Category: Buddhism

The critical reading assignment focused on Sharma a scholar who focuses on Ancient India and how women in region during the period coming after the 16^th B.C chose to become Buddhist nuns. This paper presents three different journal articles by different authors at the same time analyzing how each one of these articles tackles the issue of women and the Buddhist religion

The first article “Women in Ancient India” by C.D Weerasinghe focuses on how Ancient Indian women became Buddhist nuns. The author of this article clearly gives an account of how particular women bikkhunis and Buddhists nuns chose to become lay-devotees of Buddhism eventually becoming nuns. For instance, the author gives a well written account of how Budha’s step-mother and aunt joined Buddhism.

Here, he clearly presents the main reasons and underlying circumstances necessitating the decision made by this early Buddhist nun. In this account, Weerasighe asserts that Gotami having no one to look up to after loosing her husband, she had no choice but to study Buddha’s doctrines. This explains how she became the first woman Buddhist and later Buddhist lay-devotee albeit without being influenced by anybody.

Weerasighe’s arguments tends to concur with those of Sharma in the sense that they both agree to the view that most women chose to abandon everything and devout their lives to self-deprivation in order to become Buddhists.

Additionally, his discussion tends to agree with Sharma’s examination of seventy one female nuns in the Therigatha where he asserts that most of them joined the order not because of their unsatisfactory marriage or family lives, but because of the positive influence of Buddha’s ways. In a similar way, Yasodhara chose to practice deprivation and join Buddhism despite her young and happy marriage to prince Siddhattha. This was due to the appreciation and influence of Buddha.

On the other hand, the second article, “Buddhist Nuns in the Kathmandu Valley: An Evolving consciousness” by Dr. Sarah Levine, the author outlines some reasons why women of Kathmandu valley opted to become nuns. The author in this case is only concerned with the period preceding and coming immediately after the eighties. According to Levine (24),most women in this region chose to become nuns mainly because three major reasons.

Women joined Buddhism either because they wanted to escape from the doctrine of marriage, or they were seeking for a chance to further their education or finally running away from marriage and family problems. This view is definitively in a sharp contradiction with Avandi Sharma’s argument that new philosophical influences and teachings of the new religion can be a major reason for someone to completely abandon her life for a life of complete deprivation as a nun (Findly 98).

The author of the book, “Women’s Buddhism, Buddhism’s women”, agrees with Sharma’s views and opinion regarding women’s choice of Buddhism as a religion. The author of this article holds the claim that people choose to join certain religions because of the doctrines, teachings, practices and ways of life in those particular religions. To support this claim, the author gives an example of Europe where women are turning to Buddhism not because of some socio-economic forces, but because of their attraction to Buddhist ways.

Some of these attractions include individuality and the way of life as well as a satisfying religion and humility in this religion. Thus, he argues is because many of them feel disillusioned by the “traditions” in Christianity. Though this article uses different sources from those of the CRA, the focus is merely the same though in this case the geographical region shifts to Europe and America. This kind of Buddhism though quite different from the ancient one in India, the course is merely the same and thus this article supports the views in the CRA.

According to Arvandi Sharma, ancient Indian women chose to become Buddhists nuns purely due to the influence of Buddha’s positive ways, teachings and the Buddhism doctrines. They did not become nuns purely because of their shortcomings in life such as familial misfortunes or lack of place or someone to run to.

Sharma tries to support his course of argument by analyzing the life stories of some of the earliest nuns from the “Therigatha”, a summary about the psalms of the nuns in India. In this case, the author relies solely on religious poetry verses from the Buddhist religion as his primary source of data in the writing of his article.

These verses are virtually including live stories of women who converted to Buddhism during the period beginning from the 6^th century B.C. The author in this sense seeks to find out whether women during this period chose to become nuns because of the enlightenment of the Buddhism religion, or because they were escaping from miserable social and economic past lives.

The author in this case seeks to test the relative deprivation approach holding that women have cultural and social reasons to turn to the new religion rather than doing so on the basis of pure enlightenment provided by the same religion. The author asserts that women became Buddhists in slightly different ways, but two main factors were the main driving forces. Buddhism as a religion was attractive to the women and its doctrines appeared to be of great importance.

Additionally, women chose to become nuns as a result of the disgusting nature of the surrounding society and its culture. They were thus seeking a way out from this seemingly bad surrounding society and culture. In relation to this, a majority number of forty two cases out of a total of sixty eight cases examined were found to have chosen to become nuns because of the spiritual attractiveness of Buddhism rather than for social and economic problems (Findly 98).

For example, the next article ” Life of Women in Ancient India” demythologizes the importance and high status of Indian women in the ancient society and gives several proofs to support its opinion analyzing different spheres of life (AbhiSays.com). However, the article “Four Famous Female Figures of Vedic India” describes lives of the most popular and influential women of the Vedic period showing their importance and role in that society (Das). Thus, it argues with the previous article.

In “Women in Ancient India”, the author analyses the lives of some of the early women who join Buddhism as a religion. It is interesting enough that the author starts with Budha’s step-mother and aunt who were among the first five hundred women to join Buddhism.

This was a very commendable approach by the author because with this kind of analysis and targeting such kind of target group of women, the author was able to get a first hand account of what early Buddhist women had to say about their decision to join Buddhists and eventually nuns. His choice of the analysis group is also worth appraising.

He chooses to analyze groups of women from wealthy backgrounds and who could not in any way be influenced by socio-economic factors in joining Buddhism as claimed by other dissenting authors.

In regard to this, the women analyzed by the author of this article concur with Sharma’s argument that most women chose to abandon everything and devout their lives to self-deprivation and become Buddhist lay-devotees or eventually nuns without necessarily being influenced by familial or social problems. Some of the women targeted by the author in this article such as Yasodhara claim to have been influenced by Buddha himself (Weerasinghe, 43).

The author further gives an account of a devout daughter of a Savattia millionaire, an intelligent girl who was able to grasp Buddha’s teachings on the various occasions Buddha visited their house for alms. According to the author of this article, a girl from a wealthy family being converted to a Buddhist lay-woman not only implies that people can devout their lives to complete deprivation by not only simply following new attractive philosophies, but they can also do so without any influence from socio-economic forces.

The sources used in this article are far more reliable than those used in the CRA since here, the lives of the analyzed women can be traced unlike in the psalms used by the CRA. The conclusions in this article are identical to those presented by Sharma in the CRA.

The author of the article “Buddhist Nuns in the Kathmandu Valley: An Evolving consciousness” presents her arguments from a different perspective, era and using quite different sources from those used in the CRA. Dr. Sarah Levine, the author of this article presents quite different points as the main factors behind women’s choice to become Buddhists.

The reasons presented in this article include avoiding getting married, seeking a chance to further their education, and finally evading problems of marriage breakages or being widowed. This contradicts Avandia Sharma’s argument that philosophical influences and teachings of the new religion were the main driving forces behind women’s choice of joining Buddhism.

In conclusion, the five articles have greatly broadened by knowledge concerning the Buddhist religion. They have also given me a new set of ideas concerning this religion as well as the dissenting opinions held by other scholars in comparison to those of the scholar in the CRA.With the knowledge acquired from these articles, I can now critique the CRA from different perspective.

Works Cited

Das, Subhamoy “Four Famous Female Figures of Vedic India: About Ghosha, Lopamudra, Maitreyi and Gargi.” About Guide. About. Hinduism. Web.

Findly, B. Women’s Buddhism, Budhism’s Women: Traditional, Revision, Renewal. Wisdom Publishes, 2000. Print.

Levine, Sarah. “Buddhist Nuns in the Kathmandu Valley: An Evolving consciousness.” Buddhist Himalaya: A Journal of Nagarjuna Institute of Exact Methods 9.1&2 (1998): 489-99. Ccbs. Web.

“Life of Women in Ancient India.” Abhi Says. India, 2009. Web.

Weerasinghe, C.D. “Women in Ancient India.” Bodhi Leaves 47 (2010). BPS Online. Web.

Introduction: Buddhism as a Path of Life

One of the most crucial issues in Buddhism, the process of conversion and cognizing the Buddhist religion offers a plethora of peculiar issues to discuss. Among the most enticing topics that presuppose thorough discussion and involve multiple issues, the one concerning the way women are converted into Buddhist nuns is the one that is worth the maximum attention. Since the stages that women have to pass through to come to the idea of becoming a nun are quite multiple and involve a number of various factors, it can be suggested that the process of becoming a nun in Buddhism can be enhanced both by the inner and the outer factors.

Therefore, it is necessary to figure out which of the aforementioned elements women converted into Buddhist nuns are inspired most by. Once establishing the source that has the greatest influence on the women and the ways which are most typical of women to be converted into Buddhism, whether it is the doctrinal one, or the one involving the social issues, one will be able to define the role of women in Buddhism:

Until the early eighties, women were motivated to be come nuns for three principal reasons: in the case of young girls, to avoid marriage and, at time when very few girls went to school, to get a chance to learn to read and write- if only in order to study the Buddhist scriptures: and in the case of older women, to escape the marginality of marital breakdown or widowhood (Levine).

Therefore, the necessity to consider the given issue is doubtless. Analyzing the article by Arvind Sharma, one is likely to obtain a plethora of peculiar information concerning Buddhist nuns and considerable room for debates. Making it clear that both the inner and the outer factors play crucial role in women’s conversion to Buddhist nuns, the author specifies that the doctrine and the authority of the teacher play the most important role. Though the role of the teacher and the postulates cannot be denied, Sharma does not pay the due attention to the role of the outer factors, which drives to certain misunderstanding.

From the Bird’s-Eye View: the Author’s Point

Considering the article in question, one must admit that the author, Arvind Sharma, drives rather well though-out arguments and considers the issue from a number of aspects, which, no doubts, shapes the paper, making it objective, and introduces versatile factors that have the impact on the Buddhist women as they become nuns.

Embracing the cultural background, the influence of the religious authorities and the influence that the doctrines of Buddha have on Indian women and their religious ideas, the author conveys the idea that the there sources of inspiration for the nuns to be are actually of the same power, yet emphasizes that it was the change within the women that made them become a part of the Buddhist religion.

It is quite peculiar that the author specifies that each of women had her own motivations to become a nun, yet the scriptures of the Buddhist postulates were the turning point that convinced the women completely, persuading them to convert to nuns. As Sharma says, there are two basic reasons for women to join the ranks of the Buddhist nuns, namely, the enchantment of the Buddhist doctrine, the desire to cognize the ultimate truth, and the repulsion that the women could have experienced in their former secular life and are now willing to shake off the lowness of the world. However, it must be admitted that the author insists on the priority of the former reason.

The Strengths and the Good Points

It is important to mark that Sharma has a number of credible and impressive ideas in his work, quoting the relevant and trustworthy secondary sources, as well as relating to specific Buddhist texts, which adds certain tint of ingenuity to the paper (Sharma). Offering the quotes from such authoritative sources as Davids’ works, Sharma impresses with the thoroughness of his research.

It is of utter importance that the author offers a plenty of examples to illustrate his ideas. With the help of the specific instances that Sharma drives to prove his point, the argument becomes more objective and the treasons that Sharma offers turn much more credible. Therefore, the use of multiple examples in Sharma’s work can be considered one of the major points that speak in favor of the given essay, since, as Warder claims, the process of exemplifying contributes to a better understanding of the given subject: “without the understanding there may be ‘excess’” (438).

Telling the reads the names of the women and the people who had their impact on the women’s decision to become nuns, Sharma also contributes to the credibility of the paper.

It is quite peculiar that Findly also refers to Order, which supports Sharma’s argument, yet claims that there are certain issues concerning the Order of the nuns: “The main objection to the revival of the nuns’ order is that the Theravada bhikkhuni lineage has been broken and, once broken, it cannot be restored” (46). Offering the snatches of women’s lives and experiences to the public, the author rebuilds the conflict situations, making them completely real and, thus, credible.

When Questions Arise

However, it is still desirable that the sources could be more updated. Even though it is unquestionable that the sources used by the author of the article have been the three pillars that the research of Buddhism has been based on, it is still desirable that some of the materials could be more up to date. Thus, the objectivity of Sharma’s research becomes questionable.

Moreover, one of the obvious weak points of the given paper concerns its being focused on the examples that prove the author’s idea, disregarding the exceptions from the rule set by Sharma. According to Findly, there are a number of such cases: “Others have become temporary nuns to accumulate spiritual merit or to learn the Buddhist prayers, or simply because ‘my friends have done it too’” (164).

Obviously, not all Buddhist nuns have become the ones in the course of misunderstandings within the family or the inspirations from the sacred texts; nevertheless, the author does to take into account the existing exclusions, which makes the paper somewhat weaker.

In addition, the sources that Sharma uses when researching the earliest epochs of Buddhism are basically the myths, legends and scriptures that cannot be considered as reliable sources, since they can be considerably exaggerated. Therefore, the part of the research that concerns the earliest period of accepting women as nuns in Buddha temples can be questioned. Though the above-mentioned does not seek to diminish the contribution of the author into the research concerning Buddhist nuns, the points mentioned earlier allow to suggest that further researches should be undertaken.

The Imprints Left: Sharing the Impressions

Speaking of the impressions that the given paper leaves, one must admit that Sharma does sound rather persuasive mostly due to the authoritative sources that he uses in his persuasive arguments, but also because of his manner of argument. Offering the readers concrete and, in most cases, doubtless argumentations, Sharma provides an impression of an author relying on the opinions of the wise Buddhist teachers, as well as Warder does, which contributes to the vision of complete clarity. Therefore, the overall mood of the research inspires the audience to believe the ideas that Sharma offers. It can be concluded that the structure of Sharma’s argumentation is rather adequate, and the examples that the author drives are rather striking.

Despite the tiny inconsistencies and drawbacks mentioned above, the argument that Sharma is trying to convey to the public seems clear and reasonable. However, it is still worth mentioning that Sharma’s idea concerning women’s conversion to Buddhism being inspired solely by the Buddhist ideas seems not adequate enough, since the personal motifs are also to be taken into account, as Findly emphasized. It is also desirable ton include the evidence of the nuns themselves, not merely the stories told as local legends. Obtaining the information from the residents of the temples themselves, Sharma would have created a more credible and fruitful research.

Getting Inspired: The Ideas to Offer

Even though Sharma does seem rather biased in his judgment concerning the factors than enhance women in India and Europe become “theri” – the author obviously marks that these are the inspirations within the person that mainly make women take the decisive step and become one of the theri, it must be admitted that the author conveys his ideas rather clearly. However, Sharma still leaves a number of issues open, leaving them to be solved for the rest of the researchers. One of such, the question concerning the motivations of the nuns remains open.

Nevertheless, Sharma offers a plenty of peculiar ideas to consider. One of them, the stage of passing from a nun to a theri, is a crucial part of the research. According to the author, under the impact of Dhammadinna preach, a nun can become so spiritually excited and elevated that she passes to the stage of a theri. However, the statement mentioned above is still debatable, since the speech is the factor that triggered the conversion, yet not necessarily the one that caused it.

Conclusion: The Roads We Choose

Summarizing the above-mentioned, one must admit that the reasoning of Sharma is rater impressive, despite the fact that it lacks certain elements like more credible pieces of evidence and more particular examples. In addition, it would be more reasonable if Sharma elaborated on the outer factors that drive Buddhist women to becoming nuns and theris, living quite an ascetic life, such as the family issues, the influence of authoritative people, etc., thus, embracing a wider range of possibilities.

It would be more appropriate if Sharma considered such reasons for women to renounce the secular world as being broken-hearted and the feeling of despair, like Findly does: “Experience or anticipation of suffering is sometimes involved” (43). It would also be essential to mark that women play a significant part in Buddhism religion, for instance, as the friends of Sudhana, as Warder explains: “It is noteworthy that 20 out of the 52 friends are women (or goddesses)” (404).

Thus, the significance of Sharma’s work is undeniable, yet there are tangible gaps. Since the author focuses on the spiritual, he leaves out the secular, which is also essential. Providing a detailed description of the spiritual transformations, Sharma still leaves certain social factors that make women become theri without the due explanation.

Works Cited

Findly, Ellison B. Women’s Buddhism, Buddhism’s Women: Tradition, Revision, Renewal. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publishers, 2000. Print.

Levine, Sarah Dr. “Buddhist Nuns in the Kathmandu Valley: An Evolving Consciousness.” Buddhist Himalaya, 1998. Web.

Sharma, Arvind. “How and Why Did the Women in Ancient India Become Buddhist Nuns?” Sociological Analysis, 28.3 (1977): 239-251.

Warder, Anthony Kennedy. “Indian Buddhism.” Delhi, IN: Motial Banarsidass, 2004. Google Books. Web.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast two religions namely, Buddhism and Hinduism. These religions have their roots in the Indian subcontinent where they are highly influential (Oxtoby and Amore 30-150). Hinduism and Buddhism have distinct philosophical, religious, and ethical teachings, which determine the behaviors of the people who follow them. Ethical teachings are an integral aspect of the two religions because they are the basis of righteousness. Concisely, ethical principles distinguish good conduct from immoral behavior in the two religions.

Hindus and Buddhists usually observe the ethical principles to live in harmony with their neighbors and to attain righteousness. This paper focuses on Hindu and Buddhist ethical teachings. In this regard, it will explain how Hinduism and Buddhism share some ethical teachings and differ in others. The explanations will be based on the premise that the application of ethical principles depends on the belief system of specific religions.

Hindu Verses Buddhist Ethics

The similarities and differences in the ethical teachings of Hinduism and Buddhism include the following. First, the basis of ethics is different in the two religions. In Buddhism, ethics leads to the development of moral and spiritual life through personal effort and realization. The ethical teachings are clear, comprehensive, rational, and impartial sets of guidelines that combine moral thought and action. These guidelines are universally accepted, and their role is to enable individuals to engage in good deeds in order to attain the highest level of freedom, peace, and happiness (Oxtoby and Amore 200-350).

Thus, Buddhist ethics determine the social status of an individual in society. In Buddhism, moral development does not depend on external factors such as caste system, gender, or ideology. Hence, individuals should show impartiality in their judgment of human actions. Hindu ethics, on the other hand, are based on the Law of Manu, as well as, the Dharmastutras.

The ethical teachings in Hinduism mainly focus on karma, purification, and restoration. They define the social and spiritual responsibilities of the individuals who belong to various castes (Coomaraswamy 20-100). Thus, the caste system is the basis of Hindu ethics. The higher castes are associated with purity and holiness, whereas anything that is associated with lower castes is considered to be impure.

Second, Hinduism and Buddhism prohibit the killing of human beings. According to Buddhist ethics, taking the life of an individual is the most serious offense (Coomaraswamy 20-100). Individuals are not only advised to avoid taking the lives of others, but also to refrain from inciting their colleagues to kill. Buddha encouraged his followers to focus on rescuing other people’s lives. Furthermore, committing suicide is not allowed since it is deemed an act of killing. Buddhists normally follow this code in order to avoid oppression, animosity, and the risk of revenge attacks from their enemies.

In Hinduism, killing is only a grave offense if a person kills a Brahmin. According to Manu, killing a priest is the most serious crime on earth, and it attracts severe penalties such as confiscation of private property. However, killing members of a lower caste is a minor offense. Hinduism also prohibits suicide. However, a person can take his own life if he fasts for three days (Coomaraswamy 20-100). In a nutshell, both religions prohibit killing. However, in Hinduism, the gravity of this offense depends on the caste system.

Third, stealing is unethical behavior in both Hinduism and Buddhism. In Buddhism, stealing is a serious crime that no ordained or layperson should engage in. Additionally, a person should not encourage others to steal (Oxtoby and Amore 200-350). A person should show generosity in order to prevent those who are in need of material things from stealing. In Buddhism, there are no clear or specific punishments for theft. Consequently, secular laws determine the penalties that are imposed on thieves. Hinduism also prohibits stealing among its followers.

Unlike Buddhism, the consequences of theft are clearly defined for each caste. For instance, a priest who has been found guilty of theft has to pay a fine that is equivalent to sixty-four times the value of the stolen item (Coomaraswamy 20-100). A Sudra, on the other hand, is executed and his property has to be confiscated if he is found guilty of stealing. In this regard, the similarity between Hinduism and Buddhism is that both prohibit stealing. However, the difference between them is that Buddhism does not identify the types of punishments that are associated with stealing.

Fourth, the act of lying is unacceptable in both Hinduism and Buddhism. In Buddhism, individuals are expected to abstain from lying and to focus on saying the truth. In this regard, individuals should always maintain the right views, and encourage others to avoid lying. Liars are likely to face severe consequences such as being falsely accused in the human kingdom or going to hell (Coomaraswamy 20-100). The rewards of telling the truth include avoiding oppression, animosity, and the risk of false accusations.

In Hinduism, the rewards that are associated with telling the truth include enjoying a glorious life after death, gaining a good reputation, and earning the respect of the Brahman. Lying, on the other hand, attracts severe penalties such as losing one’s caste status, and lifetime merit. In this regard, the similarity between Hinduism and Buddhism is that they both discourage lying. Additionally, lying attracts severe penalties in both religions. However, the difference is that the two religions associate the act of telling the truth with different sets of rewards.

Fifth, the ethical teachings of Hinduism and Buddhism discourage sexual misconduct. In Buddhism, monks should not engage in any sexual activity since chastity is one of the most important precepts of the monastic Vinaya. The laypeople, on the other hand, should not engage in adultery or persuade others to do so. Thus, individuals should focus on practicing and teaching others about the importance of purity and chastity. Engaging in illicit sex is likely to cause rivalry and revenge in the human kingdom (Coomaraswamy 20-100).

Moreover, individuals who are guilty of this offense are likely to face harsh punishments. In Hinduism, the severity of this offense depends on the caste system, which defines the penalties that are imposed on the offenders. Generally, the penalties are more severe in the lower castes than in higher ones. For example, a man who belongs to the servant class is likely to be executed if he commits adultery with a Brahmin woman. On the other hand, the Brahmin woman’s life will not be taken. In a nutshell, sexual misconduct is condemned in both religions. However, in Hinduism, the punishments that are associated with this offense are based on the hierarchical caste system.

Finally, the act of consuming intoxicants such as alcohol is not acceptable in Hinduism and Buddhism. In Buddhism, drinking is discouraged because it leads to loss of wealth and weakening of a person’s intelligence. Additionally, it causes diseases and quarrels or disagreements in society. Nonetheless, drinking is a minor offense in Buddhism (Coomaraswamy 20-100).

However, selling alcohol or any intoxicant is a major offense since it promotes addiction. In Hinduism, drinking liquor is a major offense since it leads to undesirable behaviors such as gambling, fighting, betting, and hunting. However, drinking wine is acceptable among the Hindus. In this regard, both religions discourage the consumption of intoxicants due to the harmful effects of such substances. However, Buddhism considers the act of selling liquor to be the most serious offense, whereas Hinduism considers the act of drinking alcohol to be the most serious crime.

Conclusion

Ethical teachings are integral aspects of both Buddhism and Hinduism. These teachings are essentially the guiding principles that enable the followers of the two religions to distinguish between good and bad behavior (Oxtoby and Amore 30-80). Generally, the two religions discourage lying, stealing, adultery, drinking alcohol and killing. However, the interpretation of these codes of ethics in terms of their gravity and the penalties that are associated with them differs in the two religions. This difference is mainly attributed to what is believed to be right or wrong in the two religions. This leads to the conclusion that the application of ethical principles depends on the belief system of specific religions.

Works Cited

Coomaraswamy, Ananda. Hinduism and Buddhism. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011. Print.

Oxtoby, Willard and Roy Amore. World Religions: Eastern Traditions. New York: Oxfrod University Press, 2010. Print.

One of the Buddhism’s main characteristics is the fact that its theological doctrine appears to reflect both: the genetically predetermined psychological inclinations of the ancient Aryans (the religion’s initial creators), and the fact that, as time went on, the Buddhist doctrine was becoming progressively adjusted to the native (the original inhabitants of the Great Indian Peninsula) people’s tendency to objectify themselves within the surrounding reality. This is exactly the reason why many Westerners cannot help finding Buddhism aesthetically emotionally appealing, and yet somewhat inconsistent with what happened to be their deep-seated existential anxieties. In this paper, I will explore the validity of the above-stated at length, while referring to the texts The Questions of King Milinda on the Self / A Dialogue on Dogmatism and Truth and to what appear to be the particulars of my self-reflecting stance in life.

As it can be well seen from the dialogue between King Milinda and the Buddhist monk Nagasena, even though that both of these individuals never ceased being affiliated with Buddhism, they nevertheless appear to have possessed several mutually inconsistent views on what accounts for the essence of one’s sense of self-identity. The most distinctive difference, in respect to the mentioned individuals’ worldviews, has to do with the fact that, whereas, Milinda believed in the objectiveness of one’s sense of ‘self-uniqueness,’ Nagasena considered this sense is essentially misleading. To substantiate the validity of his opinion, in this respect, Nagasena came up with the ‘parable of the lamp.’

According to the monk, just as it is the case with the flame of a burning lamp, people’s existence (which in turn affects their perception of themselves) is spatially ‘fluid.’ This, of course, implies that one’s sensation of possessing a soul, as something that cannot be ‘disassembled’ down to its integral elements, is illusionary. In its turn, this creates a certain paradox – in the discursive sense of this word, people can be simultaneously ‘wholesome’ and ‘partial.’ As Nagasena noted: “Neither as the same nor as another does a man go on to the last phase of its self-consciousness” (19). As a result, it could be well suggested that when preoccupied with trying to postpone the time of their death, as something that is believed leads to the destruction of one’s ‘soul,’ people act in the counterproductive manner. After all, if the feeling of their individuality’s continuity, on the part of the people, is self-deceiving, then there can be very little rationale in referring to death, as something that puts an end to the earlier mentioned continuity.

Nevertheless, even though the earlier mentioned line of Nagasena’s argumentation does make a certain logical sense, it would be rather inappropriate referring to it, as such that represents an objective truth-value. The reason for this is that, contrary to what Nagasena must have believed, his perception of self never ceased reflecting the unconscious workings of his psyche, which cannot be discussed outside of the view-forming particulars of this monk’s ethnocultural/racial affiliation. In this respect, Nagasena did not act any differently from the majority of the Southeast-Asians, known for their tendency to strive to ‘blend’ with the surrounding environment – hence, the phenomenon of the Oriental (or ‘Apollonian’) ‘holistic’ mentality.

This phenomenon has been interpreted from a variety of different perspectives. For example, it is commonly suggested that the Buddhists’ obsession with ‘nothingness,’ extrapolated by their mental fixation on how to attain the state of ‘nirvana,’ is indicative of the possession of some ‘higher truth,’ on these people’s part. There is, however, is a much simpler explanation for the above-mentioned phenomenon, concerned with the principle of Occam ’s Razor. Those people, who happened to be endowed with the ‘holistic’ (‘Apollonian’) mentality, strive to attain the ‘state of unity’ with the nature, as the consequence of their unconscious realization that, while remaining essentially undistinguished from the surrounding non-organic matter, they would be less likely to fall victims to predators. What it means is that the Buddhist idea, concerned with the presumed fallaciousness of one’s spatially extended sense of personhood, can well serve as a subtle indication of its affiliates’ evolutionary underdevelopment.

After all, it namely the fact that, while remaining on the path of an evolutionary progress, the representatives of Homo Sapiens species were able to develop the ability to operate with rather abstract subject matters (intellect), and not the supreme ability to hide from predators, which allowed them to ensure their dominance in the environmental niche of the whole planet.

Thus, the verbal exchange between Milinda and Nagasena can be well conceptualized, as such that exposes the deep-seated perceptual dichotomy between ‘Faustians’ (Westerners), on the one hand, and ‘Apollonians’ (non-Westerners), on the other. As opposed to what it happened to be the case with the latter, ‘Faustians’ do not seek to ‘hide’ their existence, while eventually beginning to praise non-existence. Quite on the contrary – they do not only ‘advertise’ their existence to the whole world, but also assume an utterly active stance, while in the process. Hence, these people’s tendency to impose their dominance upon others – they are ‘natural born conquerors.’

Therefore, there is nothing odd about Milinda’s rhetorical question: “And who is it who destroys living creatures? Who is it who takes what is not his own?” (18). After all, this question appears thoroughly consistent with the fact that having been affiliated with India’s highest ruling caste (consisting of ‘Aryans’), Milinda could not emotionally relate to the idea that existence is ‘wicked.’ Apparently, on an unconscious level, Milinda was perfectly aware that one’s ‘wicked’ existence is still so much more morally appropriate than the Buddhists’ commitment towards the ideal of attaining the state of a non-existential nirvana, as something that transgresses the most fundamental laws of nature.

It is understood, of course, that the earlier suggestion cannot be discussed outside of what happened to be the perception-related subtleties of my self-identity, as a euro-centrally minded Westerner, who continues to be affected by several essentially ‘Faustian’ anxieties. As such, I cannot help experiencing the sensation of a cognitive dissonance, when the discussion of Buddhist ideas is being concerned. On the one hand, I like the spirit of tolerance and environmental friendliness, radiated by the religion of Buddhism. On the other, however, I find it rather impossible to become this religion’s active practitioner – all because, being genetically ‘programmed’ to seek domination, I cannot possibly relate to the virtue of non-existence, by definition. Another example – even though I find the Buddhist idea that one should never stop trying to become evermore enlightened thoroughly appealing, I simply refuse to believe that the ‘state of enlightenment’ can be achieved by the mean of spinning a prayer-wheel for decades.

The same can be said about the majority of White people in the West, as well. After all, it does not account for much of a secret that even those of them that happened to be closely affiliated with Buddhism, rarely take the religion’s discursive provisions close to their hearts. This suggestion correlates perfectly well with my belief that people are not at liberty to choose in favor of a particular religion – rather, religions choose them. Whatever we find emotionally appealing in a particular religion, we necessarily regard as the proof of its ‘truthfulness.’ Given the fact that we are unable to exercise a rationale-based control over what we like or dislike, it will be fully appropriate to suggest that one’s sense of religiosity is genetically predetermined.

The world’s most popular religions are specifically ‘designed’ for the Chinese, Indians, Arabs, Blacks, Whites, etc. When a particular individual affiliate itself with the religion that does not quite ‘suit’ him/her mentally, it becomes only the matter of time, before the individual in question would begin experiencing the sensation of an emotional discomfort with the religion-related initial choice.

As it was mentioned in the Introduction, the Buddhist doctrine was initially concerned with people’s essentially ‘Faustian’ strive to gain a better understanding of how the universe works and to have their sense of empathy towards other humans to be able to actualize itself socially. Therefore, there is nothing incidental about the fact that, as it can be seen in the text A Dialogue on Dogmatism and Truth, Buddha used to stress out the importance of one’s ability to face theological challenges in the intellectually flexible manner: “It is not on the view that the world is eternal… that a religious life depends; it is not on the view that the world is not eternal that a religious life depends” (271).

Nevertheless, as time went on, Buddhism continued to grow increasingly dogmatized. Eventually, this led to the creation of a situation when, as of today, this philosophy-religion can no longer be considered conceptually valid, in the theological sense of this word – just as it happened to be the case with the rest of the world’s religions (especially the monotheistic ones, such as Islam and Christianity). The revolutionary breakthroughs in the field of empirical sciences, which took place throughout the last century, leave only a few doubts, as to the earlier statement’s legitimacy. These religions nevertheless continue to attract ‘racially diverse’ people in the Third World, while the majority of Whites in the West prefers to lead the de facto atheist lifestyles.

The reason for this is apparent – being endowed with the ‘Faustian’ mentality (which prompts them to believe in their semi-divinity), today’s Westerners do not experience the anxiety of non-existence. This once again explains why I cannot emotionally relate to the ‘virtue’ of breaking out of the ‘vicious’ circle of Samsara, promoted by Buddhism – even though I still find the religion of Buddhism the most ‘truthful’ of all.

I believe that the provided earlier line of argumentation, in defense of the legitimacy of my ‘hybrid’ stance on the discussed subject matter, is fully consistent with the paper’s initially proposed thesis. The irony here is concerned with the fact that having adopted an intellectually flexible stance; in this respect, I indeed have what it takes to be considered a good Buddhist.

Works Cited

“A Dialogue on Dogmatism and Truth.” Expanding Philosophical Horisons: An Anthology of Nontraditional Writings. Ed. Max Hallman. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1995. 268-271. Print.

“The Questions of King Milinda on the Self.” Expanding Philosophical Horisons: An Anthology of Nontraditional Writings. Ed. Max Hallman. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1995. 16-19. Print

Jainism is the only option I would consider because Hinduism and Buddhism have complicated traditions that one has to follow strictly. While Jainism and Buddhism are both non-theistic religions advocating for liberation for their followers, Buddhism does not permit the freedom of thought that Jainism offers to its followers. Buddhism is strict in its values, and it bases its teaching on scriptures with extremist views, whereas Jainism has a fundamental doctrine based on different perspectives of situations. Jainism allows its followers to judge different situations through their intuitive power, and it allows them to make decisions based on ethics generated from their reasoning. The core value in Jainism is the truth, and the dynamics of pluralism in society guide it. The Jains believe in the existence of a divine being, and they attribute the forces that govern their fate in life to the Supreme Being. The challenge for the Jains is to attain the perfection possessed by the perfect Supreme Being; thus, their religious teachings are mainly intended to challenge the members to do the common good throughout their lives.

The Jains believe in equality in society, and they always strive to humble themselves because their beliefs compel them to live harmoniously with the rest of the people in the society. In both Buddhism and Hinduism, some beings are considered as superiors to the people, and the issue of hierarchy in the religions’ leadership is present. Jains value and conserve all living things, including plants and animals (“Religions: Jainism at a glance” par. 2). Unlike Buddhists and Hindus, Jains do not depend on prayer to have their needs met by their gods; rather, they believe in self-help, and they always depend on their effort.

Jainism advocates for teaching based on a different perspective of the people in the society. Pluralism is upheld by its members because they believe that sharing their respective perspectives on life and its issues help in the development of the complete picture of the truth. The members claim that while everybody has a perspective of the truth, nobody can see the entire truth unless he or she shares other people’s points of view about the same ideas. This belief indicates that Jainism is the best-suited religion for political prosperity. The religion has a complicated structure that has no room for leadership: everyone is equal. The religion unites the people and influences the development of cohesion in their quest to liberate themselves from the negative forces of nature. These forces include poverty, inequality, and unethical behavior.

Jains have a simple culture that revolves around fasting and pilgrimage. Most Jains fast during their annual religious festivals to attain spiritual liberation. They believe that fasting purifies their bodies (“Religion: Fasting” par. 1). Pilgrimage involves gathering in temples for prayer and religious teachings. The Jains are economically liberated, but they do not value earthly riches because they believe that everything that fosters inequality in society should be avoided. I would convert to Jainism because its cultural beliefs are enshrined in the values of the utilitarian ethics, which dictate that all the decisions made by an individual should yield the most desirable results for the entire society (“Calculating Consequences: The Utilitarian Approach to Ethics” par. 9). The religion also upholds the truth in all aspects of life, and the truth is one of my virtues.

Works Cited

Calculating Consequences: The Utilitarian Approach to Ethics. 2014. Web.

Religions: Jainism at a glance. 2014. Web.

Religion: Fasting. 2014. Web.

Buddhism Classes of Thought

Buddhism is a complicated religion because of the existence of various issues that make t it difficult to understand by people from other faiths and new converts. The development of classes of thoughts was supposed to ensure followers of this religion understand it easily. Therefore, it has been divided into classes with each explaining a different issue to enable followers to have a wide understanding of this faith. It is important to explain that these classes were established because of the nature of the believers and their backgrounds (Olson 28). The schools of thought that exist in this religion are Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana.

Theravada refers to the teachings of the elders that are considered the oldest school of Buddhism. It is based on the psychological understanding of the human nature and recommends that meditation is important in changing consciousness. The teachings contained in this class advocate for abstinence from evil actions, people and places and encourage people to ensure that they keep their minds pure by doing good (Gombrich 121). Therefore, this school of thought focuses on the development of ethical conduct that ensures people live in harmony in the society.

In addition, it addresses the need for meditation as a way of self-searching to ensure people do good things and avoid evils. Therefore, it argues that all world things are temporary and thus people should not place a lot of unnecessary emphasis on them (Olson 36). This school of thought explains that all worldly things are not important and thus individuals should not have a desire for them because they lead people to sin. In addition, it claims that death and suffering are caused by the desire to have worldly things and thus people should avoid them if they want to live better lives.

Mahayana covers various aspects outlined by other minor schools of Buddhism. This school of thought claims that salvation is possible through believing in the power of Amitabha and the desire to be reborn in a gracious place. In addition, it claims that its followers should look inwards to achieve enlightenment and know how they are supposed to live pure lives (Gombrich 126). Moreover, this belief has no words and it derives its practice thought the use of symbols and this means that meditation is an important part of developing enlightenment and seeking salvation from their supreme being.

According to this school, Buddhas have an external connection to the outside world but internally they are connected to the spiritual realm. However, this class is divided into two sections with one basing its arguments on a middle ground that does not recognize the existence of middle grounds but rather the relative positions of individuals. Another subdivision emphasized on the need to practice yoga as a way of attaining fulfillment. Therefore, death does not bother individuals when they practice yoga and this gives them the assurance that their future places are safer that this world. This class claims that people who sacrifice their enlightenment to help others achieve theirs usually attain the highest Bodhi.

Vajrayana is the most complex class of Buddhist thoughts because it covers a lot of aspects. It claims that sometimes the mind is in a stable state that can be used to transform its way of thinking and emphasizes the need for death yoga to prepare individuals for what they are supposed to do when they die (Gombrich 128).

Cessation of Rebirth

Jainism is a form of Buddhism religion that advocates for non-violence living and stipulates that all living things should be equal and spiritually independent. This means that it advocates for people to be offered the freedom of worship and allowed to live independent lives. Followers of this religion believe that self-discipline and non-violence are indispensable if individuals want to achieve liberation (Mittal and Thursby 98).

Members of this faith believe that people who destroy their karmas usually achieve knowledge, perception, power and bliss that will never end. Therefore, they become powerful and assume a status of demigods called Jina and this enables them to avoid suffering rebirth again. These followers believe that there is no God and that they do not have the power to manage the world or people because these issues operate under their own powers and laws (world-cosmic people-karmic). Therefore, the souls of all Jinas can retain their identities even if there is a high level of destruction of ordinary people and souls. These believers worship 24 Jinas and believe that this is the only way they can achieve liberation.

They argue that anybody can become a Jina if the person decides to be enlightened and abandon worldly things. Therefore, they encourage more people to be enlightened so that the number of Gods can become innumerable and stronger that other spiritual forces (Young 34). There are no reincarnations in this belief because Jinas are gods and they are already liberated from rebirth; therefore, they do not have to fear death. They believe that the universe consists of the earth, heaven and hell and thus their souls are reborn through karma and wait for liberation and enlightenment (Young 54). The state of an individual after rebirth depends on the karma of his life and thus a person may be reborn in heaven, hell or earth and even become a lower or upper life form and he becomes a god with omniscience and omnipotence powers after undergoing full liberation.

Jinas believe that people are never born evil but this occurs because they have the free will to do what they want. Therefore, they experience circles of rebirths that enable them to continue committing evils as their karmas haunt them. However, they can be liberated and become Jinas if they get rid of all karmas and release all attachments that attract them to evils. Therefore, they become gods and this allows them to have limitless power, happiness, perception and knowledge that will help them to live pure lives (Mittal and Thursby 100).

Liberated individuals must follow the three steps of right faith, knowledge and conduct to avoid developing desires for worldly things and ignore things that do not contribute to their happiness and righteousness. There is the need for Jinas to repent and confess regularly to ensure they do not deviate from the normal way of living. These believers agree that suffering occurs because of past mistakes and thus people must always make sure they burry their karmas to avoid remembering painful histories (Young 68).

In addition, it also occurs when people attach themselves to worldly pleasures that hide their liberation. Those that are not fully liberated must do so to ensure they are free of any issues that may expose them to suffering. They advocate for heterosexual relationships and argue that homosexuality leads to negative karma that haunts individuals and their future generations; therefore, it should be avoided.

Sikhism

This religion was developed by Guru Nanak in the 15^th century in Asia and it is the 5^th largest religion in the world. The main teachings of this religion are based on the belief of oneness of God. Sikhs are supposed to have spiritual and physical powers that will ensure they live a holy life that will promote unity in their religion (Aftab 309). On the other hand, Islam was founded by Prophet Muhammad. Sikhs worship in Gurdwara and this place is open to all members from different religions. They do not have special places to worship like temples, churches or mosques because they believe that god is everywhere.

The origin of Islam can be traced to Mecca in Saudi Arabia. Muslims believe that God is the only creator and can control the universe. In addition, they believe that prophet Muhammad was Allah’s messenger (Lopez 138). On the other hand, Sikhs believe that God works with their Gurus and this means that they have supernatural powers. The Islamic doctrine is governed by the five pillars that ensure Muslims worship one God, pray five times daily, fast, give help to the marginalized and travel to Mecca at least once in their lifetime.

On the other hand, Sikhs believe in daily prayers and respect the three pillars that ensure they remember and thank God always, live honest lives and share wealth with the poor. Both religions respect and belief in the existence of one god. In addition, they have pillars that guide and strengthen their faiths. Moreover, they respect women and advocate for equality in everything they do. This explains why members of these religions usually attend their services together and they do not discriminate women (Aftab 314).

In addition, they all believe that life has an end even though Sikhs take a longer journey than Muslims. Muslims believe that there is judgment after life ends on earth and people will go to heaven or earth depending on their deeds. Sikhs believe that there is life after death; however, people must go through several liberations and rebirths before they meet their God (Lopez 141). These religions highlight the plight of the marginalized groups in the society and thus they advocate for sharing of wealth and resources between the poor and rich. Members of these religions are supposed to treat others (including non-members) with respect and help them when they are in need.

The histories of these religions are easy to trace because they were founded by individuals. It is necessary to explain that Islam and Sikhism have their origins in the Middle East and that is why most people argue that they are similar. The issue of reincarnation makes Sikhism to be unique because it borders on rebirths and end of life that is very far. In addition, lack of information about the future of life after rebirths makes this religion to be like others that do not explain what will happen after the end of life on earth. It is necessary to explain that all religions have similar explanations that when life ends on earth it will start in another form in different place. This is the only instance where all religions share similar views. In addition, they all explain that there is heaven, earth and hell; therefore, their followers must behave properly to ensure they do not live a life full of suffering after the judgment day.

Works Cited

Aftab, Tahera. Inscribing South Asian Muslim Women: An Annotated Bibliography and Research Guide. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Print.

Gombrich, Richard. Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. London: Psychology press, 1988. Print.

Lopez, Donald. Asian Religions in Practice: An Introduction. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1999. Print.

Mittal, Sushil and Gene Thursby. Religions of South Asia: An Introduction. London: Routledge, 2006. Print.

Olson, Carl. Original Buddhist Sources: A Reader. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2005. Print.

Young, Serinity. Dreaming in the Lotus: Buddhist Dream Narrative, Imagery, and Practice. New York: wisdom, 1999. Print.

Buddhism has been largely embraced as a religion although there is a growing perception that it is also a philosophy that comprises myriad of practices, beliefs and traditions. These aspects of Buddhism are closely attached to Siddhartha Gautama teachings. He was perceived as a lama, a spiritual leader among the Buddhists. Most of the religious and philosophical practices of Buddhism were mainly practiced in Indian subcontinent towards the eastern region (Hinduwebsite par. 2). Gautama was considered to be a teacher who acted as an awakening vessel to the sentient beings.

To begin with, Karma in Buddhism refers to the invisible and intrinsic power that controls the entire life cycle from rebirth to suffering of every existing being (Harvey 40). This cycle is also referred to as saṃsāra. The doctrines of suffering and rebirth are contained in dharma which is also the teachings of Buddhism. In order to reinforce these teachings, there is a set of rules or law known as dhamma that have been put in place. In one of the teachings, Buddhists are taught that dukka or sufferings in life is indeed inevitable at one time or another (Buddha Dharma Education Association par.3). In addition, Buddhists are also supposed to exercise generosity through the practice of dana. The term Bodhisattva is used to denote an individual who has been enlightened and all Buddhists are expected to be enlightened when they join the path to Buddhahood.

In addition, there are various set of unique rules for different groups in Buddhism. These rules are called Tipitaka. For instance, Pāli Tipitaka constitutes of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka the Vinaya Pitaka. They are all referred to as the three baskets. These rules are meant to make individuals move towards perfection also known as paramis. On the other hand, those who embrace Buddhism in totality attain nirvana which means being liberated from delusion hate and craving. The Bodhi tree provides a sacred place for meditation so that one is freed from any form of suffering (Rhys 18).

There are aspects of truth that are considered to be noble in Buddhism namely attachment is the origin of suffering, it is possible to attain cessation of suffering, there is a well defined path towards cessation of suffering and suffering is part of life. In addition, the code of ethics in Buddhism is contained in the five percepts (Buddha Dharma Education Association par. 4). Moreover, Buddhists have to undergo Zen Buddhism or meditation throughout their life. As part of their religious traditions, Buddhists also celebrate the day of the Hungry Ghosts which is known as Ullambana. This is done alongside mantra or songs (Harvey 164).

It is evident that the four basic truths have been emphasized in this sermon as quite important in Buddhism. While we may attempt to separate the four noble truths into unique entities, it is by no doubt that they all lead to one major tenet namely suffering. As a matter of fact, those who believe in the teachings of Buddhism should acknowledge that suffering is life altogether.

The day when enlightenment dawned on Buddha is usually celebrated in Bodhi Day. A special procession is usually held in Sri lanka every August to commemorate the Festival of the Tooth, the tooth which is believed to be that of the Buddha and cannot be seen since it has been kept under several caskets. This is one of the sacred places apart from the Bodhi tree. On the other hand, Vesak is the birthday celebration for Buddha and held in June every year in a leap year but on the first day when there is full moon in May in an ordinary year. It also coincides with the celeberation of his enlightenment as well as death (Rhys 58).

Magha Puja Day is sometimes referred to as “Sangha Day”. It is celebrated to remember a historical and important event that took place in the life of Budha. It is usually commemorated in the month of March during full moon. Addition, the first ever teaching of the Buddha is marked and commemorated on Dhamma day (Harvey 128). Although the assigned video attempts to vividly describe the intrinsic beliefs and practices of Buddhism, it is vital to note that the five code of ethics as well as the noble truths still stand out as important values in Buddhism. Nonetheless, they may have not been brought out clearly.

Works Cited

Buddha Dharma Education Association. Buddhist Ceremonies: Festivals and Special Days. 2012. Web.

Harvey, Peter Brian. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History, and Practices. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Print.

Hinduwebsite. The First Sermon of the Buddha. 2010. Web.

Rhys, Davids. Buddhism: Its History and Literature. New York, NY: Cosimo, Inc. 2005. Print.

Hinduism forms one of the oldest religions mostly predominant in India. Just as sharia laws guide Islamic religion, eternal laws guides Hinduism. It accommodates different traditions and beliefs that should be based on societal norms. The word Hindu has its origin from Sanskrit, where it is used to trace the origin of Indus River in India. There are several categories of Hinduism religion based on different pillars of the religion. For example, there are categories based on devotions, morality, and philosophy and traditionalist beliefs. It is also essential to state that Hinduism does not entail a unified system of belief, but it comprises of many religious practices based on Vedic traditions. It is believed that Hinduism evolved and later spread to other areas in India (Eliot).

Hinduism believers should uphold various tenets. Meditations, scripture reading, worshipping, and offering prayers are the basic tenets that Hindu believers should observe. Their emphasis on reading the scriptures (devas) can be depicted in various works of life, among the Indians. This can be seen in Hindu cultures as represented in architecture, arts, and mythology that relates to scriptures, especially in Indian poetry. Other pillars are karma (action and reaction), dharma (supernatural power), samsara (reincarnation), yogas (Hindu practices), moksha (liberation) and others that uphold Hinduism.

The concept of God among Hindus believers is complex, as individuals choose their own philosophy or tradition that they want to worship. It is a religion, which involves devotion to one god and accommodates other gods. According to Hindu scriptures, God should not be questioned about creation; instead, individuals should seek the answers themselves. In addition, Hindus build shrines in their homes; thus, visiting the temples is not compulsory. This is because Hindus can worship and offer prayers to their supreme deities in their homes (Flood).

There are various pillars, which describe the Hindu religion. They are described as the integral part of the religion that believers should observe them during their religious lives. Many Hinduism believers perform rituals in their homes. These rituals are essential in promoting personal purity. Some of these rituals include lighting lamps around family shrines, meditations, reciting scriptures, and singing devotional hymn songs. Purification is always the center of performing rituals. It is believed that ritual process always neutralize any sins that a believer might have committed. Pilgrimage is another ritual that Hinduism upholds. It is not obligatory though many Hindus devotees take part in it. In addition, Hindu calendar prescribes dates for various festivals that Hindus celebrate, for example, diwali festivals (Eliot).

Buddhism is a philosophical religion that encompasses several traditions, beliefs, and practices that are based on Buddha’s teachings. Buddha was believed to be the most enlightened teacher to have ever existed in the 5^th century. His teachings are still depicted in the current Buddhism scriptures and are regarded as the best teachings. Buddhism is divided into two categories; namely, Theravada (elder’s school) and Mahayana (The great vehicle). Theravada is found in Sri Lanka and South Asia while Mahayana is found in East Asia, Tibet, Mongolia and other parts of the world. The basic tenets of Buddhism are meditation, offering prayers, devotion, and baptism (Eliot).

Other basic tenets are karma (action and reaction) and samsara (rebirth). Buddhists also believe that suffering is part of life and strengthens believers to reaching their ultimate truth. Buddhism is based on ethics that ensure that Buddhist adhere to them. For example, they should avoid non-violence, theft, sexual misconduct, drug abuse, and lies. The most common practices that Buddhists perform are offering prayers, pilgrimage, chanting, and devotion to Buddha.

Buddhists do not perform rituals, as they believe that Buddha discourages rites and rituals. Buddhism is a polytheist religion, as belief in other gods apart from Buddha is permitted. In conclusion, the objectives and practices of Hinduism and Buddhism are similar in many ways. They all stress on rituals, pilgrimage devotion, offering prayers and overall dedication to their gods. In addition, Buddhism promotes fairness and equity among all Buddhists while Hinduism is discriminatory, as the caste system promotes inequality among members of different castes.

Works Cited

Flood, Gavin. Blackwell companion to Hinduism. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003.Print.

Eliot, Charles. Hinduism and Buddhism. London: Routledge, 1954. Print.

Buddhism is both a religion and a philosophy. As written by Keown (2009), Buddhism is a religion because it has connection with belief in a supreme being, and in this case, a Dharma. The latter is believed to control the world that Buddhists live in. On the other hand, Buddhism is a philosophy because it is viewed by those who believe in it as a way of life. Therefore, it guides Buddhists on how to behave and view others. To some extent, it acts like a code of ethics especially for those who believe in it (Keown, 2009). Most importantly, there are various misconceptions that are associated with this religion.

This emanates from the fact that the religion is only popular in one part of the world. In particular, Buddhism as a religion is dominant in Asia and is less common in other continents. According to Keown (2009), most of the misconceptions are in countries like the United States of America and come as a result of scarcity of people professing the faith. This paper analyzes major misconceptions I have heard about this religion and which were rectified by my visit to one of the worship places in California.

Misconceptions about Buddhism

Due to poor knowledge about the religion, I have had to live with many misconceptions regarding this religion. Where I come from, the dominant religion is Christianity followed by Islamic religion. Woo (2008) writes that it is possible to have many misconceptions about a belief, a religion and a practice if you are not part of the mainstream practice, faith and religion. Most misconceptions associated with this religion come from their actions or deeds. For example, there are misconceptions that touch on Karma which generally means action or the deeds (Kozak, 2011). One of misconceptions that have been circulating is that the term Karma which is commonly used in Buddhism religion refers to retaliations emanating from outside forces (Woo, 2008). The following are misconceptions I have heard about Buddhism:

Buddhists have a belief in reincarnation

There are a number of types of Buddhists. Popular of these is the Tibetan Buddhism and include Dalai Lama. This group has a strong belief that once the soul and the spirit depart from a human being, it is given another form of living thing. This misconception is drawn from the fact that Tibetan Buddhists are very popular and most people outside this religion tend to believe in what they do.

Buddhism advocates for suffering

I had a belief that people who profess this faith regard themselves as true or sincere during suffering. Suffering is painful to everybody and no particular person is likely to look forward towards such kind of experience. Being outside a certain belief and mostly in religion is reason enough to paint a bad picture of other beliefs. Being an outsider, I became part of the group that can only believe once enlightened by a person from the castigated group.

Buddhism is paganism

From time immemorial, I had a bad attitude towards Asian nations. Since Buddhism is synonymous with Asian nations, I included the religion in my hate. One of the ways I used to castigate the religion is by putting it among pagan groups. The term refers to individuals and groups of individuals not believing in a Christian God. What I did not know is that the way Christians have God, Buddhists have Dharma meaning truth and reality.

Buddhism is for Asian nations alone

Various beliefs are associated with particular areas. For example, each and every other country has a particular religion associated with it. My understanding was that Buddhism only belongs to people who come from Asian countries such as China and Japan. For example, in America, the belief is that it is only for Japanese-American individuals.

Change of heart through encounter

After visiting a worship center having made necessary arrangements with relevant authorities, I developed a totally different picture about what I believed. The turn out was different from what has been portrayed in the world. The California worship center for the Buddhists is an herb of activities and the area comprises of all people of the world.

After interacting with one of the leaders in the church and after being taken through a number of beliefs, I came to learn that not all Buddhists believe in reincarnation. In actual sense, it is only the Tibetan Buddhists who have developed this idea. I was informed that the worship center does not have any of Buddhists believing in such issues. Tibetan Buddhism is not a representative of Buddhism and only represents a part of the religion. It is the same with major religions in the world where some have different inclinations towards believing in God.

It was revealed to me that Buddhists do not welcome suffering at all. However, there were only slight truths about this but the premise is that no particular person of any religion can look forward to pain experiences. Suffering is only taken as points of growing or learning and not as part of the religion.

Buddhists are not pagans. The word pagan refers to people who do not believe in mainstream faith. My misconception was that since Buddhists do not subscribe to Christian values, they are pagans. I came to learn that they have their own supreme being Dharma which means truth or reality. They cannot be pagan because they have their own supreme being who is totally different from that of Christians.

It was a wrong perception that Buddhism is a preserve of Asian countries alone. In California where most of Japanese-Americans are, there are some other people who attend the worship. Other than myself, there were other five (5) people who had become regulars.

Misconceptions about other religions

Misconceptions do not only occur between Buddhism and other religions. It is an issue that continues to affect major religions and can result to dwindling of beliefs. Breitenbach (2008) notes that these misconceptions about beliefs in religions are carried even in international media. People tend to believe that their religions are perfect and other religions do not believe in the ‘truth’. This is confirmed by my own misconception of Buddhism that they are pagan. From what I learned after attending one of their worships in California, I developed a totally different notion about this religion. It perhaps makes it a recommendation that interactions are very important when it comes to understanding one another.

Each and every other religion has fundamentals. These fundamentals are not meant to give them a different picture different from the other. They are meant to give strength to their spirituality. For example Christians have the bible which acts as the guiding holy book. Muslims have Quran and other religions have other texts which guide the faithful. Breitenbach (2008) is categorical that each and every other religion has its fair of misconceptions. These misconceptions are not only directed at other religions, but some individuals inside a religion do have their doubts and misconceptions.

Basing on the above, I tend to believe in some of misconceptions leveled against other religions and some issues inside my religion. Being a Christian means that I have little knowledge about other religions. Other than Buddhism, I have had other misconceptions about other major religions in the world. But this is due to the fact that I have had little interactions with people professing other faiths other than Christianity. After attending a worship session with Buddhists, I may start to construct positive attributes about other religions in the world and take a direction of understanding other religions.

Recommendations to root out misconceptions about other religions

No particular religion is perfect. Therefore, it is wrong to think negative about a particular religion. It is time that people change about their negative perceptions about other religions and work towards cohesion among people. All religions work towards having glory at the end of times. Therefore, there is no strong reason as to why individuals of one religion should view themselves as better than others. The following are two recommendations that can help root out these misconceptions about other religions.

Initiate interactions

It was clear from my interaction with Buddhists that what I understood about the religion was totally wrong. The change of heart was out of explanations that were given to me by relevant people in the religion. If I had not initiated such kind of interactions, I would have lived with these misconceptions for long. These misconceptions are not about Buddhism only. There are people who have negative attributes about other religions. For example, some Christians view Islamic religions as composed of terrorists. However, with interactions, it is possible to learn a different thing about what is perceived.

Learning through literature

My interaction with Buddhists was driven by a strong need to learn. This learning could also come from major literature about different religions. Learning through literature has been argued as the best thing that has happened in the world in all aspects of development. For example, the advent of technology was because there were enough learning materials to develop major technological concepts. It is on this premise that I recommend people to use available learning materials to get different views about major religions. Learning should not only be about other religions, but also about religions they are deep in.

Conclusion

To recap it all, it is imperative to note that there are several world religions in the contemporary society. Buddhism is one of the well known and dominant religions especially in Asian continent. While some critics have argued that Buddhism is a philosophy, there are those who firmly believe that it is a major religion with set guidelines just like others. My personal experience with Buddhism especially after I attended one of their religious services was indeed an eye opener. For the first time, I had to debunk certain myths and misconceptions I have heard about Buddhism. Needless to say, it is prudent to exercise religious tolerance irrespective of the faith one professes.

References

Breitenbach, S. (2008). Missionary linguistics in East Asia: The origins of religious language in the shaping of Christianity? Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Web.

Keown, D. (2009). Buddhism. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. Web.

Kozak, A. (2011). The everything Buddhism book: A complete introduction to the history, traditions and beliefs of Buddhism, past and present. Avon: F+W Media, Inc. Web.

Woo, E.P.H. (2008). Buddhism: The big picture explained. Bloomington: iUniverse. Web.

Introduction

Depending on their doctrines, rituals, historical roots, and worship styles, dharmic faiths have a great deal in common and differ. According to scholars, the Dharmic beliefs, which include Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, are a collection of religions that originated in India. Hinduism is the oldest of the four faiths and has no known origin. With more than one billion adherents, Hinduism is the third most followed dharmic religion worldwide. With more than 500 million adherents, Buddhism is the second-oldest Dharmic religion and the fourth most widely practiced. One of India’s leading and third-most popular Dharmic faiths is Jainism. Guru Nanak created Sikhism nearly 500 years ago when 1.9% of Indians were followers. However, because of their common genesis, shared chronology, and similar inspirations, these faiths share several doctrines, modes of worship, and everyday rituals. Despite having a solid affinity for ideas like dharma, karma, moksha, and samara, Dharmic faiths differ in how one might ultimately be set free from rebirth. This essay aims to describe the ideas of dharma in the religions of Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism in terms of their doctrines, rituals, origin tales, and modes of worship.

Dharma in Hinduism

The moral code and spirituality known as dharma serve to direct one’s lifestyle. According to Hinduism, dharma is a set of universal natural principles that, when followed, allow people to live happily, fulfilled lives and protect them from misery. Hindus view Dharma as the fundamental foundation of life. It refers to “something which holds” all creatures and humans from this planet. Dharma is the “rule of being,” the prerequisite for all existence.

The term “dharma” refers to the moral principles of religion that Hindu gurus espoused in historical Indian texts. The root of dharma, according to Ramcharitmanas creator Tulsidas, is empathy. This idea was introduced by Lord Buddha in his timeless work of profound insight, the Dhammapada. Dharma is metaphorically described in the Atharva Veda: This universe is supported by dharma, according to Prithivim Dharma Dream. The Pandavas and the Kauravas in the epic poem Mahabharata stand in for dharma in daily life.

Hinduism acknowledges the idea of reincarnation, and karma, which refers to the activities carried out by the conscious and unconscious, is what defines a person’s status in subsequent existence. It is crucial to live your life according to dharma, or what is proper, to create positive karma. This entails acting morally toward oneself, one’s family, class or caste, and the world. Dharma is similar to a cosmic standard; breaking it might lead to negative karma. Dharma thereby influences the future by the karma amassed. As a result, one’s dharmic path in the following incarnation is required to ensure that all of the effects of previous karma are realized.

Dharma offers a rule of behavior meant to provide both earthly pleasures and ultimate bliss as part of its goal of bringing about the union of the soul with the absolute truth. In Vaisesika, Rishi Kanda defined dharma as “that bestows worldly delights and results in absolute happiness.” Hinduism is the faith that offers strategies for achieving the ultimate objective and eternal happiness right here and right now, on earth, rather than in a place called heaven. For instance, it supports the notion that it is one’s dharma to wed, have children, and support one’s family in any way possible. The dharma practice creates a sense of discipline in life and inner serenity, joy, strength, and tranquility.

Buddhist Dharma

Dharma was intended to help Buddhists become aware of how they may end suffering by the Teachings of the Buddha. Buddhism adheres to the “Four Noble Truths,” which offer the groundwork for understanding the causes of sorrow and how to end it. The first of the “Four Noble Truths” is that suffering is a part of existence, dukkha. Buddha described three kinds of suffering known as dukkha: suffering brought on by mental and bodily anguish, suffering brought on by failing to acknowledge our state and interdependence, and suffering brought on by realizing that nothing exists permanent. The second idea is that individuals cause their own misery by clinging to their desires and developing sentimental ties to things they may not own. Humans are prone to be drawn to and even develop attachments to what they lack. They put themselves on the path of misery as a result. This is because things are constantly changing; hence, their values are prone to alteration, which may be the underlying cause of our misery.

The third of the “Four Noble Truths” is founded on the understanding that pain is temporary and that, with enough effort, people may discover a way to end their suffering. Buddha discusses the capacity to stop selfish aspirations, which aids in achieving freedom from the general sense of not being content with what we have. This emphasizes a person’s innate capacity to overcome pain, which they may employ at any time as long as they are aware of the sort of strength they have. The final tenet of the “Four Noble Truths” advises following the “Noble Eightfold Path” to alleviate terrible pain. The Noble Eightfold Path and mindfulness can assist Buddhists in building up enough power to get over their pain.

Jainism’s Dharma

One of the oldest Indian faiths is Jainism. It was historically known as Jain Dharma. It is distinguished by several characteristics that make it exceptional. Non-violence, non-attachment, honesty, purity, and refraining from theft are among them. Janis should stop using any price, no matter how necessary or appropriate.

Religion calls for the practice of non-violence in thought, expression, and deed. Additionally, aggressive behaviours that directly or indirectly cause living things’ deaths should be shunned. The entire ownership of any asset is against Jainism. It necessitates constrained possession and truthful acquisition of the property. Additionally, the surplus property must be donated to a charity or the less fortunate.

Along with chastity and celibacy, Jainism also emphasizes them. The Jain nuns and monks are forbidden from engaging in sexual or sensual activities. The other people are advised to honor their commitments to their relationships. The Jain religion forbids accepting anything that is not offered voluntarily. It emphasizes the need to obtain consent before taking anything that does not belong to you. Speaking the truth is another quality. One should not utter falsehoods or support or accept others who do.

Sikhism’s Dharma

An Indian religion that dates back to the Punjab area of the Indian subcontinent at the end of the 15th century CE, Sikhism is also referred to as Sikhi or Sikh Dharma. In the late 15th century, the Punjab area of the Indian subcontinent saw the founding of the religion and philosophy known as Sikhism. They are referred to as Sikhs. Gurmat (Punjabi: “the Way of the Guru”) is the name of the religion of the Sikhs. Guru Nanak founded Sikhism, and nine more Gurus followed him in succession, as per Sikh history. Sikhs think that an independent spirit resides within each of the ten human Experts. Guru Granth Sahib (“The Granth as the Guru”), also known as the Adi Granth (“First Volume”), became the single Guru following the passing of the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), when the soul of the everlasting Guru was passed to it. There were over 25 million Sikhs around the globe at the beginning of the twenty-first century, with the vast majority residing in the Indian state of Punjab.

Conclusion

In conclusion, while Dharmic faiths strive for the ultimate escape from the cycle of rebirth, they differ in how they do so. Karma, dharma, samara, and moksha are all strongly tied to these concepts¹⁴. In commonalities, both faiths have a similar view of places of worship and dharma principles. Additionally, reward good deeds and imprison evil acts like murder, rape, etc. These faiths have the same ritualistic rhythms and idealized representations of humanity. On the other side, Hinduism rejects the idea of a soul while supporting the notion of wild pressures. This is one of the distinctions between the two religions. Sikhism and Buddhism reject the idea of material things but affirm the soul’s presence. In addition, whereas these religions revere many manifestations of God, Buddhism rejects the idea of a higher power. Finally, unlike other religions, Hindus reject the notion of gender equality while upholding the Vidas text. Despite the parallels above and distinctions, religion should not be rationalized since it profoundly impacts its adherents. Establishing the superiority of one religion by mistreating and demeaning other people’s religions is wrong on social and spiritual levels. To build harmony among all faiths, individuals should cherish and appreciate other people’s beliefs in the same way you would want them to respect yours. However, when people accept and value one another’s differences, there is a common harmony and feeling of humanity.

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