Category: Buddhism

Introduction

The formation of religious traditions is influenced by the characteristics of the culture in which the religion appears and develops. Hinduism and Buddhism belong to the dharmic Indian religions, differing in origin and some tenets. Despite the differences between Buddhism and Hinduism, there are similarities in conceptual ideas and particulars. This makes it possible to analyze and compare such universal concepts as samsara and nirvana and karma and rebirth. These terms are most often associated with dharmic religious movements. Accordingly, this paper aims to identify the characteristics of the mentioned pairs and compare them in the traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism.

Overview of Hinduism and Buddhism

Hinduism emerged as a nationally oriented religious current formed to find a harmonious coexistence of different beliefs. Hindu philosophical systems constitute the world; otherwise objectify themselves, reaching the degree of cultural autonomy and obviousness that gives them the status of cultural artifact (Molloy, 2020). Unlike the Abrahamic religions, Hinduism has no founder, no unified belief system, and no common doctrine. Buddhism is a non-theistic religion, which means it denies the existence of God and the eternal soul. Buddhism is a world religion; therefore, people of any nationality can become Buddhist. Buddhism, which was at first one of the many currents opposing Hinduism, had become a radical reform doctrine, both intellectually and spiritually, and socially (Harris, 2018). The Buddhists placed the ethical merits of the above individual origin, rejecting the varna system and the authority of the Brahmans.

Samsara and Nirvana

Sansara or samsara (wandering) is the cycle of birth and death in worlds bounded by karma. One of the basic concepts in Indian philosophy: the soul, drowning in the “ocean of samsara,” seeks liberation (moksha) and deliverance from the results of its past actions (karma), which are part of the “net of samsara” (Molloy, 2020). This wheel does not move because of an outside force but due to people’s actions. Negative actions entail birth in the lower worlds: animals, hungry spirits, and hellish worlds. Positive ones lead to rebirth in the higher worlds: gods, demigods, and humans. Sansara is described as a unity of six states of mind, to which a seventh state, the bardo, is sometimes added.

In Hinduism, sansara is treated precisely as a vicious circle from which one must leave to reach the abode of God. One can achieve it either by meditation, recourse to yoga, or endless love and selfless service to God. Avidya (ignorance) is considered to be the cause of the soul (jiva) in samsara (Habib, 2020). It manifests itself in the individual’s ignorance of his true self (the Atman) and identification with the mortal material body. Unlike the body, the Atmana does not change or reincarnate, which can fall into either good or stormy conditions. The goal of the teachings is self-release (moksha), which will allow one to break free from the wheel of samsara.

In Buddhism, samsara is somewhat different: samsara is a world of suffering (dukkha), passions, and unfreedom, inextricably linked to the repetitive cycle of birth and death. Sansara is presented as a twelvefold form of existence in which one is responsible for each successive rebirth. As in Hinduism, Buddhism suggests that the journey through samsara is a consequence of one’s ignorance of one’s true self (Bodewitz, 2019). This leads to an endless cycle of suffering, which can only be escaped through nirvana. Unlike Hinduism, everything is subject to change in Buddhism: in particular, the true self can transform itself and become a “non-self” – Anatta (Harris, 2018). Only through the attainment of nirvana and the comprehension of Anatta can one escape from the wheel of samsara.

Nirvana (extinction) signifies the goal of the “path of liberation” and the completion of the religious life, a kind of supreme holiness. Nirvana is a natural part of the wheel of samsara, but one cannot attain it, though all should strive for it (Molloy, 2020). Nirvana, which is realizable while the adept is still alive after his “enlightenment,” culminates in the ultimate nirvana after the dissolution of his last body, parinirvana. Although the concept is associated with attenuation, it is the primary goal of any dharmic teaching.

Hinduism lacks the term nirvana itself, but ancient texts mention the concept of nirvana. As previously mentioned, the term used is moksha, which is liberation from the cycle of Sansara. It is not associated with emptiness or attenuation, although it is a stilling of the mind. Hindu texts use moksha as synonymous with knowledge of the Atman and acceptance of its universality (Habib, 2020). Moksha is the release of a soul that possesses actual knowledge and can be one with Brahman. Three paths are said to lead to the state of freedom: knowledge, devotion, and action. Each path guides the individual’s rebirth into a free essence capable of dialogue with the Buddha.

Buddhism uses the term nirvana differently: attenuation and inactivity, complete peace. It is a more logical term because in Buddhism and samsara is a cycle of suffering, not the usual cycle of things as in Hinduism. It is the cessation of all the dark thoughts and burdens that one has had to endure. As in Hinduism, there are three ways to go to nirvana – extinguishing raga (greed), dwesh (aversion), and mokha (ignorance) (Bodewitz, 2019). Liberation can only be achieved after total abandonment of the self because nirvana leads to emptiness and the destruction of desires.

Karma and Rebirth

Karma is one of the central concepts in Indian philosophical and religious movements. It is a kind of law that defines the conditions for rebirth: all actions have consequences, and the teachings of karma teach thoughtfulness about one’s decisions (Molloy, 2020). The term is used to justify the connections between multiple destinies and their intertwining and is an aspect of the movement of the wheel of samsara. The production of any karma is possible only up to the state of nirvana/moksha; after their occurrence, there are no consequences of the action.

In Hinduism, karma has a spiritual origin and describes people’s actions by free will, thereby creating their destiny. Karma is divided into three kinds – sanchita (accumulated), prarabadha (bearing fruit), and kriyamana (gathering at the moment) (Bodewitz, 2019). The entire kriyamana is converted into sanchita, and based on this, one is reborn later in life. Deeds that have not yet had time to bring forth karma limit one to rebirth; acts with prarabadha karma are paramount (Habib, 2020). A jiva cannot attain moksha until all the accumulated sanchita karma is spent and bears fruit, determining the vector of rebirth.

In Buddhism, karma is the natural law that binds human actions in all their forms and predetermines the characteristics of future rebirth. As in Hinduism, the fruits of efforts determine a person’s future path, but the Buddha distinguished four categories of karma based on its results rather than type. Thus, there are dark karma with dark results, bright karma with bright results, a combination of these with dark and bright results, and karma with no definite effect (Bodewitz, 2019). The fundamental law of karma is that bad actions do not lead to good consequences. Just as in Hinduism, karma is the result of conscious intention, which goes through stages of maturation (vipaka) and fruit formation (phala) (Harris, 2018). Previously accumulated karma is the imprint that can influence future actions.

As can be seen, the concept of karma and rebirth are completely interrelated, and in Hinduism and Buddhism karma is the opportunity to form a favorable rebirth. The cycle of birth and death is perceived as a natural phenomenon. In Hinduism, rebirth appears as the transmigration of souls (Punarjanma), and it will continue until one no longer identifies with matter (quote). In Buddhism, rebirth is described as a new soul formation (Punarbhava), which lasts until nirvana (Bodewitz, 2019). In addition, attaining the awakened state (bodhi) is not possible in one lifetime; it takes hundreds of years to reach it. Unlike Hinduism, Buddhist teachings include the concepts of the six worlds, which have to be repeated many times before the right path can be found.

Conclusion

Hinduism and Buddhism are similar religious teachings based on how an individual goes through the path of life. In Hinduism, samsara exists as a continuous stream in which the individual exists until they find the true eternal self; in Buddhism, eternity is denied, and samsara is a cycle of torment. As a term, nirvana is present only in Buddhism; Hinduism uses moksha. The relationship between karma and rebirth is pretty much the same in both currents, but the concept of worlds and the division of types of karma are different. I am close to the idea of karma even though I don’t believe in rebirth; however, I think that the wheel of samsara does exist. It is reflected in the actions one performs because one does not want to change and find enlightenment.

References

Bodewitz, H. (2019). The Hindu doctrine of transmigration: Its origin and background. In D. Heilijgers, J. Houben, & K. van Kooij (Eds.), Vedic Cosmology and Ethics: Selected Studies (3–20). Brill.

Habib, I. (2020). Interpreting Indian history. Social Scientist, 48(9/10), 3–12.

Harris, S. E. (2018). Promising across lives to save non-existent beings: Identity, rebirth, and the Bodhisattva’s vow. Philosophy East and West, 68(2), 386–407.

Molloy, M. (2020). Experiencing the world’s religions: Tradition, challenge, and change (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Hinduism and Buddhism have many similarities and differences. The most conspicuous similarity is the origin of the two religions in sub-continent India. Some worship and religious practices are similar but there is a profound difference in the style and purpose of life in the two religions.

Hinduism is about understanding the soul while Buddhism is about negating the soul. While Hinduism glorifies the understanding of Brahma and expunging the body of all distractions, Buddhism values achievement of a body without desires, also called nirvana. This paper will demonstrate that despite their similarities at face value, Buddhism and Hinduism have some profound and subtle differences.

Buddhism is a brainchild of Gautama Buddha (Lopez 54). On the contrary, no particular individual founded Hinduism. The two religions contrast on their religious texts. Buddhism uses Tripitaka, a collection of Buddha’s teachings that monks put together after his demise. Hinduism, on the other hand, uses Vedas and Upanishad. Over time, Hinduism has added two texts, Puranas and Gita.

On deities, Buddhism reveres individuals who have accepted and endured suffering in the samsara. Hinduism has different schools of thought within it and these schools venerate and worship different deities. Monotheists Hindus for instance worship Veda.

Practices within the two religions vary. Buddhism subjects its followers to an intense training on wisdom and morality. In addition, it (Buddhism) trains on concentration with the aim of achieving nirvana. Hinduism on the other hand practices meditation, yoga and Yagna, and make offerings in their house of worship. Buddhism aims to achieve nirvana so that after the individual dies, he or she will resurrect on the 31 planes.

Hinduism, on the other hand, believes death is a process towards enlightenment and when a person dies, he or she will reincarnate as many times as it will take to attain full enlightenment. To a Buddhist, the principle is to evade the sufferings of live by strictly adhering to the eightfold path. To Hinduism religion, the principle is to follow eternal laws (dharma) as the path to enlightenment.

Buddhism does not recognize the existence of God. Buddhists do not recognize the presence of soul. On the other hand, Hinduism acknowledges and venerates the existence of a soul, called Atman. In addition to individual soul, Hinduism recognizes existence of Brahman as the giver of life and the supreme deity.

It is interesting that while Hinduism recognizes Buddha, not as the supreme creator but Mahavishnu’s incarnation, Buddhism does not acknowledge or recognize existence of Hindu’s God. To a Buddhist, the world is a bad place inherent of sufferings and his or her main aim in life is to escape these predicaments. Hinduism’s view of life is more robust as manifest by the four-fold aims (arthas).

The first aim of Hinduism is fidelity to religion, also known as dharma. The second aim is pursuit of world wealth, also known as artha. The third concerns humans’ desires and feelings, also known as Karma. The fourth and ultimate aim is to acquire salvation, also known as Moksha.

Hinduism does not follow the noble truths but for Buddhism, it is central to the practice of their religion. As mentioned earlier, Buddhist believe that the world is full of sorrow and suffering. The four noble truths therefore provide a Buddhist with the path to navigate through this world.

The four noble truths, as itemized by Mangla, Dharam , and Raju are “the truth of dukka-suffering and anxiety, the truth f the origin of dukka, the truth of the cessation of dukka, and the truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukka” (65). Buddhism exposits suffering, not to inculcate cynicisms into its followers, but to prepare them that suffering is unavoidable in life.

Thus, as Lopez observes, Buddhism does not necessarily foster an optimistic or pessimistic consciousness but a realization that people have to live life as it is (54). Suffering, mental and physical, leads to distress among human beings. The four noble truths therefore provide a realistic framework through which Buddhists can navigate the hardship of life and attain nirvana.

Another conspicuous difference between the two religions arises from the caste system. Hinduism believes in the caste system in which people are born into particular caste. Material wealth determines one’s caste. Those who are poor and downtrodden occupy the lower caste. Interaction between members of different caste is uncommon as Hinduism does not allow it.

On the other hand, Buddhism does not discriminate on whatever basis. This explains why many people converted to Buddhism especially in Nepal. The caste system rendered many hopeless and inculcated a sense of futility in life. With the introduction of Buddhism from Nepal, many people formerly practicing Hinduism felt liberation from Hinduism enslavement.

The building of pagodas in Kathmandu brought with it glorious days because of its strategic position between China and India. It also fuelled conflicts between Hinduism and Buddhism as the former fought to reclaim its place as the unrivaled religion of the region.

Ultimately, the town survived to be the spiritual center of Buddhism. The caste system had led to despondency among members of the low class most of whom found an escape route in Buddhism.

In spite of the differences, the two religions have many similarities. Buddha, initially a Hindu, founded Hinduism religion and hence the many similarities. The two religions underscore that the world is an illusion. They also share believe on the role of karma in ensuring that man keeps within the confines accepted by his fellow men. Life, death, and the cycle in the two processes is core to both religions.

Though they do not venerate the same deities, the two religions acknowledge their existence. Spiritual activities such as meditation are core to both Hinduism and Buddhism.

More fundamentally, the two religions share the same belief that compassion is the key to peaceful coexistence. Some versions of Hinduism, like Advaita, correlate a great deal with Buddhism. The fact that the two religions originate from India accounts for the many similarities between them.

In conclusion, Buddhism and Hinduism are widely practiced in subcontinent India though they have gained acceptance in other parts of the world. By virtue of origin, the two have many common features. However, there are differences that cannot escape notice. The differences, some subtle and other profound, are in believe in deities and practices.

The most distinct feature of Buddhism is the practice of the four noble truths. For Hinduism, caste system is the most distinct. However, with modernization and education in India, the caste system is losing credence. The aim of religion is to give purpose to human life and the two religions are serving this purpose.

Works Cited

Lopez, Donald S. The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to Its History and Teachings. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2001. Print.

Mangla, Dharam V, and Raju Gupta. Buddhism Vs Hinduism: A Comparative Study. Delhi, India: Published by Academic Excellence, in association with Geeta International, 2010. Print.

Hinduism in the News Media

Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world which still has many followers. News media pay considerable attention to events focused on those who believe in this faith’s concepts, as despite the peacefulness of Hinduism as a path in life, Hindu activists are associated with various incidents. This essay will examine two distinct cases that characterize Hinduism from a negative side, revealing the general attitude of news media toward this religion in the contemporary world.

Discussion of Situations that Indicates the Attitude of Media Toward Hinduism

The Huffington Post news source provides detailed examinations of the different situations that involved Hinduism followers, emphasizing the presence of irrational violence. For instance, the article by Carol Kuruvilla entitled “Hindu Activists Denounce India’s Jailing of Muslim Who Prayed at Hindu Temple” (2020) displays one of the instances of Hindu nationalism. A Muslim peace activist was arrested for praying in a Hindu temple despite evidence indicating that he had permission. It was inter-religious tension that resulted in the incident. According to Viswanath, an influential follower of Hinduism, “a person who is Muslim, who devotes his efforts to an India which sees no difference between different communities, is not welcome in today’s Hindutva India” (Kuruvilla, 2020, para. 7). It represents religion from a negative side, showing that ancient attitudes toward people with other beliefs exist even in the contemporary world. The principles of equality of all religions were violated in the case.

Moreover, news media provides evidence that Hinduism deteriorates even established political and social relationships. According to Kuruvilla (2020), “Human rights groups have warned that the Indian government in recent years has been cracking down on journalists, activists, and students who criticize the government” (para. 13). From the news media perspective, it reveals the existing tendency of contemporary Hinduism to enforce their teaching without attempting to find peace with other religions. It also implies that the government of the country where Hinduism is the predominant religion is concerned because of the mistakes revealed by mass media.

There is another example that is evidence of the negative attitude toward Indians’ faith. In the article “Indian Ad Featuring Interfaith Baby Shower Sparks Hindu Nationalist Backlash,” posted in HuffPost journal is revealed that another attempt to unite two different religions provoked a backlash from Hindu nationalists (“Indian Ad Featuring Interfaith Baby Shower Sparks Hindu Nationalist Backlash,” 2020). The famous jewelry brand “New Delhi (AP)” showed an advertisement for a baby shower prepared by a Muslim man and his Hindu wife. However, despite the intention to make the two religions closer to each other, many activists considered that the company promotes “love jihad,” that is, accusing Muslim men of converting Hindu women by marriage (“Indian Ad Featuring Interfaith Baby Shower Sparks Hindu Nationalist Backlash,” 2020). Therefore, India’s tradition of diversity is boycotted by any attempts to establish Hindu-Muslim unity, resulting in various incidents.

Buddhism in the News Media

Buddhism is the predominant religion in China, which is one of the world’s largest. This faith teaches that human life is suffering, and techniques such as meditations, physical labor, and appropriate behavior can relieve the pain and assist in achieving enlightenment. Although this religion is known for the kind conduct of those who believe in it, followers of Buddhism are also wide-discussed, and incidents related to them are displayed by news media. This essay will examine two distinct cases that show the relation of Buddhism to contemporary global issues.

Discussion of Situations that Indicates the Relation of Buddhism to Contemporary Issues

Currently, great attention is paid to cases of sexual abuse connected to human rights protection, which is a substantial global issue. The article “Sex Abuse Allegations Against Buddhist Monk Rock Famous Chinese Monastery” (2018), written by Jennifer Morgan, reveals the detail of allegations of sexual misconduct against Shi Xuecheng, who is a religious leader. It is stated that the Buddhist monk is accused by numerous nuns of harassing and demanding sexual favors.

Xuecheng is a well-known figure that has written and published many books and blog posts for social media following. The accusations of such type make people of different religions and cultures doubt Buddhism, especially taking into consideration that this faith is focused mainly on “the correct behavior.” The situation is complicated by the fact that monks are so respected by the Chinese people and have so many privileges that only the government has the power to step in to protect the ones who require assistance (Morgan, 2018). It is unclear if any criminal charges will follow the case, but for news sources, the incident is a possibility to display Buddhism from a negative perspective.

In another situation, China violated the rights of its citizens to conduct religious activities online. In the article “China Debuts New Rules Severely Restricting Religious Activity Online” (2018) written by Erna Solberg, the new regulations are applicable to any religious instructions or similar services provided online. The issue is complicated as intentions to make all the activities morally fit and politically reliable as it restricts them significantly (Solberg, 2018). It can be considered an adverse influence, from the perspective of the protection of human rights, to provide and perceive information and share religious beliefs with ones who need it. The live streaming of activities such as praying and preaching is forbidden, which seems to be inappropriately firm regulation. Even activities that can be potentially conducted in a private home are banned.

The rationality hidden behind the restrictions is the tendency of the officially atheist Communist Party to demand loyalty from followers of Buddhism and limit religious freedom, despite the fact that it is written into the Chinese constitution. Therefore, there is an obvious relation between Buddhism to two major contemporary issues, one of which is the prevalence of sexual harassment, and the second one is a restriction of believers’ religious freedom. Basically, both problems focus on the violation of human rights, and manifestations of this adverse tendency while involving Buddhism in China are displayed in new sources.

The Bhagavad Gita in the News Media

The Shrimad Bhagavad Gita (the Gita) attributed to Hinduism religion is holy scripture that discusses moral dilemmas and displays the violence of wars. This Hindu text influences contemporary Indians and people of other nationalities and ones who belong to different cultures in a unique way. It is possible to reveal the relation of the Gita to global events by showing its importance to particular people’s social lives that complement more modern activities. This essay will examine two distinct cases displayed in news media that explains the significance of the Gita in the contemporary world.

Discussion of The Bhagavad Gita’s Role in the Contemporary World

Currently, the significance of religion is argued by the young generation, which does not find support in God. The article “How Studying Science Strengthened My Faith” (2016) written by Samita Sarkar reveals how modern science is supported by faith, particularly Gita’s provisions. The author shows that taking three science courses, astronomy, chemistry, and biology, and deepening into the Gita helped her form a complete understanding of God and the natural phenomena of the material world at the same time. In the modern world, people are regularly overwhelmed with the amount of information that needs to be consumed and understood. It may be complicated to find inner peace while developing personal insight into processes that are occurring in everyday life.

The Gita is focused on finding the optimal method of coexistence with other living beings and nature itself. According to Sarkar (2016), “Everything I learned in the course was confirmed in the scriptures, and what I read in the scriptures was confirmed by the course” (para. 8). It implies that the Gita still plays an important role in aligning science and spirituality as they both are valid because they are based on truth.

The Gita is also appreciated for its significant impact in comforting modern individuals in their hours of despair. Yoga, which is a set of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines, is also a part of this Hindu text. According to Saha (2017), “Yoga philosophy, the Bhagavad Gita expands our understanding and appreciation for the human condition. (para. 1). Inner conflict is the phenomenon that people perceive often, and the most advanced specialists consider religion and yoga a part of treatment. It enables to bring individuals out of their despair and motivates them to share love and trust.

News source displays Bhagavad Gita as a useful tool for complementing the vision of the contemporary world and modern society. The utilization of Gita’s practices is a substantial method of addressing fears and developing independence but complemented with evidence and facts insight into science and the global processes. The mentioned authors show readers the necessity of applying the ancient text revealing its usefulness in the 21st century, with respect to modernization and globalization, as religion still influences people’s social lives.

The Ramayana in the News Media

The Ramayana attributed to the Hinduism religion is the Sanskrit epic of ancient India. This Hindu text is interspersed with teachings on the goals of human life. Following Ramayana’s provisions is intended to assist in cultural consciousness forming, which is directly related to modern society’s performance and appearance. This essay will examine two distinct instances displayed in news media that show how the Ramayana influences the contemporary world.

Discussion of The Ramayana Role in the Contemporary World

Currently, the young generation is highly concerned with their role in society. A considerable part of people believes that becoming a true leader is one of the ways to achieve success. The article “Leadership Lessons from the Ramayana” (2017), written by Alka Pratap, reveals how this epic is helpful for human qualities forming. The Ramayana describes the story of Rama, who is displayed as a leader, able to go through the most extreme situations with dignity (Pratap, 2017). It is vital for the young generation to have a suitable instance of proper conduct to create a role model they can follow in their everyday life to become better versions of themselves. The Ramayana offers education in life as lessons on leadership can be obtained from the story. It successfully compliments the modern methods to gain the qualities of a true leader, as this ancient text applies to basic concepts instead of focusing on more specific ones, as contemporary teaching does.

However, the Ramayana is also associated with another global issue, which is the inequity of men and women in society. The text of focusing on the positive qualities of men, but from the ancient perspective. The point of view toward the relationship between genders changed significantly, and for those who learn from the Ramayana, it is necessary to consider the discrepancy between old and modern cultures. According to Kumbhar (2016), in the epic, it was stated that “Dasharath remarries twice and has three wives because he wanted a son” (para. 4). It implies that revealing Ram’s actions as supposed ideas can result in forming inappropriate, in the contemporary society, behavior of both males and females.

It is possible to consider the Ramayana to be a fundamental love story that establishes role models of behavior for both men and women. The ones with “good” qualities shall survive, while individuals with many “bad” qualities had to be killed to benefit patriarchal society. It is necessary to adjust thinking and use imagination, making the text more applicable to contemporary realities to eliminate the probability of this epic’s adverse influence on the young generation. News source reveals the Ramayana as a useful tool for people, especially males, to learn decent behavior from Rama, the protagonist of the story. However, there are concerns that it may deteriorate the conduct of men toward women, which is inappropriate with respect to the contemporary issue that is inequality between two major genders.

References

Indian Ad Featuring Interfaith Baby Shower Sparks Hindu Nationalist Backlash.(2020). HuffPost.

Kumbhar, K. (2016). How We Can Transform The ‘Ramayana’ Into A Gender-Equal Epic. HuffPost. Web.

Kuruvilla, C. (2020).Hindu Activists Denounce India’s Jailing Of Muslim Who Prayed At Hindu Temple. HuffPost.

Morgan, J. (2018). Sex Abuse Allegations Against Buddhist Monk Rock Famous Chinese Monastery. HuffPost.

Pratap, A. (2017). Leadership Lessons from the Ramayana. HuffPost.

Saha, A. (2017). Yogi Blues: The Bhagavad Gita & The Yoga of Despair. HuffPost.

Sarkar, S. (2016). How Studying Science Strengthened My Faith. HuffPost. Web.

Solberg, E. (2018). China Debuts New Rules Severely Restricting Religious Activity Online. HuffPost.

Introduction: Establishing a Link between Asian Religious Traditions

The study provides an overview of two academic works that summarize the tendencies of religion revitalization in China and Japan. The comparison stems from the idea of general similarity between the theological traditions that are valued by the citizens of two countries. Thus, both China and Japan’s populations focus on the Buddhism dogmas as well as the religious platforms of their beliefs were altered by the process of globalization approximately at the same time. The authors of the works manage to show in which ways the age of industrialization and technology influenced theology. The studies agree on the issues of political reformation influence as well as the change of communication paths and social indicators.

China and Japan in Prospect: Renovating Religion

The studies, however, represent two individual accounts, since one can track the critical discrepancies in the treatment of religious patterns across China and Japan.

It is claimed that in spite of being deeply patriotic, the Japanese tend to adopt numerous theological traditions such as Christian weddings from overseas (Betros par. 5). The tendency evolved as a payoff of globalization. In his scientific work, Nelson differentiates the factors that promoted the changed. These are the orientation confusion, bureaucratic differentiation, individualization, and culture modification (Nelson 2). The author highlights that the aforementioned social factors contributed to a particular dispersion of theological views across Japan. Nevertheless, he concludes that the modern century brought some positive changes to the revitalization process. Specifically, there is a growing number of individual priests and the communities that aim at renovating the religious dogmas.

Religion in China constitutes the core of social unions since the community is fully dependent on local theological doctrines (Overmyer 34). The tradition did not change much over the time. However, the general principles of globalization have recently produced some impact on the status of religion in China. In his book, Adam Chau dwells on the sources of modification. Therefore, the author states that the crucial factors of change stemmed from Communism doctrines, the crisis of religion legitimacy, degradation of the socioeconomic positioning of Buddhism as well as networks’ activity (Chau 12). According to Chau, the globalization aspects became the means of religious revitalization since the innovative public policies that were introduced by Chinese government provided a firm ground for a legitimization of rituals and traditions.

Conclusion: Redefining Religion in Asia

The dominating feature of Japanese religious beliefs has long been a concept of individualism suppression (McFarland 20). The tradition of Chinese ideas has risen under the influence of Communist atheism (“Religion in China” par. 1). The authors of the reviewed works, however, manage to prove that the process of globalization changes world theology foundation.

Works Cited

Betros, Chris. How Religious are Japanese People? 2013. Web.

Chau, Adam. Revitalizing and Innovating Religious Traditions in Contemporary China, New York: Routledge, 2011. Print.

McFarland, Nill. “Religion in Contemporary Japanese Society.” Asian Society 2.1 (2011): 14-21. Print.

Nelson, John. “Global and Domestic Challenges Confronting Buddhist Institutions in Japan.” Journal of Global Buddhism 12.1 (2011): 1-15. Print.

Overmyer, Daniel. Religion in China Today, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Print.

Religion in China 2015. Web.

Introduction

It’s always confusing when answering the question of how Buddhism did spread so widely throughout Asia, yet it declined in India. In the travelogue “A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms¹and later Great Tang Records on the Western Region^”2 written by different Chinese Buddhist monks.

It is revealed that between 399 CE to 645 CE, the descriptions of Indus society clearly indicated the decline of Buddhism in their birth land. In fact, the commencement of this decline was backdated to the times where historians can barely find any trace to prove that Buddhism was still in existence in the Deccan after 1150³.

Most historians concluded that there were various internal and external factors which led to the disappearance of Buddhism in India. Some of this causes included; the decadence within Buddhism and the hostility from Brahmins. Being the main religion throughout the history of India, Brahmanism nourishes the Indian culture dominating around 80% of the Indian population (Hinduism)⁴.

Compare with the impact of Brahmins religion on Indian society, Buddhism didn’t truly challenge the supremacy of Brahmanism. Even at that time of the Mauryan Empire, Buddhism scaled down its peak heights. It is not necessarily important to justify that we ascribe the extinction of Buddhism simply to the influence of its powerful competitor, the Brahmanism.

However, it’s evident that the declining influence of Buddhism was also accompanied by the rise of agrarian-based religion of Brahmins on the Indian subcontinent. In addition to this, the persecution of Bramanical Kings together with the anti-Buddhism propaganda was a heavy hit to the Buddhists.

Anti-Buddhism

There is enough accounts rendered, which revealed all the persecution of Buddhism by Bramanical rulers. The Brahmanas never fully accepted the growing of Buddhist faith. In fact, at a later stage they counted Buddha as one of the avataras. Notable to mention is that, Sunga Pusyamitra is the best well-known example, of those anti-Buddhism kings who ordered the persecutions. According to history, these kings were linked in the persecution of Buddhists and the resurgence of Brahmanism.

Buddhist texts Ashokavadana and Divyavadana, accused the persecution of Buddhists under his reign stating that “he would give a hundred dinara rewards to whoever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk”⁵. Many secular historians regard these accounts as exaggerated K.T.S. This influenced Sarao to examine whether the animosity of the Brahmanas seriously contributed to the decline of Buddhism, especially in the case of Pusyamitra and Sasanka⁶.

In his conclusion, Sarao stated that there was no exact evidence showing that Pusyamitra and Sasanka did beleaguer Buddhists. However, the only certainty considered was that they withdrew the patronage of Buddhism and often selectively persecuted Buddhists.⁷ Inspite of many persecution stories being written down on Buddhists accounts, they are widely suspected by modern historians. By the matter of facts, it’s not fair to justify that such stories are not true considering that the author is a Buddhist by identity.

There are many extreme examples showing Brahmanas attempt to burn the pavilion, where Xuanzang was to be honored by king Harṣavardhana and also to kill pro-Buddhist Har–avardhana⁸. On the other hand, Brhannaradiyapurana declared it a principal sin, whenever any Brahmana would enters the house of a Buddhist even at times of great perils.

Vishnupurana regarded the Buddha as Mayamoha who appeared in the world to delude demons. On that note, Sankara vijaya of Madhava revealed that Sankara led a religious expedition against the Bauddhas as one of his strategies to end Buddhism.⁹ These accounts which are written by Brahmins avails clear evidence showing that the hostility of Brahmanism towards Buddhists is not some illusion or exaggeration, but was all political.

Although it might not appear that there was massive action to destroy Buddhism, it’s sufficient to declare that Brahmanas had no favor towards Buddhism. Furthermore, Bramanical Kings took necessary measures whatsoever to oppress any the development of Buddhism. Such steps include; withdrawal of patronage for the Buddhists. Bearing in mind that the flourishing of Buddhism entirely depended on the generosity of the royal patronage given by kings.

Nevertheless, not only Asoka, Kaniska, Harsavarkhana and the Pala kings who gave strong and substantial patronage to Buddhism but, as usually all Hindu kings were bound by custom to assist all categories of religions. Contrary, it was during the resurgence of Hinduism, when the patronage of Buddhism was sharply diminished. As we know, from the law of India, the patronage of any sects is related to a certain percentage of tax revenue and land grants¹⁰

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is evident to substantiate that the alleged persecution of Buddhists by Brahmans was one of the greatest hit which resulted to the decline of Buddhism. Other strategies used by Brahmans to ensure that they absorbed all the Buddhists into their religion included the withdrawal from the royal patronage.

This was followed by Muslim invasion, which was to drive away all Buddhists communities into extinction. Finally, it is good to understand that this war against Buddhism dint take one day or a single event, but it was a multi-factorial, which took centuries.

Footnotes

¹ FaXian A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms

² Xuan Zang Great Tang Records on the Western Region

³ Sir Charles Eliot Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historica Sketch vol.2 p108

⁴ According to Wikipedia

⁵Ashokavadana, 133, trans. John Strong.

⁶ K.T.S Sarao “On the Question of Animosity of Brahmanas and Persecution of Brahmanical Kings Leading to the Decline of Buddhism in India” Chung-Hwa Buddhist Studies, No. 10, (2006) Taipei: The Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies

⁷Ibid., 274

⁸Ibid., 266

⁹ Dr. S. R. Goyal A History of Indian Buddhism Kusumanjali Prakashan P394

¹⁰Ibid., 399

The Buddhist teaching about Four Noble Truths is considered to be the quintessence of all wisdom and knowledge of the Buddha (Sumedho, n. d.). These Four Noble Truths uncovered in Buddhist teachings represent the ultimate meaning of the whole Buddhist philosophy and religion. Four Noble Truths are crucial for the ones that intend to understand the Dharma. The Truths are the way towards enlightenment. Four Noble Truths are not a set of religious believes in Buddhism, they are the realities, but according to Buddhism not all people are truly able to comprehend them (Velez, n. d.).

The Buddha talked about Four Noble Truths in his First Sermon. All of the Truths or Realities involve the meaning of dukkha, which is translated as suffering, dissatisfaction, absence of fulfillment (Gowans, 2003). In his First Sermon the Buddha taught his former ascetic companions about dukkha. The Buddha said that there is dukkha, there is an origin of dukkha, there is an end of dukkha and there is a path that leads to the end of dukkha. These are the Four Noble Truths.

The First Noble Truth revealed by the Buddha says that there is suffering and it is everywhere around us. Being born is a suffering, getting older and growing up is a suffering and so is dying. As we first appear in this world during the labor, we cause suffering to our mothers and to ourselves. The older we get, the more complicated our lives become. Our sufferings multiply and lead to even more sufferings. In Buddhism there are three forms of suffering. The first one is suffering of pain that includes all types of it. We experience pain of the body, or physical pain, when we are sick; we go through pain of the soul when we are depressed or hurt emotionally. The second form of suffering is the suffering of change. Unstable things and events cause dukkha. Even happiness can be a cause of dukkha because when it goes away we become dissatisfied or disappointed. The third form of suffering in Buddhism is conditioned existence (Bodhipaksa, 2012). When we become dependent on certain circumstances or something starts to affect our life this brings dukkha that has the capacity of generating more and more dukkha. Buddhism teaches that everything influences and produces everything. This sequence and causality is quite scary for understanding, it brings the feeling of inevitability of sufferings.

The Second Noble Truth revealed by the Buddha states that dukkha has origin. This means that the sufferings we experience every day are caused by something. The Buddha taught that the cause of dukkha is tanha – the selfish desire for something, the constantly changing and growing need for various objects and pleasures, different passions that arise in our hearts explained by our attachment to the material things. Tanha is affected by the changes of the world around and the metamorphoses of our minds and selves, as a result, we start to experience deep frustration and stress when our wishes and expectations are not fulfilled. This truth is very logical, because the reason of being disappointed about something is our expectation for the world and things to be a certain way in the first place. If there was no desire, there would be no expectation, no following disappointment and no suffering in the end. In his First Sermon, the Buddha tells the Truths to his ascetic former companions, men that were trying to detach themselves from the material pleasures physically. The teaching states that only by complete emotional and spiritual detachment one can overcome tanha, so the monks had to detach themselves even from their practice and the rules in order to reach enlightenment like the Buddha did (Laumakis, 2008). This detachment would stop the causality of tanha and dukkha and break the infinite circle of passions, desires and sufferings (Berger, n. d.).

The Third Noble Truth is tightly connected to the Second one. These two statements complement each other, because the Second one says that the cause and origin of dukkha is never ending craving for things. In this case finding a cause identifies the way out, so the Third Noble Truth states that dukkha has an end. According to the teaching of the Buddha, cessation of the sufferings lies in abandoning of desire and passions that create instability and frustration in our minds and lives. In order to stop the constant process of dukkha one must let go of tanha or desire that disturbs the inner peace. It is hard to abandon tanha because it is often accompanied by pleasure, delight and attachment (Harvey, 1990). In the Buddha’s teachings sufferings such as pain, delusion, expectations and frustrations are described as fire. The person is burning from the inside tortured by these passions caused by desires, attachments and cravings. Nirvana is what comes after the fire is extinguished. A person is able to reach Nirvana after they understand the origin of dukkha and release on the attachments and cravings. Nirvana is the state of absolute stillness and peace, the end of sufferings; it arrives when a mind is no longer disturbed by all kinds of emotional changes. In Buddhism a disturbed and frustrated mind full of passions is often viewed as a bowl of water, when the passions shake the bowl, the surface of the water reacts, becomes distorted, but when passions are dismissed, the water becomes still and the surface starts to reflect. This is the state of clear mind.

The Fourth Noble Truth of the Buddha elaborates on the way towards the end of sufferings and Nirvana. In order to follow the way towards enlightenment, one must obey the eight important rules. The set of these rules in Buddhism is called the Eightfold Path. This Path is also referred to as the Middle Way. It is easy to think that the Middle Way could be a description of a very strict ascetic lifestyle, which makes the monks live in complete withdrawal from all possible pleasures and desires. Yet, the Eightfold Path in Buddhism does not mean severe asceticism, as this kind of lifestyle did not take the Buddha far on his way towards Nirvana (The Four Noble Truths, 2009). Eightfold Path requires its follower to stick to eight behaviors. They are right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right effort, right mindfulness, right livelihood and right concentration (The First Teaching, n. d.). In order to make all of these aspects right, one must be constantly aware of what they think, what they do, hope for, how they talk and what goals they pursue. Such high concentration is extremely difficult to achieve, this is why becoming enlightened is something that only the most devoted and pure followers of Buddhism can achieve through many of incredibly hard practices. All of the Four Noble Truths presented by the Buddha certainly have logical basis and make a lot of sense. At the same time, these Truths and rules may seem absolutely impossible to deal with for most people.

To my mind, many would object the First Noble Truth that states that basically everything that surrounds us is a suffering or will inevitably lead towards it. For example, in Buddhism happiness is viewed as one of the sides of suffering. Most people are used to saying that the pursuit of happiness is an ultimate goal of their lives. This is why Buddhist teaching that states that happiness is disturbing and unnecessary, that it leads to frustration and must be abandoned may confuse even the most devoted audience. In fact, in most cases Nirvana is unconsciously understood as the state of absolute happiness. The objectors of this teaching normally wonder what the purpose of reaching Nirvana is if it is not happiness. This point of view sticks to the common type of perception of the world around, which is based on personal feelings and emotions. Most of us would also wonder how happiness can be considered as suffering if it feels so good. Buddhism teaches that sufferings have many kinds, shapes and stages. This is why what feels good in the beginning is very likely to bring a lot of pain over time.

The Second Noble Truth states that the suffering or dukkha has an origin. The root of the fire burning us from the inside and causing frustration is the changeability of the world around and of our selves. Due to the constant flux of changes our expectations and our desires almost never come true or match the reality around us. This causes sufferings. The objection that could be raised to this Truth is that many people feel stuck and suffer because of lack of changes. They view change as a desirable and positive happening. They feel depressed because every single day of their lives seems just like the previous one. How can change be viewed as a cause of sufferings if they mostly occur when no change is happening at all? This is an example of people perceiving the universe and events though the perspective of their selfish desires and wishes. The world around is expected to be in certain way, and when it turns the other way we become frustrated, disappointed and start to suffer. What we desire or how much we want it is not the issue; the real problem is the mere fact of craving (O’Brien, 2014).

References

Berger, D. n. d., Nagarjuna. Web.

Bodhipaksa. 2012, Three Forms of Suffering, Reinterpreted. Web.

Gowans, C. W. 2003, Philosophy of the Buddha. London, Routledge.

Harvey, P. 1990, An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Laumakis, S. J. 2008, An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

O’Brien, B. 2014, The Second Noble Truth. Web.

Sumedho, A. n. d., The Four Noble Truths. Taiwan, Buddha Education Foundation.

The First Teaching, n. d. Buddhamind. Web.

The Four Noble Truths. 2009. BBC Religions. Web.

Velez, A. n. d., Buddha. Web.

There is a great number of people on over planet. Every human being is a unique creature that has its own traditions and beliefs. That is why there is a great number of different religions which try to satisfy peoples need in God. Buddhism is one of them. He is mainly spread on the East of our planet, that is why it is not surprising that it is one of the most popular and recognized religions all over the world, as the majority of people live in heavily populated areas on the East. Moreover, it is one of the most ancient religions, which can be traced to Ancient India. Buddhism is a very peaceful religion that respects life in all of its aspects.

First of all, Buddhism is famous for its unique understanding of life and nature. According to this teaching life and existence, “both animate and inanimate, is in a dynamic state of flux” (“Buddhism. A Way of Life” para. 4). There is an eternal cycle that consists of all aspects of our life. They are birth, growth, death. Every living being, including human, is a part of its cycle. Moreover, every creature on our planet has its own soul, which is immortal. Buddhists attitude to nature and life is determined by such notion as karma, which means that all actions determine the further fate of a person, his joy, and suffering. Even the next embodiment of a man also depends on karma. That is why Buddhists spend much time meditating “in order to develop the qualities of awareness, kindness, and wisdom” (“What is Buddhism?” para.1).

For a better understanding of Buddhist philosophy it is vital to understand the sense of Three Marks of Existence, which are the key point in this religion, meaning the essence of things and their real nature. First of all, it is impermanence. Everything is changeable, impermanent, starting from a tiny insect and ending with the universe. That is why it is so important to meditate, trying to understand the smallest change in this world, and change yourself according to it. The second mark means not-self. “The Buddhist teachings of not-self ask us to explore the reality of objects and ourselves in-depth like no other teaching” (Nourish para. 4).

In other words, nothing can exist as a separate, independent thing. Everything is interdependent, and the slightest change of some tiny notion cal lead to a great change in the universe. That is why it is so important to be very wise and judicious and control each action. The third one is suffering. The sense of this mark lies in the idea that the existence of any living being is suffering. There is nothing in the physical world that can bring satisfaction. One of the main issues of other religions is the idea of reducing suffering, making them easier, and helping people to avoid them. Buddhism is absolutely different in this question. There is no use trying to avoid one of integral parts of this world. Human being should not waste its forces struggling with it. A person should try to investigate suffering, understanding it as a vital part of his life.

Buddhists believe that the only way to worsen their suffering is to understand its nature. It is possible with the help of deep and long supervision. A person should study when it comes and how it comes, how he feels it and how other people recognize their and his suffering. This realisation can also be achieved with the help of meditation. Having understood the nature of this feeling, it is possible to make suffering mentally weaker. Very important thing is to understand pain of other people, to sympathize them and share these strong feelings.

This teaching can be taken as rather pessimistic however, Buddha gives a path for his followers to avoid sufferings and obtain long awaited peace. This way is often called Nirodha, or cessation of suffering. The main idea of this way is to exclude desire which causes suffering. In order to do that a man should totally liberate himself from any affections and become indifferent to temptations of the world.

Having made it, a person will destroy the source of suffering and make himself free. This action will approach a person to a state of Nirvana. This is the highest purpose of all living beings on this planet. Nirvana is the state of freedom, when a person is totally free from his wishes, attachments, sufferings and when he realizes him being a part of this world.

Having analyzed the main ideas of Buddhism it is possible to conclude that it is one of the most peaceful religions in the world. Supposing that each living being has its own soul and that every action determines following development of personality, Buddhists treat nature and people very carefully, trying to respect their actions and personalities. The issue of Tree Marks of Existence is one of the key points in this philosophy. Understanding suffering as the integral part of this world, Buddhists are trying to live with its recognition and achieve the state of Nirvana, which will be the wreath of their development.

Works Cited

Buddhism. A Way of Life. 2010. Web.

Nourise, Dana. What are the Three Marks of Existence?. 2013. Web.

What is Buddhism? n.d. Web.

Introduction

Hinduism and Buddhism are two philosophies that originated in India and have various similar conceptualizations. However, these notions differ in terms of definitions, goals, practices, and objectives. This paper will examine the differences in such concepts as samsara, nirvana, karma, and rebirth as perceived by Buddhists and Hinduists. It is inevitable that all the hypotheses mentioned prior persist in both teachings. Furthermore, both religious philosophies are highly reliant on every idea that will be discussed in the comparison study. However, several contrasting points suggest that they differ from one another based on the overall scope and method of achieving the ultimate philosophical goal. In order for the differences to be highlighted, relevant literature will be examined and used in the text for reliable reference. Samsara, karma, rebirth, and nirvana exist in both philosophies and are some of the main concepts in Hinduism and Buddhism. However, certain aspects of all of the mentioned teachings differ due to the overall belief system that does not correlate on all levels. This paper aims to find how they contrast, what the inevitable differences are, and what is the basis for the distinctions.

Samsara

Samsara is one of the concepts present in both Buddhist and Hinduism teachings. According to researchers, it refers to the change that happens every day and with every person (Molloy, 2021). The essential notion of samsara is the cyclical nature of the world and everything that it includes. However, it is vital to illustrate the importance of life and death cyclicity in order for the contract to be highlighted. Based on Buddhistic teachings, once a person’s life ends, rebirth allows for a continuation. Furthermore, this continuation is not the preservation of the soul but rather certain emotions, senses, and experiences that one goes through during a lifetime. Once the physical body dies, samsara does not include the migration or the periodicity of the sense of self since it is temporary. Thus, samsara is a more drastic change due to the complete change of consciousness, or rather, its transformation into something completely new and pure.

On the other hand, Hinduism is based on the continuation of the soul. The contrasting aspect of samsara in both cases differs due to the notion of a soul or its inexistence. While in the case of Hinduism, samsara is the cyclical rebirth of the soul that remains unchanged, Buddhism teaches that samsara is the transformation of a person into something else. The difference is illustrated in the Hindu belief in Atman (self) and the Buddhist Anatman (absence of self) (Astore, 2021). Since one theory refers to the cyclicity of the soul while the other one is based on the periodicity of general existence, this is the difference between the two. Thus, samsara illustrates the permanent sense of self in one case and does not in the other one.

Nirvana

Nirvana is the state of complete happiness that one can attain through different practices. Similar to samsara, nirvana is another idea present in both religions. Khan and Aigerim (2020) point out that the Buddhist nirvana and the Hindu moksha are identical in terms of definition but not when it comes to concepts. The term is used as an illustration of the ultimate goal of ending suffering in the case of Buddhism and enlightenment in the case of Hinduism. This is again highlighted by the presence or inexistence of the soul highlighted earlier.

In Buddhism, nirvana is closely tied to the realization that the soul does not exist and emptiness has to be accepted as the only way towards liberation and happiness. On the other hand, Hinduism teaches that in order for one to achieve a state of nirvana (moksha), one must accept the soul for the endless rebirth cycle to end and piece to be achieved as an ultimate goal within the entire philosophy. The main contrasting point is that Bubbhists view nirvana as a denial of all emotions and feelings, while Hindus view it as their acceptance. Furthermore, there are distinctions when it comes to nirvana as a goal which refers to the end of suffering or moksha as a way out of the eternal life and death cycle.

Karma

Karma is the notion that illustrates how each action has a consequence. However, there are differentiations when it comes to what influences karma or its purification. It is inevitable that due to the fact Buddhism is a philosophy based on the lack of a creator or God, karma is solely dependent on how one lives and the actions that lead to results based on prior behavior (Harvey, 2019). Thus, a person’s karma is the result of the physical actions that externalize the intrinsic intentions, and no supernatural being can either influence or mitigate the deeds. On the other hand, White et al. (2018) illustrate that Hinduism teaches karma and the belief in God are strongly related. Thus, the philosophy does not deny divine interventions when it comes to individual actions.

Hindu Karma is a concept that does not only depend on the person in question but can also be influenced through the interference of higher powers. In case a person aims to please the creator through actions and devotion, divine grace has the ability to purify and grant forgiveness. Thus, karma can be altered by two beings, by the person and by God. This contrasts with Buddhist beliefs that only the individual can influence karma with personal decisions, actions, and intentions. The argument highlights the intrinsic differences between the same term in both belief systems.

Rebirth

Rebirth, similarly to samsara, highlights the cyclicity of life. As mentioned prior, Buddhists do not believe in the existence of an eternal soul, which is not the case in Hinduism teachings (Astore, 2021). Rebirth and reincarnation are contrasting notions in the two philosophies. While Hinduism teaches that the soul migrates once a person dies and appears in another body without suffering alteration, this is not the case in Buddhism. Since nothing is permanent, the sense of self disappears once the individual dies, and only specific experiences and emotions remain present. Thus, rebirth is a more highlighted concept for Buddhists because the soul does not have a cyclical nature and death of the body does not correlate with the remaining of the self.

It is inevitable that rebirth illustrates the birth of something new that did not exist in its primary form prior to its new appearance. On the other hand, reincarnation is a term more essentially conceptualized in the Hinduism viewpoint since the sense of self does not disappear but instead migrates to another living organism (Kumar & Lethonen, 2020). Thus, reincarnation, on the one hand, is the eternal cyclical nature of the soul, and on the other hand, it is the rebirth that suggests the temporary substance that a person’s sense of sense represents.

Conclusion

It is certain that Buddhism and Hinduism have similar concepts that still contrast based on their definitions and ultimate goals. The four seemingly identical notions that are at the core of both philosophies are samsara, nirvana, karma, and rebirth. In regards to samsara, both definitions illustrate the cyclicity of life. However, a major difference is the existence of a periodical soul in the Hinduist overview and a lack of it in Buddhist teachings. Hinduism highlights that the soul migrates once a person dies, which Buddhism refers to as the ephemeral nature of self that does not persist throughout time and space.

Nirvana is another theoretical idea that exists in both Buddhism and Hinduism. In Buddhism, nirvana is achieved through the denial of the soul, emotions, and other human traits that lead to suffering. Nonetheless, moksha, which is synonymous with karma, is achieved through acceptance of self and enlightening. There are also differences in the notion of karma in the two viewpoints. While Buddhists believe that one’s karma is solely dependent on the person’s actions and intentions, Hinduism includes the influence of God alongside the individual’s personal decisions. Thus, the two contrasting factors are karma as personal responsibility or a two-sided influence of the individual and God. Moreover, rebirth or reincarnation also differs based on the philosophical overview. For Buddhists, a person is rebirthed due to the inexistence of a soul as a permanent substance. On the other hand, Hinduists view rebirth as reincarnation since the soul is permanent and it migrates once the physical body passes away. These are some of the differences between the two teachings that often use the same concepts and terminology for different philosophical ideas.

References

Astore, R. A. (2021). With or without the self? Arguments in favor of the Hindu concept of the Atman over the Buddhist understanding of the Anatman. Conatus, 6(1), 9. Web.

Harvey, P. (2019). Buddhism and monotheism. Elements in Religion and Monotheism. Web.

Khan, K. A., & Aigerim, D. (2020). A comparative study on Buddhism and Hinduism: A critical review. Journal of Critical Reviews, 7(5), 2829–2834.

Kumar, K., & Lethonen, T. (2020). The self, karma and rebirth. Journal of Indian Philosophy and Religion, 25, 3–63. Web.

Molloy, M. (2021). Experiencing the world’s religions: Tradition, challenge, and change. McGraw-Hill Education.

White, C. J., Norenzayan, A., & Schaller, M. (2018). The content and correlates of belief in karma across cultures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(8), 1184–1201. Web.

Introduction

As part of my ongoing studies of various philosophies, I have been taking a keen interest on Buddhism, and I have reading about it in an attempt to understand the many schools Buddhism, its culture, beliefs and history in general, as well as its core teachings. I have been at the same time been comparing and contrasting the various elements of Buddhism thought of stoicism, Christianity and my own; however, I was curios about the reading culture in Buddhism practice. Houston is a large city with many Buddhist temples, I visited one temple; the Jade Buddha temple, in connection with the Texas Association. The temple was large with beautiful collection of buildings; the atmosphere was also very tranquil. Meditation starts from 9 a.m. to 10 a.m., and Dharma philosophy from 10 a.m. to 10.30. a.m., although I had called earlier and I was informed of the time (Gateway magazine newsletter 2005: pp. 1-6).

Main body

At the entry way, a nice Youngman labeled ‘information’ lead me to back of the building where English Dharma discussion will be held. I took off my shoes and entered a room with short sitting benches, around the walls were also high sitting benches. A Buddhist nun, a bald woman by the name Ven. Shiou-Chih, was greeting and speaking to people. The woman seemed unapproachable, but during the lecture she was always smiling and ready to share personal anecdotes humorously. Mindfulness was the main theme of discussion; the mindfulness of our thoughts, actions and reactions; this is our efforts in working on building the habit of interjecting our conscious intellect between stimulus and response, however several other themes were discussed. During the discussion, several points were overlapping with other philosophic concepts that I had been thinking recently, but I am partial about the remarks the sister made about stoic philosophy; we can do things which we know are right, examine ourselves to see if a person is right about us, seek to understand them, but in the end, we can only do what we can do and therefore we must recognize and be contended with what we do since it is outside our control. Secondly on the Taoist Chuang-Tzu; in an attempt to make others understand our problem with them, one has to be patient, compassionate, and wait a proper time and manner in which they are receptive (Gateway magazine newsletter 2005: pp. 6-13).

As a religion, all Buddhists believers while in the temple join their hands together and bow down in respect to Buddha; this is referred to as, the act of ‘gassho’. They bow and say ‘Namu Amida Butsu” (naw-moo-ah-mee-dah-boot-soo); ‘Namu’ during the act is used to indicate an attitude of a humble student to his teacher or a seeker of truth; ‘Amida Butsu’ means “Bow to the Dharma”. I imagined my head as a “cup” which is currently full of self-centeredness and ego, the act of bowing will “empty my cup”; but according to them the “cup” gets filled with Dharma or truth; this is the essence of Buddhist awakening. The teachings of the Buddhist are essentially meant to change ourselves and not others like a Christian believer and in the teaching the change occurs when we are “filled with” or we are awaken to the Dharma. This will greatly and positively change or transform the way we view our life and all life around us. Coincidentally the life of Buddha himself as demonstrated, the true gift of Buddhism’s really compassion is found in it. The awakening of both Dharma and the corresponding awakening of compassion leads to discovering dynamic life full of energy and creativity.

The basic teaching of Buddha is impermanence; this is where all Buddhists hold the fundamental truth that all life is always moving, flowing and changing. Known as Dharma of impermanence, it was awakened by Buddha while meditating under a tree by the name, a Bodhi tree. Dharma in the actual sense means, he saw his own life fleeting, but not himself alone but all living things will someday be destroyed by impermanence, it is when he felt a great compassion for all living things and concluded that life is interdependent. According to Buddha we suffer because we consider our ego or our identity as fixed and permanent and therefore this puts us in conflict with the truth of impermanence (Bando & Stewart 1980: 42-65).

In Buddhism, there are no restrictions, Buddhism respects all life, even the one of animal and plant are all equal, they welcome visitors to their temple, according to the Buddhists, some people have even been “converted” to Buddhism, while others are still in the “research phase” or they are asking about being simultaneously a Buddhist and ‘something else’. Buddhism is essentially teaching no like other religious, those believe in a god or gods and they don’t take sides in issues that have a political element like the ones of the environment because their teaching is to ‘fix ourselves first” since “we are the problem” (Haneda 1982: 4-9). According to Christians “paganism” is normally used to refer to the belief in gods or gods rather than the normally accepted Christian God, Buddhists don’t actually concern themselves about God or god(s), but with Dharma which is not about god or god(s), but in concerns the “truth” or “reality”. Therefore when something tragic or bad happens in our lives or loved ones, Buddhist don’t ask “why did this, happen” because they don’t hold onto the belief of the existence of God or god(s) “on the look” but they instead accept the inevitable changes or impermanency of life, and therefore being grateful for every moment we are alive.

During the service Buddhist ministers wear official robes, but the members of the temple wear simple casual clothes. The Buddhist meditate for about 10 minutes during the service, while seated on their chairs, they collectively “chant” the “sutras” the Buddha teachings. Even if the meditations were ‘grueling’, their aim is to achieve “awakening” or enlightenment, this is the same for all Buddhists, and this completely justifies their means. However, the Belief that the Buddhist act of gasho is like a prayer which is held by both Christians and even some Buddhists themselves is not correct to Buddhism act, this is the expression of humility, the act of realizing with gratitude, how much one has to be thankful for it is not a ‘wish” for anything for oneself. In a typical shin Buddhist temple, the congregation consists of a predominantly Japanese American membership, and during a typical shin Buddhist service, you will typically sing one or two Japanese song and the minister himself, it is unfortunate that occasionally it is ‘she’ is at times more comfortable speaking Japanese than English (Gateway magazine newsletter 2005: 1-13).

Conclusion

Albert Einstein, once said: “The religion of the future will be a cosmic religion. It should transcend personal God and avoid dogma and theology. Covering both the natural and the spiritual, it should be based on a religious sense arising from the experience of all things natural and spiritual as a meaningful unity. Buddhism answers this description. If there is any religion that could cope with modern scientific needs it would be Buddhism.” As I pondered this quote, I was highly moved by the simple pragmatism of the Dharma discussion; truly, this is what religion is meant to be.

In American temples today, things are changing gradually, in particular, the younger generations. This generation is making a move towards making the services less “ethnic”; they are instead making it more universal. Buddhism is getting much popular and attention than expected and more people are showing interest and asking questions for various reasons than ever before (Haneda 1982: pp. 9-27).

Work cited

1. Bando, S. Rev. & Stewart, H. Dr. (1980). Tannisho, Eastern Buddhist XIII-1 Tannisho – Ryukoku Translation Center 1962: 42-65
2. The Gateway magazine newsletter (2005); 1-13
3. Haneda, N. Dr. (1982). December fan (translated essays of Rev. Kiyozawa); the Evil person (translated essays of Shuichi Maida) and Heard by Me (Shuich essays); 1- 29

There is much controversy and debate about whether Buddhism is a religion or a philosophy. The first inclination is to say that Buddhism is both a religion and a philosophy. However, after further exploration into Buddhist beliefs, one can conclude that Buddhism can be classified as a religion. Buddhists believe in a higher power and life after death, they have a moral code of ethics, and they perform rituals; these things are the definition of established religion.

One of the biggest problems in defining religion is that there are multiple sources and definitions of religion. Some definitions support Buddhist views; some do not. A compilation of ofvarious definitions regarding religion include the belief in a higher deity, and the implementation of values, traditions, or rituals.

Religion also involves a code of ethics, a common group view of an object or a being, a belief in supernatural powers, and a desire to better oneself. When the definitions are generalized, more facets of Buddhist beliefs can relate to religion. The confusion classification often arises among individual understanding; everyone is entitled to their own personal interpretation of religion (Robinson).

Although Buddhists do not worship a supreme being, they do seek enlightenment. They strive to emulate a set example or a set belief system. Buddhists follow the historical path of enlightenment set by Buddha. His example is a guide for Buddhists personal behavior. Buddhists do not worship Buddha; they strive to be the type of person he once was. Even though Buddhism lacks specific or established rules, guidelines, and historical figures, it emphasizes the need for informed decisions and personal responsibility.

Religion is supposed to be a positive experience. Positive experiences form the basis of a Buddhist belief system. In religion, personal standards are what matter most. The biggest difference between the western idea of religion and Buddhism is that Buddhists believe that an individual is the best indicator of what is good for them personally (Buddhism Beliefs).

Buddhists believe in life after death. They believe that life is a continuous predestined circle, created to reach enlightenment. They strive for their personal best. After death, the Buddhist’s next life will be chosen as a reward or a punishment for their previous life’s actions. When an individual reaches their highest potential, they can reach Nirvana. Nirvana is similar to the Christian view of Heaven.

When an individual becomes the best they can, they will be rewarded with peace and happiness in their next life. Religion is characteristically based upon the belief of a reward system. One difference is that Buddhist’s strive for greater personal happiness, not necessarily the happiness or expectations of others. They believe that the way they live has consequences, good or bad. The consequences are karma; karma is their fate. Karma will be a determining factor in their next life (Buddhism Beliefs).

Buddhists believe in a code of ethics. Buddhists are taught to encourage peace, justice, and love. They are to delight in themselves and are required to treat others the same way. They are not supposed to harm any living thing. This is similar to the Christian idea of doing unto others.

There is a code of morality and a belief in non-violent behavior. Compassion is encouraged in all aspects of life. The rules of conduct, morality, and virtue are based upon the belief of equality. Every living thing is equal and should be treated so; Buddhists are not to harm others or themselves(Robinson).

As another religious similarity, Buddhists have the guidance of the Five Precepts;the content is similar to the Ten Commandments. These precepts are called the rules to live by; they include not killing or harming others, not stealing or lying, not misusing sex, and not consuming drugs or alcohol.

The difference between the two guidelines is that the precepts are meant to be a guide. The precepts are a suggestion for a better life, not an actual requirement of the religion. The precepts are strongly suggested, but there are situations where the details become clouded; people must still have the freedom to do what is right for them and those around them (Robinson).

Buddhism has been called contemplative wisdom.This is because meditation plays a large role in Buddhist beliefs. Meditation is a ritual, a defining factor of established religion. Meditation calms and clears the mind and allows for personal reflection and inspiration. As another religious comparison, meditation is similar to prayer.

Buddhists also pray, but meditation is a deeper look into their soul. Buddhists believe that the mind holds all power; it controls individual thoughts and actions. The mind effects karma, it can heal and strengthen. Self-exploration can lead to increased wisdom and compassion. Nothing in life happens by itself; life is faith (Lewis).

In reality, it does do not matter if Buddhism is labeled as a religion or a philosophy. What is important is that Buddhist followers can strengthen their faith and live their lives in a manner that pleases them. Buddhism has many characteristics of religion; there are enough similarities that it can rightfully be defined as a religion. The belief in a higher power, life after death, a moral code of ethics, and the performance of rituals all combine to create an established religious entity.

Works Cited

Buddhism Beliefs, 2008.

Lewis, G.R. “21 Shin Buddhist Beliefs.” Buddhist Beliefs, Practices and Experiences.

Robinson, B.A. “Buddhism: Comparison of Buddhism & Christianity.” Religious Tolerance.org. 2009. Web.