convictions were amalgamated with the Buddhist teachings in order to help spread the religion and unite the people. Buddhism became deeply ingrained in the society in all spheres of life of the Koryo people.

Works Cited

Lancaster, L. R., Suh, K. & Yu, C-S. Buddhism in Koryo: A Royal Religion. California: Asian Humanities Press, 2002.

“The History of Science and Technology in Korea.” Web.

Introduction

A meeting of Buddhist monks and nuns from different cultures and different histories has been called to discuss and debate the ideal form of the shrine: its overall design and imagery. This paper shall present a discussion that entail detailed consideration of the design of the new Buddhist Shrine in Japan of which all stakeholders shall have an input. This will be done in a feature news story format as if I am a design and architecture magazine writer. It will include location, types of imagery, style, materials, size and scale, function, among other visual factors

The News Feature Story in a Magazine

In a recently held meeting of Buddhist nuns and monks for the planned new shrine to be built in one of Japan’s islands, new suggestions and considerations has been proposed as to the design, location, types of imagery, style, materials, size and scale, function, among other visual factors.

Most basic of consideration has been the location which was agreed to be in the island of Kyushu, Japan. The attendees of the discussion laid down a lot of historical considerations for the new complex to be built.

Foremost was that Buddhist temples are built dedicated to worshipping Buddha. It was planned that so much like every Buddhist compound with several buildings for the purpose of housing monks or nuns. History indicates that by the eight century, each compound basically consisted of seven buildings: the pagoda, main hall, lecture hall, bell tower, repository for sutras, dormitory, and dining hall. Usually surrounding the compound was a wall made from earth that had gates on each side.

It has been proposed and agreed that the main hall in the compound will hold the most prominent object of worship. The lecture hall will be used by monks for study, instruction or for rituals, and will be the largest building. Two predominate tower styles include one in which canonical writings will be stored and another to be used to announce the time of religious observance every day. The pagoda will be in the middle of the compound and will hold sacred relics, the main objects of worship.

The Indian monk Gandahura suggested that the stupa would be needed as a characteristic monument of Buddhism. He discussed that stupas were originally mounds covering the relics of the Buddha or his followers. Buddhist art in its early stage did not represent the Buddha directly but his presence was alluded to through symbols such as the bo tree, the wheel of law or his footprint. The stupa became a symbol of the Buddha, of his final release from the cycle of birth and rebirth — the Parinirvana or the “Final Dying,” the monk explained.

However, Gandahura added that the stupa is also a cosmic symbol with its hemispherical shape represents the world. Stupas usually rest on a square pedestal and are carefully aligned with the four cardinal points of the compass, a recurrence of the symbolism of the dome whereby Earth supports Heaven and Heaven covers Earth. The axis of the world is always represented in the stupa, rising above its summit while the “parasols” set one above the other along the shaft emerging from its uppermost region, represent a heavenly hierarchy. Finally, the cosmic symbolism is completed by a ritual circumambulatory path around the monument.

The monk of India added that stupas are large-scale memorials built in particularly holy places that enshrine relics and considered the forerunner of the pagoda. But the stupa has also come to be known, on a smaller scale, as the reliquary made of crystal, gold, silver or other precious metals.

The monk of India cited the Great Stupa of Sanchi of which reconstruction consisted of a stone casing, a terrace with a double flight of steps, balustrades, a paved processional path and an umbrella and railing all built of sandstone. Four elaborately carved gateways were added in the first century BCE and the last addition, the effigies of the Buddha were permitted and four stone Buddhas were placed against the walls of the stupa facing the gates with haloes that are elaborately carved.

Another presentation was made by Joo Mung, a Korean monk. He cited the special annex to the Pulguk Temple complex, an artificial cave temple Sokkuram, on the crest of Mount T’oham about 1.6 kilometres away. He showed that the cave temple is a domed circular structure built of granite blocks and resembles a tholos, the beehive-shaped tombs built by the ancient Mycenaeans in Greece from about 1600 to 1300 BC. Joo Mung said that the Temple may be considered typical examples of the first half of the 8th century and as stylistic stepping stones leading to the fully mature sculptures of the Sokkuram cave temple of the mid-8th century. He explained that the main Buddha of the cave temple has a massive body and a full, round face. It was apparently built by the master architect of Pulguk Temple skillfully constructed with granite blocks and covered with an earth mound on top to give the appearance of a natural landscape. It boasts a rectangular anteroom lined with large stone slabs carved with the figures of the protectors of Buddhism on each side of the walls and at the entrance passageway to the main chamber. Joo Mung added that the circular main chamber covered by an elegant dome ceiling and surrounded by carved stone wall panels depicting bodhisattvas and the ten disciples with the graceful statue of Buddha on a lotus pedestal in the center of the chamber.

The Chinese Lao Mi monk presided with the presentation of the Buddhist Caves at Longmen. It is located near the ancient imperial capital of Luoyang and composed of 2345 carved caves and niches hollowed out of steep limestone cliffs flanking the Lo River. During the start of carving at Longmen in the mid-fifth century, the site became a destination for Buddhist pilgrim’s for almost half a millennium. Niches and caves were added through the early tenth century. Lao Mi added that the site continued to be visited right up until the early twentieth-century by scholars and connoisseurs fascinated by the thousands of carved inscriptions, many of which were seen as the only remaining sources of Chinese classical calligraphy.

Lao Mi also recalled the China Mogao Caves or Mogao Grottoes located along the Silk Road near Dunhuang, Gansu Province, China. He explained that the rock cut Mogao Caves form a system of four hundred ninety-two temples also called Qianfodong, the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, and the Dunhuang Caves. The Mogao Caves became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. Likewise, Lao Mi said that one of three (Longmen, Mogao, Yungang) famous ancient architectural sculpture sites in China, Mogao Caves was the most renown of the Chinese Buddhist grottoes.

It has paintings inside the secluded grottoes with stories about Buddhist beliefs that serve as inspirational reminders during the pilgrims’ and monks’ meditational quest for enlightenment. According to Lao Mi, local legend says that the first of the Mogao Cave temples was built around 366 ACE after Lezun, a Buddhist monk who had envisioned a thousand Buddhas, secured financial support from a Silk Road pilgrim.

Apparently, scriptures from the West were collected by Dunhuang Buddhist Monks from the fourth to fourteenth centuries. Around 42,00 square meters of the caves’ interiors have been decorated with murals painted by the many pilgrims who passed through the area. Lao Mi also reported that in 1900 ACE, a Chinese Taoist guardian of the Mogao Caves named Wang Yuan-lu found a veritable treasure drove of ancient manuscripts dating from 406-1002 ACE inside a small walled up cave.

The small cave soon became a repository for anthologies, apocryphal works, Buddhist canonical works, Confucian works, dictionaries, glossaries, old Chinese hemp paper scrolls; old Tibetan scrolls, and Taoist works; as well as, paintings on hemp, paper, and silk.

It has been generally finalized by all delegates that a Zen or Chan image representing practice and experiential wisdom shall be the focal point of the Shrine. It is important to include the image as meditation is realized in the form zazen, the attainment of awakening.

Incorporation of Color in the Overall Shrine Design

Throughout the discussion, to emphasize modern thinking and a worldwide acceptance and appreciation of younger generation, the Buddhist monks agreed to use the representative colors in Buddhism. It was discussed throughout that the principle colors involved in Buddhism are Blue, Black, White, Red, Green, and Yellow, and each — except for Black — are aligned to a specific Buddha.

It was presented that color blue is associated with the Akshobhya Buddha and the healer ‘Blue Buddha.’ It represents tranquility, ascension, the infinite, purity, and healing but most of all, the color represents wisdom. However, light and dark blue have different meanings: light blue that Buddhists meditate upon is said to be no better represented than by turquoise that speaks of the limitless heights of ascension. The opaque as earth holds the wisdom of the earth and sky within it and it also embodies the duality of living and dying. The color change the stone undergoes from light exposure or skin oil is considered a reminder of human life and wearing the stone is thought to give the wearer long life as it is believed to absorb sin.

The dark blue represented by lapis lazuli surpassed the diamond in value. The stone represent all things pure and rare and considered the finest of the stones. They are visually comparable to the night sky alive with stars, and can be polished to possess high reflective quality. While turquoise promises a safe journey and long life, lapis lazuli is considered a stone of great healing power used for internal bleeding or inflammation and to quell nervous conditions.

Black in Buddhism is the same with Western Culture referring to darkness and hatred. While meditating upon hate, anger, and darkness may not seem like the path to peace, the principle revolves around coming to an understanding. It was said that learning, rather than reveling in the black of ignorance, is the path to clarity and truth. Black is used as a reminder of conquest but not annihilation, of turning evil into good. Black is most commonly found in black paintings, specifically black thangkas, representing deities. It has been observed that gold outlines and vibrant colors against a black background seemed even more capable of portraying other-worldly manifestations than those typically on plain, white backgrounds.

White represents the principles of purity and considered the color of knowledge and longevity. A color of extremes, white is associated with the cold of snow and the smelting of metal. White is closely linked with the Buddha Vairocana of which according to Buddhist legend, Buddha’s mother, Maya, dreamt of a white elephant touching her right side before Buddha was born. Likewise, elephants, associate with rain clouds and fertility, are seen as good fortune, and following that the elephant was white meant purity and learnedness for the child. It was said that because of this dream, seeing a white elephant spells remarkable fortune, which holds truth whether in reference to mysticism or not, as they are quite rare. Finally, the white elephant is thought to be Buddha descended from the heavens.

The color red symbolizes life force, preservation, fire, and sacred things or places. Riddled with duality, fire may represent warmth and comfort, but can also considered be a destructive force. Red in Buddhism is associated with the Buddha Amitabha. Tibetan culture believes that red is a marker of sacred areas, and a true mark of a Buddhist scared area are the simplistic, tall gates at the entrances also frequently seen on the garments on the monks. Red is believed to be a protective color like shamanistic wards.

Green represents youth, vigour, action or Karma, and harmony. It is the color at the middle of the spectrum denoting balance and the lush trees. Green is closely linked with the Buddha Amoghasiddhi.

Yellow is the color that possesses the highest symbolic quality as seen on the saffron color of the monks’ robes. It was chosen as a symbol of humility and separation from materialistic society symbolizing renunciation and desirelessness. It is also the color of the earth, yellow denotes stability and grounded nature.

There shall be more discussion to follow as the delegates compare notes and probability for the building of the Buddhist Shrine in Kyushu. It is believed that both ancient and contemporary design and concepts shall be incorporated to the planned complex in order to facilitate modern acceptance and regeneration of membership and belief.

Introduction

Existence, the meaning of life, death, soul, and eternal life have always been issues of human interest. Humans of all generations and historical periods seek to find the answer to the cause about the cause of life, the destiny and the role of each human in the life of others. There is no universal perception of life or existence, and each nation has its own view on is shaped by culture, history, and religious beliefs.

Modern Americans

Modern Americans view existence as something that can be experienced, lived through. People understand that nothing can exist forever, and every event and every human life has its own beginning and its own end. Thus existence is the period between birth and death. The American nation no longer believes in the superficial hopes that existence does not come to an end. They are fed by a logical explanation of everything; they ask many questions on how and why. Americans are not satisfied with the vague answers and strive to hear the logical explanation supported with scientific evidence. Taking into account that birth and death are the events that can be observed, and nobody knows what is happening with the soul of humans prior to birth or after death, modern Americans cease to exist when they die. “Good” is something that does not contract common rules and brings positive results. “Real” is something that can be sensed (touched, heard, smelled or viewed).

Christians

Christians, on the contrary to the modern American views, are confident that existence is something eternal because they are promised an eternal life of the soul after death if they follow the commandments of God and have true faith in their hearts. Thus, for Christians, existence is more than merely earthy life, everyday activities and events. Existence does not cease when the body dies; it simply transforms into another form. Christianity imposes many rules of life, and eternal existence is granted only to those who follow these rules. True Christian believers are considered to be good or righteous. They follow the commands of God, have true faith, and hope to get the price of eternal life. For Christians, the reality is both what is happening in the earthy life and what will happen after death.

Buddhism

Buddhism views on existence are not similar to Modern American or to Christian. They regard earthy life as unreal. People seek to label everything, to give the name to the objects and, thus, to create common visions of everything. If the person wants to understand the true meaning of existence, the true essence of all things and events, he has to get rid of all senses, feelings and thoughts. It is hardly possible to achieve because humans cannot lose the ability to think, sense and feel at the same time and remain in the conscious state. It is the aim of life to find the right path and to understand the essence of existence. Buddhism stresses the inter-relatedness of everything: nothing appears from nothing and nothing returns to nothing. Everything is emptiness, and human existence is emptiness as well. The action will be marked “good” only if it contributes to finding the Path and getting rid of all feelings and emotions. Buddhism holds that nothing is real because it does not exist. Even human life is not real because it has the point of beginning and the point of an end.

Adinatha (Siva) deserves acknowledgment for having developed the Hatha Yoga knowledge. His explanation of Yoga is that it’s more “like a staircase” which helps a person to get to the high Raja Yoga. After acknowledging Guru Srinatha, Yogin Swatmarama gives an elaboration of Hatha Yoga on how one can be able to achieve Raja Yoga. Due to the numerous views different people have, it’s impossible for one to understands Raja Yoga. Hatha Yoga Pradipika is composed by Swatmarama to get rid of the uncertainty. Some people like Matsyendra, Goraksa were already

knowledgeable of Hatha Vida and they taught it to Yogi Swatmarama.

While referring to the global Gita Society Bhagavad-Gita, Lord Krishna’s explanation is that when our senses are exposed to stimuli ie hot or cold, we would respond to the heat or cold, or pleasure, but these responses are temporary. For this reason, we should be able to train ourselves to tolerate these feelings. Doing so enables us to be calm and collected even in the face of fortune or misfortune and can therefore be saved. According to Atma, Atman the invisible human spirit and the visible human body is also temporary. the belief held is that the human spirit is indestructible but the human body which is not comprehensible is perishable.

The level of how weakness and sensibility to pain, adversity is discouraged is shown when the lord Krishna makes it a point to elaborate to Arjuna, that in his position as a warrior he has responsibilities and he should be steadfast. this is because a warrior earns immeasurable favor and admiration for fighting a justified battle but the fortunate soldiers may fight a battle that is not called for and this is a golden heaven-sent opportunity. Failure for a soldier to fight this justified battle means he would surely also face failure when performing his duties. This is usually followed by status loss. This way, he would automatically become a disgraced sinner, and he would be a discussion topic among the people for a long period afterward.

For a person who is dignified and is honorable, death is preferable to facing dishonor. In this case, still, the other soldiers would have the perception that he surrendered and ran from the battleground due to fear in spite of the great respect and esteem they may hold the warrior. in such a case the enemies would be disdainful of the warrior’s capability and courage as a fighter. Such a warrior is said to only be able to get heaven salvation should they lose their life while in battle or their enjoyment of the kingdom would be on earth if they ever became winners again in war.

In selfless service, the effort put into the service does not go to waste and there are no situations where unfavorable results can be met. With this regard, all the effort that is put into the service counts, and through it, one is secured from the endless fear of death and birth. Those who work selflessly aim to seek favor with God, unlike the others whose objective of working is to get pleasures from the returns of their work.

The Vedas is criticized for how it is concerned with the physical and spiritual features of our lives. From this perspective erroneous ones enjoying the melodies of the Veda in spite of not knowing exactly what the Veda stands for and what is its principles or significance. They may not comprehend the Vedas beyond the practices for obtaining heavenly pleasures. Their main happiness comes from worldly materials and heaven is seen as the highest achievement possible in life. The rites they may engage in are mainly for enjoyment and these actions result in reincarnation.

References

1. Bhagavad-Gita.Hindu Philosophy. Chapters 1-5 and 13-18. Web.
2. Hindu Philosophy: Yoga. Hatha Yoga Pradipika Chapters 1-4.
3. Buddhism. The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Web.

Introduction

The world is home to many and distinct philosophical traditions. Different traditions offer varying systems of belief in regard to the general human conduct and relationship with the outer world. Most philosophical traditions are seen to have a religious dimension that guides individual conducts on earth in anticipation of life after death. This paper seeks to identify how the philosophy of Confucius can be compared to that of Buddhism. Thus a summary of the philosophy of Confucius will be outlined for the purpose of benchmarking its tenets against the philosophy Buddhism which seen to be wider and more complex. A summary of the ethical aspect of the Buddhist philosophy will also be outline to form the basis of comparison. This due to the fact that only the aspect of ethics in the Buddhist philosophy can be significantly likened to the Confucian philosophy.

Summary of the Confucius philosophy

Confucius lived between 551 and 479 BC, as shown by the Chinese tradition, “Confucian was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the RU school of the Chinese thought” (Schwartz 55). His teachings form the basis of the Chinese belief in education and the behaviors of a suitable man and how such an individual should live and interact with others (Zhuan 2. Par. 5).

Confucius social philosophy

The various teachings and dialogue between Confucius and his followers are preserved in the Lunyu or Analects. In his teachings Confucius shows a strong agreement with the belief that people exist within boundaries established by heaven. “Which, for him refers to both a purposeful Supreme Being as well a ‘nature’ and the fixed cycles and patterns” (Zhuan 2, par. 3). He asserts that men are answerable for their deeds and particularly towards others. He acknowledges that one cannot alter his fated span of existence but can determine what he/she accomplishes and what he is remembered for (Zhuan 1, pars. 2-4).

The social philosophy by Confucius mainly revolves on the idea of being companionate or showing love to others (Schwartz 35). This involves self sacrifice for the sake of others and puts emphasis on avoiding deceitful speech. For Confucius, the concern for others should be orchestrated through the practice of forms of the golden rule “what you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others” (Zhuan 3, par. 3). He asserts that one should help others achieve what he/she desires for self. Confucius regarded the loyalty to “parents and older siblings as the most basic form of promoting the interest of others before one’s own and teaches that such altruism can be accomplished by only those who have learned to discipline themselves” (Schwartz 35, par. 5). According to Confucius, mastering self discipline requires careful and devoted studying of the ritual forms and guidelines of propriety that enables one to express respect for his/her seniors and thus uses it to establish his role in the society in a manner that he earns respect for himself. A concern for respectability should be about everything that one does and utters: “look at nothing in defiance of ritual, listen to nothing in defiance of ritual, speak of nothing in defiance of ritual, and never stir hand or foot in defiance of ritual” (Schwartz 35, par. 4). However, according to Confucius the devotion of the self to ritual does not imply that one should suppress his desires but instead should “reconcile one’s desires with the needs of one’s family and community” (Schwartz 36, par. 4). The teachings of Confucius and his disciples show that individuals get acquainted with the importance of social strictures by experiencing desires. “Confucius regarded loving others as a calling and mission for which one should be ready to die for” (Zhuan 2, par. 3).

Confucius’ political philosophy

“Confucius political philosophy is rooted in his belief that a ruler should learn self-discipline, should govern his subjects by his own example, and should treat them with love and concern” (Schwartz 45, par 1). Confucius asserted that if people are governed with laws and corrections done through punishments, then they will rebel and develop a shameless behavior. However, if the same people are governed by virtue, “and discipline among them sought by the practice of ritual propriety, they will posses a sense of shame” and respect the ruler (Zhuan 3, par. 5). In his days, the leaders were favoring legal methods in ensuring uniformity among the subjects. Thus he warned that the ill results of promulgating the legal codes shouldn’t be seen as an attempt to stop their adoption but rather a moral suasion on the ruling elite (Schwartz 46). Confucius interpreted the prevalent political situation as completely failed. He explained the failure by pointing out that those exercised power and those who were in inferior position existed that way by making claims to titles for which they were not worthy. He asserted that the principles of good governance consisted of “ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son” (Schwartz 46, par. 5). He pointed out the importance of living up to a title by adhering to requirements and responsibilities that come with a title. For, the issue was not changing the names or titles but rather changing the individual to suit the requirements of the title. To him, a meaningful change would originate from the leadership whereby by a change in the ruler’s behaviour would definitely lead to a change in the behaviour of the subjects. He advised: “If you desire is for good, the people will be good. The moral character of the ruler is the wind; the moral character of those beneath him is the grass. When the wind blows the grass bends” (Zhuan 3, pars. 3-4). For, superior leadership was only depicted through virtue, which he perceived as a moral strength that enables one to win the trust of his subjects (Schwartz 70).

Confucius and Education

A hallmark of Confucius’ thought is his emphasis on education and study (Schwartz 70). He belittled those who claimed to believe in natural understanding and posed that the “only real understanding of subjects comes from a long a careful study (Schwartz 71). Study for him meant the identification a good teacher and imitation of his words and deeds”. A good teacher was then, preferably older and well versed with past experiences and ancient practices. Confucius asserted “that a person who learns but does not think is lost and he who thinks but does not learn is in great danger” (Zhuan 4, par. 5). Traditionally, Confucius has received a lot of credit for personally teaching up to 3000 students. He taught diverse subjects to his students but only 70 of the 3000 students fully mastered his teachings.

Ethics in the Buddhist Philosophy

The Buddhist philosophy is wide and touches on many different aspects than the Confucius philosophy which basically teaches on ethics. In this part, a summary of the Buddhist philosophy tenets that can be likened to the Confucian philosophy will be outline. A s purported by many scholars the “Buddhist philosophy is primarily based on empirical evidence gained by sense organs rather ontological or metaphysical speculation” (Dhammananda, par. 6). The basic concept fronted by Buddha is that the world should be assessed in empirical terms and not by speculative thinking (Keown 67, pars. 2-4).

For the purpose of comparison, the ethical aspect of Buddhist philosophy will be explored. “Ethics in Buddhism are traditionally based on what Buddhist view as the enlightened perspective of Buddha” (Harvey 56, par. 3). The “pancasila: no killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct and intoxicants” is a requirement for anyone aspiring to indulge in Buddhism practice (Harvey 56, par. 8). Upholding of ethical practice in Buddhism is based on the belief that this will increase an individuals’ chance of being reborn in heaven. Thus Buddhist nuns and monks take vows reaffirm their willingness to uphold the practice. The ethical guidelines provided by Buddha are depicted in the Eightfold path and are generally aimed at specific outcomes of human conduct (Keown 56).

Comparison of specific tenets in the Confucian and the Buddhist Philosophy

From the above summary of the Confucian philosophy it has been established that the main features that characterize the philosophy are “ethical and moral values, filial piety and respect for elders, ancestor worship and social responsibility” (Beng, par. 3). The doctrine of Confucius which asserts that man’s fate does not depend on a supernatural being but rather on his on his moral conduct can be likened to the to Buddhist philosophy of law of Moral Causation (Beng, par 3). Comparatively, the Confucian and Buddhist philosophies “stress the importance of ethics and morals in the cultivation of one’s personal life” (Zhuan 2, par. 4). However, Confucianism is seen to be emphasizing on the shaping of human conduct and interactions. “According to Confucianism, the society cannot be expected to progress satisfactorily, leading to peace and harmony among all the groups of people” (Beng, par. 4). This can be likened to the advice that Buddha gave in the Sigalovada Sutta. The teachings are comparable but have major differences; Confucius’ teachings are predominantly secular and are vague on the issue of life and death. The upholding of ethical practice in Buddhism is predominantly due to the issue of continuity. As for the Confucius philosophy, it is more specifically aimed at shaping human conducts and interactions on earth. The other difference is that Confucius teachings have nothing to do with the spiritual world which is opposite for the Buddhist philosophy (Keown 84). Confucius only advice regarding the spiritual world is that it should only be respected but not offered anything more than that. An analogy can also be drawn from the teachings on parental respect. Confucius teachings have a lot to do with filial piety. “To take care and support one’s parents, to honor them and refrain from disgracing them or family’s name, elements that are in the form of filial piety” (Beng, par. 5). This can be compared to the “Mangala Sutta, the Budha discourse on blessings”, which teaches that if one support his parents then he will reap great blessings (Dhammananda, pars. 3-5). The practice of showing respect to parents and other elders is taught to children from infancy. However, these teachings are common in many Asian family setups and thus may be beyond Buddhism and Confucianism. The influence of Confucian teachings on the Chinese family structures enables one to understand why the practice more widespread among the Chinese.

A significance difference that distinguishes Buddhism from Confucian philosophy is the issue of epistemological justification. “Schools of the Confucian logic recognize various justifications for knowledge and seem to contrast with Buddhism’s recognition of smaller sets” (Schwartz 56, pars. 3-4). The Buddhist philosophy offers a “complex and counter intuitive account of mind and mental phenomena that is hardly seen in the Confucian philosophy” (Keown 45, pars. 5-7).

Finally, the teachings of Buddha had nothing to do with politics. Throughout his life, Buddha never attempted to offer political advice to the ruling caste. This is not the case with the Confucian philosophy which seemed to emphasize the role of leadership in effecting behavioral change in the people.

Conclusion

This paper sought to compare the philosophy Confucian to that of Buddhism. It has been revealed that the only comparable element of both philosophies is the ethical teachings which emphasized on the respect of parents and older individuals in the society. It has also been identified that the philosophy of Buddha was predominantly religion oriented and thus it may be regarded as a religion rather than a philosophy. As for the Confucian philosophy, secularism was predominant with emphasis being placed on good behavior in human conducts and interactions (Zhuan 3, pars 2-3). However, the Confucian philosophy approaches the idea of Supreme Being with a lot of respect that it makes some see it as a religion in itself.

Works cited

Beng, Tang. “Buddhism Beliefs: Confucainism and Budhism.” The Buddhist Community. 2009. Web.

Dhammananda, Venerable. “What Buddhists Believe.” BuddhaSasana. 2010. Web.

Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2000. Print.

Keown, Damien. The Nature of Budhist Ethics. London: Macmillan, 1992. Print.

Schwartz, Benson. The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge : Harvard Unversity Press, 1985. Print.

Zhuan, Yi. “Confucain Philosophy.” China Culture. Org. 2003. Web.

Introduction

Philosophical elaborations on the meaning of life have always been very interesting and controversial within different historical time periods. As such, happiness as one of the essential components of life has been discussed over and over again since the earliest times of the current era.

Unexamined Life

Socrates, one of the most prolific philosophers of all times, used to deliberate on the notion of happiness and its possibility by deriving several reasons for happiness to be possible to exist. This chain is the following: happiness is virtue-dependent, and virtue is derived from knowledge, whereas knowledge is an eternally-seeking-for notion according to Socrates. Therefore, while a person is looking for answers to different questions, his/her self-improvement goes on. Once there are no interests and questions to struggle over, there cannot be any developments and, hence, happiness. Nevertheless, Socrates suggests that it does not mean happiness is impossible. Moreover, people do not stick to constant oblivion; they are likely to seek answers and review themselves continuously, getting closer to happiness. While getting closer to the truths, a person resides in the middle of philosophical happiness. Socrates used to say ‘a life unexamined is not worth living’ (Plato 15).

This is true. Living without a distinct notion of what you strive for is purposeless, hence, unhappy. An individual has the sense to live for when the aims and goals are set up definitely. One is happy to see healthy grandkids playing in the green backyard of the beautiful house because the life goals are met and this brings happiness because there have been so many questions and uncertainties overcome to see such a scene. Globally, life would not have any sense without examining. No one knows how long the technical and communication progress would take if the unexamined life was a preference. The automobile industry, globalization, and technical progress are all possible because people want to live better, happier and they choose to examine life through many ways known to scientists. In a word, the unexamined life is not worth living because one has to take everything from life and, at first, it is necessary to find out what can be taken from it.

The Buddhist Four Noble Truths

The notion of happiness has been totally rethought by Buddhist thinkers. Buddha suggested that happiness is laid out in four main principles that are likely to help any person achieve happiness if one has a desire. So, the Four Noble Truths are linked into a chain of four step-by-step solutions to achieve Nirvana – a feeling that is never known to a person if never experience before. So, the first truth is that life means suffering. Since our life is imperfect anyone experiences sufferings, such as sickness, old age, and ultimately death. Although life has its positive moments, the sufferings are part of it and no one can avoid this circumstance. The second truth unveils that the origin of suffering is attachment. Namely, a person is likely to attach to transient physical objects; which makes it impossible to look at the world unbiased. When one desires fame, wealth and prestige, he/she omits the thought that all this is impermanent. However, the objects people crave are not eternal and, hence, sufferings will inevitably follow. The secession of sufferings is possible through achieving Nirodha is the third Noble Truth by Buddhists. One just needs to become extremely dispassionate about physical objects and everything that can bring suffering or disappointment. The fourth truth is the path to this cessation. One can overcome this path if he/she finds a golden mean between self-indulgence and self-mortification. This process usually makes many lifetimes, so the actual truism is achieved through many rebirths.

So, according to these truths, the fundamental principle of reality is not craving for extreme wealth. One forgets about simple happiness when striving for popularity, money, physical things. Indeed, people have to remember that such physical temporary objects make one turn into a beast, sometimes. Perhaps, people will become a little kinder if the race for richness stops; at least, for a while.

David Hume vs. Buddha

Buddha and David Hume were the representatives of East and West respectively and had almost the same reflection of the human self. They both said that the self is temporary and they denied the self. However, the differences between their perceptions are in the actual continuation of the self. Hume used to denote that the human self is a collection of perceptions. The same though the Buddha. He used o deny any mental or physical permanence of self but through rebirths, the successive states that fill up his life are being continued (Sirswal 23).

So, there were lots of different philosophical views on happiness and life itself. One of the most frequently coincided ultimate opinions is that a person needs to develop and evolve mentally first of all and then think about physical temptations. Buddha offers a four-step guide to Nirvana – the state when no sorrows are able to strike a human mind. Socrates suggested constant curiosity and answers seeking which was considered to be the greatest virtue. The old truths are still topical today and worth following.

Works Cited

Plato. Apology. New York: CreateSpace, 2011. Print.

Sirswal, Desh. “Concept of Self in David Hume and Buddha.” Satya Nilayam Chennai Journal of Intracultural Philosophy 17.1 (2010): 22-34.