The readings under analysis focus on the main characteristics and attributes of Buddhism, as well as on schools of thought that emerged due to the spread of this teaching. In particular, Mitchell’s book refers to the analysis of origins of Buddhist philosophy, particularly to the concept of Great Vehicle introduced by Mahayana trend.
Causes and influences of Indian Buddhism on Chinese philosophy are also included in the discussion to define which transformations occurred to Chinese belief systems. Thus, both ancient and modern representations of the Indian religion have been presented in the reading to define the essence of Buddhism.
The topic of the reflection paper is the development and origins of Buddhism, as well as its impact on other cultures and religions. This is of particular influence of Mahayana on Chinese culture.
Reflection
Buddhist philosophy premises on three major pillars – impermanence, dissatisfactory spirit, and selflessness – shaping the main attitude of humans to live. At this point, the believers should not pay attention to the actual essence of religion, as well as challenges of secular life. Instead, their faith should be strong enough to be able to look beyond these challenges.
The concept of impermanence focuses on the constant flux and changeability of life, which means that nothing could be eternal in a secular world. Dissatisfactory state refers to human’s constant discontent with his being and his current life1. Therefore, it is natural for an individual to strive to be better, wiser, and smarter. Self-development and fulfillment is another important purpose of those people who support Buddhism.
Finally, selflessness implies suffering of human nature because individuals can cognize the truth by overcoming hardships. All these aspects shape the main underpinning of Buddhism, which should be followed to achieve Awakening and Nirvana.
The modern vision of Buddhism and its purposes differs significantly from the original underpinnings of the religion. In particular, the early traces of this teaching date back to the emergence of such a concept as Bodhisattva, setting the premise for the development of Mahayana philosophy.
Characterized as the Great Journey, the main mentor of this ideology believed that helping other people to gain Awakening and Nirvana should be his major purpose2. Pursuing this philosophy means achieving greater wisdom and cognition of the self. Further analysis of Buddhist teaching reveals evidence concerning the earlier forms of this religion to highlight certain differences.
In particular, the fact that the religion originates from different schools, but not one, explains the divergence in outlooks and the existence of various philosophical flows within Buddhism. Originally developed in Indian in the first century AD, Buddhism quickly spread all over the world and has transformed into different forms due to the influence that other cultures had on it.
In particular, penetration of Indian Buddhism to Chinese philosophy led to the synergy to Buddhism principles with Daoism philosophy that was prevalent in China3. The interaction between spiritual ideologies is explained by the identical nature of those. In particular, both religions are premised on the transcendental nature of life, as well as on belief in life after death.
Consciousness-Only School represents Buddhism by emphasizing the significance of human consciousness. Hence, the concepts of self and cognition serve as the basic representations of thoughts. The basic doctrine of the school focuses on consciousness as the fundamental tool for understanding all phenomena of the world. It is important to note, however, that consciousness is not confined to understanding a particular consciousness.
Rather, it is presented as a storehouse domain in which all ideas, functions, beings, and things have their consciousness and realization. Under these conditions only, it is possible to endow human life with meaning and purpose. The presence of this phenomenon defines the essence of the external world, as well as explains how the outside world differs from the illusionary one.
Viewing the world from consciousness only provides a greater understanding of the veritable truth of existence. The transformation of Buddhist concepts in China is not a single case because there are many other trends and directions in which the teaching has developed. In particular, much information is available about Tathagata who is often identified with Buddha.
Although he has not achieved Nirvana, Tathagata also helped other people to attain Awakening and open their path to Tathagata4. Like Buddha, this creature also adhered to the idea that the real world is just one of the destinations at which the human soul should stop because its major purpose is to enter the eternal world of Nirvana.
The stories about Mahasiddhas focus on magic and mysteries accounts about the most influential representatives of the Buddhist teaching. This is of particular concern to Buddhist Tantric. The book also refers to the supernatural powers of people and saints who contributed to the development of the religion. The new interpretation of the teaching has influenced my outlook on Buddhism and its role in the life of people.
In particular, the book focuses on the adventures of magicians who travel across the world and who are engaged in unusual stories. It deviates a bit from a noble representation of purposes that Indian philosophy and, therefore, it provides a new paradigm for perceiving this religion. Finally, the source represents the world in a much broader sense, characterizing the transparent nature of space as well.
In conclusion, Buddhism has developed in new religious frameworks in the course of interaction with cultures and religions. Its original role and concept differ much from the modern outlook on this philosophy. In particular, it was initially developed by lay people, but not by monks.
Footnotes
1 Donald Mitchell. Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience. (UK: Oxford University Press, 2008). 34.
2 Donald Mitchell. Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience. (UK: Oxford University Press, 2008). 107.
3 JeeLoo Liu. An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy: From Ancient Philosophy to Chinese Buddhism. (US: Wiley, 2006), 223.
Such a notion as morality can be described as the set of behavioral norms or standards that are accepted by a person or a certain group of people. These principles can be derived from religious or philosophical traditions. In many cases, Buddhist morality intersects with everyday morality. In this case, much attention should be paid to a collection of restrictions or taboos that should govern the decisions or actions of a person.
For instance, one can speak about the prohibition of killing human or animals. Additionally, one should speak about total inadmissibility of stealing, lying, or manipulating other people. These restrictions are imbedded in the famous eight precepts outlined by Buddha (Harvey 88). These norms can govern the ethical choices of a person daily.
One should also mention that Buddhist ethics lays stress on the importance of modesty. For example, the representatives of this religion must not emphasize their wealth or high social status. This is why the design of Buddhist robes is usually rather simple. Apart from that, this morality implies that it is not permissible to boast of one’s achievements. Additionally, this ethical system stresses the importance of temperance or moderation.
This is one of the reasons why there are some restrictions on the eating habits of an individual or consumption of alcoholic beverages. There are various norms that govern worship and rituals. One should mention that this religion can take many forms because there are many schools of Buddhism, Moreover, there are significant regional or national variations. These are some of the main elements included in the ethical system of this religion.
Overall, Buddhist morality is not gendered; in other words, it does not set specific behavioral guidelines for men and women. One can say that this religion does not discriminate against a person on the basis of his/her gender. Nevertheless, one should keep in mind that Buddhist is widespread in those countries that are affected by gender inequality. This argument is relevant if one speaks about Sri Lanka in the late nineteenth century (Bartholomeusz 34).
At that time, many Buddhist fundamentalists completely rejected the idea of the feminist movement (Bartholomeusz 34). They did not support the social empowerment of women who attempted to raise their social status. Still, at its core, Buddhism is rather egalitarian, because it implies that every individual is capable of achieving the enlightenment (Sharma 107). Nevertheless, patriarchic norms and principles emerged during the later periods in the history of this religion.
Admittedly, one can argue that this morality can be discriminatory against women. For example, this doctrine implies that the sexual desire for a woman can prevent a man from attaining the state of liberation (Sharma 112). However, this example only indicates that Buddhism is aimed at minimizing the sexuality of a person, but it does not include a bias against a person based on his/her gender. This is one of the issues that should not be overlooked.
Overall, this discussion shows that Buddhism can regulate various aspects of a person’s life as well as the interactions between various people. It incorporates a system of restrictions that should prevent people from harming one another. Additionally, this religion highlights the importance of egalitarian relations in society. Nevertheless, in many cases, the principles of Buddhism could be often misinterpreted by people who did not accept egalitarianism. These are the main arguments that can be put forward.
Works Cited
Bartholomeusz, Tessa. “Women as fundamental and fundamentalist women: the case of Buddhist Sri Lanka.” Fundamentalism and Women in World Religion. Ed. Arvind Sharma and Katherine Young. New York: T & T Clark International. 2007. 35-50. Print.
Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issues, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Print.
Sharma, Arvind. Women in World Religions, New York: SUNY Press, 1987. Print.
As Buddhism was gaining recognition in different places across the world, the Chinese were figuring out how it could be of value to their beliefs and practices. They wanted to determine how Buddhism could help them in achieving their desires, as the socio-political life across the country during that time was not stable. The religion was associated with super powers and the potential to prosper, and thus many people were challenged to learn and experience it since it had compatible aspects with the Chinese Daoism.
From the third to sixth centuries, Buddhism had gained popularity in China. This paper will show that China practiced Buddhism widely. Focusing on literature about Chinese Buddhism history from the third to the sixth century, the paper will analyze events and experiences by the Chinese society supporting the thesis. These encounters were deemed extraordinary and sometimes they involved spirits displaying unusual abilities.
Practices and beliefs
Buddhism is defined as awakening and developing intellectual capacity to understand values of love and kindness. A Buddhist country practices values of peace, kindness, and unity coupled with teaching everyone live as a friend to all beings. The social practices of the society are highly reflected in Buddhism teachings in the Chinese society; for instance, worshiping Buddha by offering sacrifices and expecting favors in return.
The members of the Buddhism clergy were expected to shave their heads (De Barry & Bloom, 1999). Although this rite was not practiced in China before the introduction of Buddhism, it penetrated the society seamlessly as shaving did not cause any harm to the people. Celibacy was also practiced amongst the clergy; however, before the introduction of Buddhism, staying childless was not encouraged. Having a child or a wife was a choice and property was a luxury that people could live without.
Simple life without amassing wealth, which one might not even require, was the best way of living. Monkhood, which entailed adhering to the set practices, was the best way of concentrating and avoiding pleasures of the world. Monks allegedly experienced goodness by forfeiting the joys of wealth and family. This aspect expressed the values of charity, compassion, and the need to hold on to virtuous desires.
The Buddhists believed that souls of the deceased never perish, as they exist as spirits when the body dies. When one died as a righteous person, the soul existed in happiness, but when one died out of the right way, the soul encountered eternal bad luck. Those who belonged to Daoism were challenged with the emergence of Buddhism, which held that it did not reduce people to lesser being or transform them to immortals.
This assertion hinged on the fact that Monks did not bow down to show respect to the king. Buddhist leaders only knelt down during their religious duties, but they did not show respect to their fellow men in authorities. The Chinese religions examined many important doctrines of Buddha and established that they were indeed good to be practiced. Buddhism taught intimacy, appreciation, kindness, and forgiveness coupled with helping people to learn how to respect one another.
The emergence of Buddhism in China
In the course of the third and fourth centuries, lifestyle in China was rapidly changing as socio-political life and class struggles were developing. Due to these unfavorable twists in life, most enlightened people abandoned the Confucian ideas and started seeking spiritual enlightenment elsewhere (De Barry & Bloom, 1999).
Buddhism was described as the awakening period and most people converted from Confucianism and Daoism to practice it. Even those who did not convert shared some practices of Buddha teachings. Therefore, Buddhism overwhelmed Confucianism and Daoism during this period of perceived awakening.
Buddhism circularized rapidly especially after it linked to the Chinese literary circles, which influenced philosophical realms in the country (Campany, 2014). At the beginning of the 3rd century, Buddhism had not yet gained momentum, but it had started penetrating China and across other Asian states.
However, with time, the religion gained acceptability in the Chinese society, and by the end of the 6th century, its popularity had soared. Buddhism flourished immensely and attracted attention as a state religion. Monks were gaining popularity for their capability to communicate with spirits and make sacrifices to appease them. Buddhism developed the belief that spirits could punish people for their disobedience. Spirits were mysterious and they existed randomly in obscure forms of demons or ghosts.
However, monks were supposed to help the Chinese society in realizing ways to handle the spirits effectively and appealingly. Therefore, Buddhism principles spread across the Chinese population through schools and religious set ups. Monks were not supposed to show respect to earthly matters.
This aspect was not an act of disrespect, but as show that they were beyond the boundaries of the usual life. This aspect draws monks closer to Heaven, thus opening the way for other human beings. The Chinese sought to attain enlightenment in the teachings of Buddha.
Counsel of Buddhism
The admonitions surrounding this religion were claimed to come from the utterances of Buddha and they contained discipline and regulatory code for the monks. This aspect gave the Chinese a strong belief and acceptance to the monks. The Chinese community followed the admonitions given by Buddha. Buddha prohibited intentional killing of human beings coupled with prohibiting stealing or encouraging others to steal.
Committing fornication was unacceptable even with female animals and such an act amounted to an unpardonable misconduct. Lying in whatever kind was intolerable. These among other prohibitions were highly acceptable and practiced by the Chinese community, which believed in compassion and good will by fellow beings.
Buddhism and the supernatural events
The Chinese community perceived Buddhism as a means of practice and spiritual advancement to bring insight as well as enlightenment to the society. The early translations of the Buddhist scriptures into the Chinese marked the emergence of the Mahayana Buddhism. Signs identifying families that worshiped Buddha were very common. Wu was believed to serve as a link between human beings and gods. The Chinese society made animal offerings in shrines with the expectation of positive results to what they sought.
The Chinese community had strong cultural values and beliefs such as the existence of supernatural powers and beings in the form of ghosts or animals. They worshiped by idolizing Buddha and abiding by his teachings. The society relied on Buddha to turn around situations and transform experiences. Buddhism held that if a woman had stayed for long without a son, she could get one after pleasing the gods.
For instance, Chen Su’s desire to get a son had been kept waiting for ten years of marriage in the Yan district. His wife offered a sacrifice and after pleasing the gods, she became pregnant. However, she conspired with a neighboring woman to conceive and in case she got a boy and her, a girl, they would exchange. After nine months, Chen’s wife gave birth to a girl, but they exchanged as agreed after the neighbor had a boy.
Chen was extremely delighted, he raised the boy, and during his 13th birthday, a sacrifice was to be made to the gods. However, an old woman in Chen’s house saw spirits, which confirmed a mischief and thus Chen confronted his wife who revealed the truth. The appearance of the spirits implied that the gods were unhappy with Chen’s wife conspiracy and the situation was turned around against the wish of the wife.
Spirits demanded sacrifices from the people. In addition, Buddhism held that if troubled by the spirits, it meant that they needed offerings. For example, some spirits were believed to live at the Pavilion in Houguan district. The spirits received bull sacrifices from the district at the end of every year. Failure to make a sacrifice, the spirits would trouble the persons responsible for making an apology sacrifice.
Spirits also helped people to avoid misfortunes. Gods could cause anomalies and disruptions to people until they are pleased by sacrifices of wine and meat. The Chinese religions were very keen to avoid these perceived misfortunes, and thus whenever anything unusual was seen, they made offering to avoid punishments. Spirits were associated with sickness and bad dreams. This aspect meant that offerings had to be made to avoid bad events occurring in dreams. Specific collections of events symbolized vengeful spirits and magic indicating the presence and power of Buddhism.
Buddhism was associated with spirits that brought blessings when appeased. This aspect motivated the Chinese to adhere to what pleased the gods most. For instance, Huan Gong discovered a small opening in front of his bed leading to an ancient tomb with a decomposed coffin, and thus he started making fish and rice offering in this hole. After a year, one night, a man stood before him, spoke of how he was pleased of Huan’s generosity, and told him that he would be made the regional Inspector of Ningzhou.
This scenario shows how the Chinese society committed time and sacrifice to the spirits to seek favors and fortune in life. In addition, behind Chen Qungsun’s house in Yinchuan, there was a tree where people visited to seek blessings. Later, the Temple of the celestial spirit was structured at the same place.
The spirits asked Chen to offer his black bull to avoid death of his son, but he rejected the instructions and indeed the son died. The spirits asked for the black bull failure to which his wife would die, but Chen refused again and the wife died. On the third time, the spirits asked for the bull or Chen’s life; however, he refused to sacrifice the bull, but he did not die. His stand stunned the spirits and thus they promised him long life.
Ge Hong’s account
According to Ebrey (1993), the Ge Hong’s autobiography speaks of his simplicity and straight forwardness. He says that he never followed the currents of the world, but he always practiced the good of the society. He states that he was always ignorant in paying courtesy calls to the high officials, but instead he made efforts to visit the sick and joined the bereaved to mourn. These values were all encouraged in the Buddha teachings.
Ge observed keenly the practices in Buddhism, and to some extent, he shared some virtues with the monks. For instance, he says that he did not value prosperity and majesty since all would end (Ebrey, 1993). According to him, it was wise to reflect the way of Buddhism and lead a life devoid of worldly pleasures. Ge dismissed some of the issues advanced by Confucianism and Daoism. Although he did not mention Buddha in many occasions, the practices he talked about reflected those in the Buddha fraternity. For instance, he said that he learned the secret methods equivalent to magic, which assured victory in every encounter (Ebrey, 1993).
This aspect shows how Buddhism was influencing the Chinese community in their line of duty, social life, and advocacy through writings. The belief in dreams and power of the magic led to fortunes for those who made sacrifices in the Chinese society. For instance, the Pang clan made sacrifices for the crickets that were said to have saved a prisoner by digging a hole out prison after he had fed them for a while. These beliefs were highly observed until the sixth century and beyond by the Buddhist society of China.
Conclusion
In the 3rd century, Buddhism in China was received with some skepticism; however, given that people were seeking alternatives to the unstable socio-political lifestyle, they gradually started to accept this new religion. Buddhism widely influenced the lives of many people in the Chinese society. The religion was later practiced widely in China and it became the state religion due to the proliferation of Buddhist writings, which were translated into Chinese.
In addition, the high number of monks taught Buddhism in the country. Ge Hong’s bibliography presented most of the Buddhist virtues, which are echoed in the modern teachings. All aforementioned factors shaped China to a Buddhist nation, thus commanding a wide coverage across the nation. The fact that most Asian countries practiced Buddhism meant that China was receiving external influence as well. The Chinese Buddhism influenced the cultural practices and beliefs of both the ancient and modern Chinese community.
References
Campany, R. (2014).Tales of Strange Events. In W. Swartz, R. Campany & J. Choo (Eds.), Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook (pp. 576-591). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
De Barry, W., & Bloom, I. (1999). Sources of Chinese Traditions. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Ebrey, B. (1993). Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. New York, NY: Free Press.
Buddhism is a combination of a religion and a way of life made up of a range of thinking, practices, and customs. Even though Buddhism was initially adopted from India, the East Asians are more associated with the religion. Buddhism is more prevalent in China and Korea than it is in India today. However, the Buddhism practice in Korea and China are different. This is mainly because each country accepted Buddhism into their culture under different circumstances and in variant ways.
This paper explores an argument whether Buddhism was a change for better or worse for the East Asian societies and concludes that even though Buddhism created a lot of discomfort during the period of introduction, it eventually made significant moral contributions to the current East Asian cultures and immensely influenced the way of thinking in these countries enforcing analytical approach to the causes and reasons of human sufferings.
The adoption of Buddhism
Definitely, the introduction of the new religious views in the East Asian countries resulted in a new dispensation in their cultural beliefs. The adoption of Buddhism was the main factor that led to the social interaction between China and Korea. Of course, through these religious interactions, many other changes happened. Each side adopted cultural practices from the opposite side. Negative sides of this adoption were the oppression the previous beliefs and the pervasive new practices forced on the societies.
To oppose with this fact, Buddhism may be viewed as a progressive practice that resulted in some positive changes. The argument against this opinion is that this change was held in a revolutionary way, instead of evolutionary one. It is true that all East Asian societies fought against Buddhism in the beginning as it was a completely new set of rules for them. Yet, gradually, China and Korea accepted Buddhism through blending it with their local spiritual faiths and moral beliefs.
The adoption of Buddhism brought a lot of progress to the lands of China and Korea (De Bary and Lufrano 145). Stimulating profound self-searching and focus on one’s own inner world Buddhism brought out a completely new dimension to the life of the East Asian societies. Buddhist teachings focused on the development of inner self, working out a stable set of moral behaviors introduced East Asian people to the new system of values and priorities.
Obstacles Buddhism Faced in China
Buddhism was derived from India before it spread to the Eastern countries. It first stretched to China, and then to Korea (De Bary and Lufrano 140). Buddhism is supposed to have arrived in China by 100 C.E. (De Bary and Lufrano 142). As a result, it can be deduced that the faith was first brought in when Buddhist adherents from India visited China (De Bary and Lufrano 142). From China, Buddhism spread further across Korea.
In China, Buddhism was not effortlessly acknowledged for it met resistance with rigid supporters of Confucianism and Daoism (De Bary and Lufrano 120). The ages of violence, torture and fear exhausted the East Asians, they needed someone who “was not fond of killing people” (De Bary and Lufrano 120). Buddhism as an ultimately peaceful religion brought the ideas of love towards all living beings, so one of the main obstacles it faced was the violent lifestyle East Asians were accustomed to at that time.
Besides, when the public attention is too focused on gaining material goods, it is rather complicated to make the society focus on inner happiness that does not derive from any physical or material pleasures. This way, even though the East Asian societies were starving for moral principles and rules, they were not used to following any and this is what served as an obstacle for Buddhism (De Bary and Lufrano 121).
One may argue that this all-loving religion exploited rather oppressive ways to enter the societies. This is true, but compromising also took place during that period. New religion was eventually approved after having established a communal principle, and was well thought-out as one of the 3 Religions amid Confucianism and Daoism (De Bary and Lufrano 123). Yet, it was still not painless for Buddhism to struggle in opposition to the established faiths.
For example, for the conventional and orthodox Chinese, it was hard to comprehend why they had to cut off their hair and obey the rules of these unfamiliar habits. This was one of the necessities for all affiliates of the Buddhist clergy to trim their heads. Nevertheless, it was met with repugnance from the Chinese for they believed that they ought not to damage any parts of their body (De Bary and Lufrano 116). The positive effect was that hair trimming practice helped improve hygiene in the society.
Opposition in Korea
In Korea, Buddhism was initiated by a Chinese monk to each of the three Kingdoms. The first kingdom to adopt Buddhism was Koguryu, followed by Paekche and lastly Silla (De Bary and Lufrano 123). Nonetheless, just like in China, the religion was quickly received even though there was a certain resistance. In Korea, the new religion was first adopted by the rulers and then enforced into the masses.
For example, the king of Silla was a monk, and he started to spread Buddhism in his kingdom, the first Buddhist monastery was recognized during his reign (De Bary and Lufrano 121). This can be seen as forcing religion on the population. To oppose this opinion, I view this phenomenon as the revolution of values, which does not deny the old ones, but suggests treating them in new progressive ways. Koreans, practicing Shamanism fought the enforcement of the religion without any Gods as it clashed with their traditional views.
One helping factor to establish the new religions was the timely earthquake, which people of that era viewed as a sign showing that they must accept Buddhism (De Bary and Lufrano 120).
Over time the religion won its popularity and the number of its followers grew creating a number of benefits for the society, among them there was a significant reduction of violence, growth of creativity, development of material culture such as architecture, sculpture and pottery. Willing to demonstrate their love towards the new religion and its teachings the societies engaged into creative artistic practices.
A Religion without a God
It is a well known fact that Buddhism is the religion that does not have any gods. Its main figure Buddha was a human being, who eventually became enlightened through meditation. Giving up the worship of gods was another serious obstacle that East Asians societies had to overcome to adopt Buddhism. In a way, this may be seen as an immoral practice, because many people believe that gods are the source of inspiration. I argue that Buddhism provides an alternative source of inspiration included within people.
This religion offers inner peace, wisdom and higher immaterial values. Buddhist practices penetrated every aspect of Asian life ever since. Control of emotions, rational thinking, and having a clear mind became the most valuable behaviors. Of course, Buddhism did not defeat violence completely, but it taught its followers to love the world around, see the beauty is small things, find connections between the self and the nature, think about energies in the Universe.
All of these aspects added to the development of Asian philosophies, art, science and manners. The practice of meditation, observation of nature and self-searching created some of the most powerful thinkers.
Buddhism requires its followers to believe that no human emotions lead to happiness, and that happiness itself is an emotion. Getting attached, wishing, and desiring causes sufferings. Struggling to accept such beliefs the societies of East Asia worked out their own special lifestyles and ways of thinking that helped them build advanced states that even now are some of the most powerful forces in the world.
Conclusion
Buddhism was quite a drastic change for the old East Asian societies drowning in violence, torture and sufferings. This religion took time to become properly adopted by the people of East Asian countries and definitely caused conflicts of beliefs, yet it certainly brought a number of benefits. Buddhism has changed the people’s approach towards their ways of thinking and behaviors, it also made the societies re-evaluate their priorities. Such a major change caused some resistance.
Buddhism required its followers to alter every single aspect of their lives, of course human minds rebelled against the new rules and restrictions initially. Buddhism was hard to accept because it required that its followers change the goal they aim at (De Bary and Lufrano 419). Yet, the religion gradually gained respect and followers, whose devotion and loyalty helped Buddhism to survive till today and spread to the West.
Works Cited
De Bary, William, and Richard Lufrano. Sources of Chinese Tradition, From 1600 through the Twentieth Century (Introduction to Asian Civilizations), New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1999. Print.
Buddhism and Hinduism are some of the popular religions in the world with their origins dating back to the Common Era in India. To some extent, these religions share similar ideologies and origin, even though Hinduism is older than Buddhism and ranks third in terms of popularity world.
Despite the various similarities between these two religions, Hinduism and Buddhism differ in certain aspects. Therefore, this essay compares and contrasts the religious practices and rituals of Buddhism and Hinduism.
Comparison
Similarities
Buddhism and Hinduism share several similarities. For instance, these religions are polytheistic. The major gods are those related to compassion and wisdom in Buddhism. On the other hand, Hinduism has a god of reproduction, destruction and the Supreme deity.
In addition, these religions share a belief in Samsara. This means that the process of birth has to be broken to achieve Moksha, which means the achievement of freedom. Both Hinduism and Buddhism share the belief of reincarnation. According to Buddhism, reincarnation is related to the present actions of a person while Hinduism believes that an individual lives in an impersonal world.
Duiker and Spielvogel note that, “asceticism evolved into the modern practice of body training that we know as yoga (union), which is accepted today as a meaningful element of Hindu religious practice” (Duiker, and Spielvogel 42). Therefore, the body of a person transforms into another shape based on his or her actions.
Both religions believe in salvation with Buddhists believing that each person has to strive for his or her salvation and cannot shift blames on others for religious failures. In addition, this salvation relates to the good actions of a person. According to Buddhism, each person must strive to attain salvation based on his actions. However, an individual has to use four paths to attain this type of salvation.
The first path is Raja Yoga, which means the path of salvation. In addition, there is Jnana Yoga and Bhakti Yoga that mean the path of knowledge and love respectively. Karma Yoga means that a person attains salvation by pursuing good actions.
Besides, there is mediation in both religions as Duiker and Spielvogel observe in their analysis. Mediation is a religious practice that brings the believers close to nirvana. During the worshipping process, Hindu believers chant repeatedly the syllables “OM.” These syllables help them meditate with an aim of reaching a high standard of consciousness.
The believers focus on inner awareness that connect them to the deity, which is achieved through focusing. According to the Hindu religious practices, mentioning the syllable draws an individual closer to the Supreme Being and closer to the truth of knowledge. This is similar to Buddhists who draw their inspiration from mediation.
For instance, it is through this process that Buddha revealed the being of Dharma. Therefore, according to Buddhism, one has to concentrate on inward reflection to reveal nirvana. This means that Buddhism and Hinduism differ in the structure of their social system. However, they share similar religious beliefs of mediation, which are believed to bring about nirvana (salvation).
Furthermore, both Hinduism and Buddhism share a belief on enlightenment. According to these religions, there are different ways through which one could achieve enlightenment. For instance, one can achieve it through overcoming emotions, passion, and having control over his or her senses. In addition, both religions share similar understanding of the cause of suffering.
For example, both religions believe that a person suffers when he or she commits sin in the world. Therefore, these religions believe that people should get rid of illusion and the desires of the world. Moreover, they share similarities in the interpretation and practice of tantric.
For instance, Tantrayan is a dominant sect in Buddhism. This sect bases its actions on tantric practices. Among Hindu believers, tantric is a common practice among those who worship Shiva and Kali.
Differences
According to Duiker, “Buddhists occasionally remark that someone who asks for a description does not understand the concept, At the same time, the new doctrine differed from existing practices in a number of key ways” (Duiker 48).
In the same note, Duiker observes that it seems likely that Hindu devotionalism rose precisely to combat the inroads of Buddhism and reduce the latter’s appeal among the Indian population (Duiker 227) Based on these, the emergence of Buddhism challenged the existence of Hindu religious practices.
The two religions have the rights of passage, even though the numbers and practices of these rights differ1. For instance, Hinduism has sixteen rites of passage that each member should go through in his or her life. For instance, Ashrama consist of four stages, which are vital for each person.
These stages are student, householder, forest dweller, and sannyasin. On the other hand, Buddhism is more of a guide that directs how people should live. It provides three stages that direct a person to enlightenment.
These steps include developing awareness of the past life, samsara, karma and Moksha. Therefore, whereas Hinduism is more of rights of passages, the steps presented by Buddhism are rules that guide people.
Manu’s laws originate from Hinduism, which describe the karma. Manu developed these religious concepts based on legal standards. According to these guidelines, karma is the belief in the impacts of an action.
Consequently, these laws have one major aim of improving Hindusdo good actions in order to avoid the negative impacts. Buddhists also share the concept of karma, even though the two religions differ in the system of caste. In Buddhism, there is division of the society based on castes.
However, Hindus believe in the concept of the caste system. Because of these hierarchies, Hindu religion opposes intermarriages between ranks, something suggesting that intermarriages between members from different ranks are highly discouraged. They make traditional arrangements where a couple vows before a holy fire, which carries the vow to their deity.
As the couple draws closer to the sacred fire, God Agni keeps an eye on them in order to lead the family into a new life. In Buddhism, there are no ranking laws and marriage is allowed among various classes. However, they have significant ceremonies to mark the process of marriage.
Nine Buddhists chant blessings to the bride and groom. They use holy water to bless the newly wedded couple. During the process, they offer presents to the monks. The wedding starts after this ceremony where monks tie a string on the arms of the couple as they make good wishes over their lives.
Another difference between Buddhism and Hinduism is related to the ideas of anataman and anatta. Duiker and Spielvogel observe that, “Buddhism was probably able to stave off the Hindu challenge with its own Salvationist creed of Mahayana, which also emphasized the role of devotion, but the days of Buddhism as a dominant faith in the subcontinent were numbered” (Duiker and Spielvogel 241).
This shows that the two religions were in constant competition over controlling the religious maters of the subcontinent. Hinduism supports the idea of self-determination, which leads a person to eternity meaning that an individual determines his or her own destiny2.
The aim of Hinduism is to lead an individual to understand extreme truth through Moksha. However, Buddhist Theravada opposes the idea of self since the community should play a role in religious practices.
Therefore, Hindus argue that everything is dynamic implying that the reality that human beings perceive is a phenomenon of a moment. In addition, Mahayan is very radical in interpreting the concept of self, which reflects the idea of emptiness.
Conclusion
Buddhism and Hinduism are ancient religions of India that resemble each other in various aspects, but differ in a number of ways, especially when it comes to practices. Buddhism is believed to have originated from Hinduism. However, despite these contrasts, these religions share many similarities, as discussed in the previous section.
Bibliography
Duiker, William, and Spielvogel, Jakcson. The Essential World History. New York: Cengage Learning, 2013. Print.
Footnotes
1 William, Duiker and Jackson, Spielvogel (The Essential World History 2013), p. 227. Hinduism has never appreciated the existence of Buddhism because it views it as a great threat. This explains why Hindu believers oppose it whenever they get an opportunity.
2 William, Duiker and Jackson, Spielvogel, The Essential World History (New York: Cengage Learning, 2013), p. 244. According to Hinduism, the community has no business interfering with the life of an individual because each person is expected to do as he or she wishes. It goes against the idea of following the established communal set of standards.
The problem of wanting more and more is often the main reason why people fail to follow the Five Precepts of Buddhism, resort to violence, get lost in indulging themselves, and defy moral principles. In economics, it is one of the fundamental truths that our desires are limitless, but resources not. We all live in the society of consumers – a living cult of millionaires and top models. That’s why it is so hard to overcome these self-centered thoughts of consuming.
Saranapala B. A General Introduction to Meditation
Saranapala calls meditation a life-changing experience. He explains that meditation means “specific mental cultivation and development” (n.d.). Our mind constantly interacts; even while meditating, it tries to find entertainment in our dreams and experiences. The untrained mind makes us dependent on external objects. Indeed, as a student, I often struggle with my mind, especially when it is necessary to focus on meaningful work.
When we are connected with the moment, we can observe a lot of unpleasant things and try to escape them. According to Saranapala, it is not a suitable option to do. During meditation, we should contemplate these painful things from the beginning till the end. “Acceptance is the remedy. Acknowledgment is the healing” (Saranapala, n.d.). Nowadays, there is a wide range of painkillers in the store; psychologists want you to visit them and tell them about your painful experience. There are lots of things for entertainment. You really can not escape from your problems because you bring yourself everywhere.
In addition, Saranapala said that during the practice of meditation, we need to train our minds to be positive: to create wholesome thoughts, be compassionate and selfless. According to Saranapala, we should strive to “purify the mind’, using “loving-kindness meditation” and the practice of Anapanasati (breathing exercise) (n.d.). Awareness of everything inside us helps to cultivate the mind and set yourself free from suffering. It is great that meditation allows you to know yourself and push yourself in a positive direction. Nowadays, many people are fond of self-development, and meditation has already become an obligatory part of this process.
Nhat Hanh. Being peace in a world of trauma
Thich Nhat Hanh, Vietnamese Zen master, in his interview provided some reasons to be compassionate. The first is that “only understanding and compassion can neutralize violence” (2016) because you should listen and speak to people compassionately to understand their feelings and thoughts. When you treat the people with compassion, you get acknowledged for their sufferings and pain, and therefore the communication with them becomes effective and productive. In my experience, I often notice that the reason for my quarrels with friends and parents is a common misunderstanding.
In addition, according to Thich Nhat Hanh, compassion is the key to happiness and removing suffering from one’s life. When you are compassionate, you are present at the moment and able to help people around you. With compassion, you can relieve the pain and stop resentment and hatred inside.
To think clearly, we should remove obstacles in our thinking patterns. According to Thich Nhat Hanh, wrong perceptions – are these significant obstacles. They are the reason for fear, anger, and violence. Sometimes it is impossible to talk to me, so much I am angry with the situation. In addition to insufficient knowledge of the world around us, communication is hampered by emotions: a person wants to throw them out, sometimes not realizing that this will harm others.
Some specific steps can help people to bring compassion into their hearts. Thich Nhat Hanh explains that “you have the right to be angry, but you don’t have the right not to practice to transform your anger”(2016). In addition to that rational thinking, Brother Thay states the importance of understanding. “Understanding brings compassion.” Practicing understanding, you can associate yourself with other people and therefore can not hate them. The exercise of focusing on the breath, suggested by Thich Nhat Hanh, can be compared to the advice to take a break in a moment of rage: you can count to one hundred to focus, rethink, and act more reasonably.
Ancient Wisdom in the Modern World
I agree with Saranapala that meditation is a fashionable practice today because every store is full of books teaching us how to do it right, and many celebrities and businessmen admit that meditation allows them to maintain balance in the hustle and bustle of everyday life. Therefore, it is interesting for me to learn about the basics of meditation from an outstanding specialist. It seems to me that the phenomenon of the wandering mind is associated with psychological procrastination: people often prefer to do something useless but enjoyable and postpone doing something valuable but difficult. I think meditation helps us realize that we want to procrastinate, understand the reasons for this phenomenon, and ultimately deal with unwanted thoughts.
The advice given by Saranapala on dealing with pain is helpful for people with illnesses. If we every day accept our pain and create positive thoughts, we will live in peace and harmony, and our mind will not be a troublemaker. In the nursing courses, students are told to use spiritual practices, such as prayer, meditation, Qi Gong, etc. On this aspect, I believe that meditation can help people with chronic pain cope during challenging periods, even if they are not Buddhists.
Thich Nhat Hanh, in his interview, developed the idea of active listening. It is a fascinating fact that many psychologies from the screen teach us to practice active listening in everyday life as a powerful tool to avoid conflicts. Sometimes it is enough to listen, to get more information about the situation from the point of view of another person.
There is also a specific breathing exercise that Brother Thay suggests to do in minutes of anger “to practice mindful breathing to generate the energy of mindfulness”(2016). With that practice, you get concentration, realize the reasons for anger, embrace your feelings and as a result, prevent yourself from speaking and doing potentially destructive things. Psychologists often use that exercise; it could also be utilized in our life by people who are afraid of the scene and public.
Discussing Other Students’ Comments
I believe that now it is rather challenging to achieve a high level of mental discipline for a long time, unless you go somewhere away from the city, to a quiet place where there is no television and no Internet. Modern life requires us to respond to everything immediately. What difficulties can arise when combining work (study) with the practice of meditation?
The last time I felt compassion was when a girl broke up with my friend. Surprisingly, I was a friend of both. I could not maintain their hateful speech and hatred; only compassion helped me not to make a mistake in this situation. Sometimes other people do not like it when somebody expresses one’s compassion to them. What can we do in this situation?
There was a misunderstanding in my life when my schoolteacher seemed to be too strict with me, and I thought that he did not like me. Then it turned out that he had a very good opinion of me and he was just doing his job.
References
Nhat Hanh, Th., Maples Ch., & Ward L. (Hosts). (2016). Being peace in a world of trauma [Audio podcast transcript]. In On Being with Krista Tippett. Web.
Saranapala B. (n.d.). A general introduction to meditation. West-end Buddhist Cultural Centre. Web.
Most comparisons between Christianity and Buddhism are filled with exaggerated and misleading references to doctrines. This normally occurs due to the efforts by the writers to defend the religion which they regard as possessing light and truth. It is thus of essence to maintain an unbiased view in comparing these religions. Buddhism and Christianity have strengths and weaknesses that have attracted a lot of study by scholars.
If one probe into the similarities and differences between Christianity and Buddhism, he/she will discover notable doctrinal differences but he/she will also notice substantial similarities in their spiritual outlook. This essay is a critical comparison of Christianity and Buddhism. Let us start with the differences between these two religions.
As stated earlier, the most notable differences between Buddhism and Christianity occur in their doctrines. In Buddhism, there is no God. Buddhists also believe that, after death, a person is reborn in a better or worse form depending on how well he/she lived his/her previous life. In Buddhism, the ultimate goal is the acquisition of the Nirvana state, a state in which one is relieved of egos, desires, and cravings and saved from the suffering experienced due to reincarnations.
On the contrary, Christians have a personal God. Christians also believe that mortality leads to God’s judgment, which is different from the Buddhists belief of reincarnation. The ultimate goal of Christians is the acquirement of eternal life which occurs due to forgiveness of sins and righteousness.
This gift of eternal life is given to people who believe in Jesus, son of God and confess their belief in Jesus to others. With these vast differences in the doctrines of Christianity and Buddhism, one may expect these two religions to be completely different. However, religions exhibit similarities in their innermost spiritual teachings. Let us have a look at these similarities (Ankerberg, 2007, p. 21).
One of the spiritual teachings shared by Christianity and Buddhism is the disdain for materialism. The bible prioritizes spirituality over material things and teaches Christians to despise worldly things in search of heavenly things. Similarly, Buddhism teaches that a person who treasures material things will be tempted and overthrown by Mara (the Tempter).
Therefore both religions despise material things because they make people fail in their religious duties. Additionally, both religions have no confidence in intellectual welfare. In the Bible, St. Paul teaches Christians to beware of philosophy and worldly principles lest they are spoiled and forget about the teachings of Christ (Ankerberg, 2007, p. 34). The Lotus Gospel of Buddhists views philosophy, intellectual debates and propositions as faith as depriving and having the potential to make Buddhists fail to hear the name of Buddha.
Both the Dhammapada and the Bible advocate for charity and purity of heart. Thus in Buddhism and Christianity, people believe that they are not only judged for their actions but also for their thoughts and meditations. Both the Bible and the Dhammapada teach humility and meekness and thus these values are central to both Christianity and Buddhism. A closer look at both Christianity and Buddhism reveals more similarities. These include the fact that both religions recognize suffering as a reality.
Buddhists believe that the people suffer after reincarnating for the sins they committed in their previous lives. On the other hand, Christians believe that suffering began with the rejection of God by mankind after creation.
Therefore, Christians believe that rejection of God leads to the suffering of both the person who rejects God and the people affected by the choices the person makes. This kind of suffering is temporary as compared to the eternal suffering that Christians believe sinners will ultimately experience in Hell (Fisher, 2005, p. 29).
Both Buddhism and Christianity have their characteristic strengths and weaknesses. Let us have a look at the strengths and weaknesses of these religions. Christianity is, arguably, weak due to its non-conformance to other theories that explain human existence. An example of such theories is the Theory of evolution that was put forward by Charles Darwin. Thus if the Darwinian Theory is true, Christianity is false because it disagrees with the Darwinian Theory.
That is, Christians believe that man was created in the image of God while the Darwinian Theory states that man evolved from other animals. Contrary to the Christian story of creation, Buddhism supports the Darwinian Theory and thus it beats Christianity in this aspect. The fact that Christianity is based on faith and grace can also be seen as a weakness since the productivity and existence of the two is hard to prove to a person who does not believe in Christianity.
On the other hand, Buddhism is based on a person’s actions and reflective practices that discourage desire and ignorance. Therefore, Buddhists can easily explain things like the belief of suffering that occurs due to sinful actions. The belief by Christians that a holy man (Jesus Christ) was crucified for the sins of believers could also be seen as a weakness of Christianity.
This is because the crucifixion of Jesus for other people’s sins may seem to be illogical to a person who does not believe in Christianity. On the other hand, Buddhism teaches that a person is responsible for their own sins and thus it is, arguably, logical in this aspect as compared to Christianity. Buddhists believe that Nirvana is postponed depending on the actions of a person (Berry, 1997, p. 35).
Buddhism also has its own weaknesses. The fact that Buddhists believe that there is no God is a major weakness for Buddhism. It appears very odd for a Christian and one may wonder why some Christians abandon Christianity for Buddhism. This fact is a plus to Christianity since Christians believe that there is an infinite personal God. Buddhists believe that after a person dies, they are reincarnated in another form.
This is a major weakness of Buddhism since the belief of reincarnation absurd for non-Buddhists. Additionally, the reincarnation belief and the suffering after reincarnation are inconsistent with the belief by Christians that Christ died for the forgiveness of all sins. Buddhism also supports occultism and pagan mysticism (Berry, 1997, p. 4). This can be seen as a weakness of the Buddhist religion because these practices encourage devil worship which is unacceptable in Christianity.
On the other hand, Christianity does not support occultism and pagan mysticism. This gives Christianity a lot of credit. Buddhist practices and beliefs suggest that human life is meaningless. For instance, they believe that Buddha came to assist people in becoming escaping the punishments of life.
This is a major weakness for Buddhism since there is no way that life could be meaningless. If life was meaningless, what would be the essence of being alive in the first place? On the other hand, Christianity values life. Christians believe that Jesus came so that people could have internal life.
Additionally, Buddhists believe that the soul and spirits do not exist. This is in disagreement with the Christian belief of the Holy Spirit and the human spirit (soul) (Berry, 1997, p. 6). This can be seen as a major weakness of the religion since spirits exhibit themselves in everyday life.
For instance, most insane people show signs of possession by evil spirits, and the Holy Spirit is evident in churches. Buddhists believe in self-achievement, and thus they believe that on the man has the power to control his destiny. This is in non-conformance to the belief by Christians that sins are forgiven. This can act as a discouragement for Christians intending to join Buddhism (Ankerberg, 2007, p. 67).
Religions are meant to keep a man in touch with the supernatural. This fact discredits the beliefs of Buddhism since Buddhists believe in self-achievement, and thus, they do not believe the supernatural like God, faith, and grace. Additionally, Buddhism fails to acknowledge the existence of spirits which are evident in society. The fact that Buddhists do not acknowledge the existence of God is a great blow to the authenticity of the Buddhist religion.
They believe that they will evade punishment and suffering by refusing to acknowledge the presence of God, but this will make them be punished eternally. In Buddhism, there are other numerous beliefs that do not conform to common knowledge. Examples of these beliefs include reincarnation, the failure of Buddhists to value life, the fact that Buddhists support occultism, etc. (Fisher, 2005, p. 57). With this argument, therefore, Christianity is better than Buddhism.
Reference List
Ankerberg, J. (2007). Buddhism vs Christianity. Web.
Berry, T. (1997). Christianity and Buddhism: a comparison and contrast. New York. Barnes & Noble.
Fisher, M. (2005). Living Religions. U.S., Prentice Hall.
This critical writing assignment undertakes to review and critique three sources that relate to how and why women in ancient India became Buddhists. The first article is written by Reverend Patti Nakai and titled Women in Buddhism while the second article is written by Swarna de Silva and titled Place of Women in Buddhism. The last article is written by Jamanadas K. and is titled Rise and Fall of Buddhist Nuns.
Nakai’s article plays a great role in advancing my understanding of how Shakyamuni treated women and what actually shaped his opinion towards women. The article tries to teach Buddhist concepts of enlightenment and impermanence, what shaped Shakamuni’s interest in religion, and the role culture played in Shakamuni’s perception about women.
De Silva’s article adds to my understanding of the topic as it portends that people’s understanding of Buddhism has been eroded by the addition of Brahmanic ideas that are alien to the original Buddhist thoughts. Regarding the place of women in Buddhism, it is interesting to note that Buddhism is not attached to any gender despite the fact that Buddha himself has historically been a man.
It is interesting to note that Buddha discovered the universal law that bound all persons practicing Buddhism. Other aspects of Buddhism like the worship of relics, the conduct of Buddha’s pujas, and the cult of Buddha’s person were only introduced later in the Theravada and Mahayana. These practices can hardly be justified by Buddha’s discourses.
Summary of Nakai’s Article
Nakai (1) posits that anyone who intended to brand Buddhism as a sexist religion would have easily done so by quoting out of context passages from sutras. The author reckons that the spirit of Buddhism should bring together all beings whether female or male and in the process enlighten them. In addition, Nakai emphasizes that it is meaningless for one to confess to being a Buddhist if he or she does not subscribe to Buddhist teachings.
The article sets the record straight by alluding that Shakyamuni Buddha’s aunt who played a greater role in his upbringing after his mother had passed on was indeed the first Buddhist nun. She was called Prajapati. The article sites circumstances when Shakyamuni is reported to have told his stepmother that women were mentally inferior and therefore lacked the mental capacity to practice and understand the teaching of non-attachment to self.
This occurred after she had shown interest in becoming his disciple. Reverend Nakai reports that Shakyamuni instead suggested to her stepmother that home was the best place where she could practice Buddhism. Nakai reiterates that followers of Tibetan Buddhism in the US and America at large have taken center stage in discussing issues that touch on women. In fact, on several occasions, they have capitalized on Buddha’s denunciation of women.
These groups of believers have gone further to advance arguments as to why Shakyamuni might have uttered such words to his own aunt saying that at that time, women were taken as objects that were only meant to breed, nurture, and entertain men. They advance that he was still very young to know the implications of his utterances and actions. His cultural conditioning could not allow him to disown sexist tendencies.
The article reiterates that Prajapati, his aunt, was reluctantly allowed into Sangha after Buddha’s cousin, Ananda, lamented that women should be given a chance because nobody really knew whether they would fail. Buddha’s cousin advocated that women be given a chance to study and follow Dharma.
Ananda was brought up in the culture where Buddhism was practiced but his clamor for women to be allowed to study and follow Dharma is informed by his awareness of impermanence, and that continual change makes the world new in each moment and that judgment on present cannot be based on conceptions of the past. The article contends that Shakamuni’s view on women as pets stem from the death of his father for the life of a woman without a husband was considered useless according to Indian traditions.
The article purports that it was Prajapati who shaped Shakamuni’s interest in religion. The idea that Shakamuni’s religious sensitivity was initiated by his mother Maya is rubbished by Nakai (1) who says Maya died when Shakyamuni was too young to know anything. The belief in non-permanence and that life does not go according to one’s wishes weighed on Prajapati, who had to give up all he had planned but to take care of Shakyamuni, the one-week-old son of her late sister Maya.
According to reverend Sakai, Prajapati’s actions were informed by spiritual guidance and that her king-husband, who was more concerned with fortune telling, had nothing to do with it. Prajapati was looking for something to make her disrupted life meaningful. Shakyamuni portended that his awakening came from the legacies of the Buddhas who went before him. Reverend Nakai underscores that Shakamuni’s awakening was largely due to Prajapati’s involvement in his life.
It is ironical that the first woman who introduced him to religious life was reluctantly let into the Sangha. It is no doubt that Prajapati is the first Buddhist nun and that together with other palace attendants, they helped reform Shakamuni’s cultural conditioning that made him see women as pets. Shakyamuni’s interaction with women like Kisa Gotami completely got rid of his sexist views.
The essay by reverend Nakai has added my understanding on the topic about the role that nuns played in Buddhism in ancient India. The assay adds to my understanding of enlightenment. It is bold enough to say that Shakamuni’s tradition created in him a tradition where women were just pets who were mentally inferior and could not understand and practice the teachings of Buddha. The article also tries to justify that it was indeed women who shaped Shakamuni’s spiritual leaning and also made him change his sexist views on women.
These women are exemplified by Prajapati and Kisa Gotami respectively. The article supports the original CRA source argument that women chose to be ordained nuns because of forces operating in their personal or social situation. Prajapati wanted to follow Shakyamuni after she had lost her husband. The article adds to my knowledge on original CRA when it states that it was not only husbands or parents who could play a role in one’s conversion from lay to devote nun.
The references used in this article do not differ from those in original CRA. This article supports the claims made in the original CRA source when it says that women’s resolve to become nuns was informed by prevailing personal and social circumstances. Hence, Reverend Nakai strengthens my understanding of the significance and implications of the ideas expressed in the original CRA article.
Summary of Jamanadas Article
Jamanadas (1) posits that Buddha could not have been against women but only wanted the vow to celibacy upheld. That is why he insisted that there should be a separate Sangha for women and men. He had no intent of showing that either men or women were inferior to the other. Bhikkhunis were put under the stewardship of Bhikkhus. Women were allowed to take Sannyas or Parivraja. Women who were already admitted in Sangha were allowed full freedom by Buddha. This caliber of women had already been admitted into Buddhist theris.
This article supports the argument in the original CRA source because it discusses the circumstances under which an Indian woman could choose to become a monk. The article does not add or change my perceptions of the arguments made in CRA neither do its authors differ in any meaningful way from those of the CRA source. Its supports arguments made in CRA about what prompted women to join become nuns.
Summary of Swarna de Silva’s article
De Silva (1) underscores that Sangha forms the core of Buddha’s Sasana. This article posits that the order of Bhikkhunis was formed by Buddha after his enlightenment and that her Aunt Prajapati whose desire to become Buddha’s disciple was rejected insisted and followed Buddha in far off places. For Prajapati to become a member of the Bhikkhuni order, she had to satisfy the eight special rules that were incorporated in Bhikkhunis Vinaya.
The article adds to my understanding because it makes me know that the eight rules that Prajapati had to satisfy to become a nun were not meant to bridge the gap that existed between men and women.
About the conditions that made women seek to become Buddhist nuns, it supports arguments made in the original CRA source. The sources of the two articles are not similar but the message they pass across is the same. The article supports claims made in original CRA as it plainly tries to show circumstances under which an Indian woman could become a Buddhist nun.
Conclusion
These three sources show that despite the fact that women were later allowed by Buddha to become nuns, there was still a glaring difference between them and the monks. These women were largely driven into becoming nuns because of prevailing social and personal issues in their society especially in India where the caste system was very rife. The three sources have enabled me to have wide knowledge about Buddhists nuns that will make it very easy for me in critiquing the original CRA.
Works Cited
De Silva, Swarna. Place of women in Buddhism. A Talk given to the Midlands Buddhist Society (UK) on Sanghamittâ Day, 1988. Print.
Jamanadas, Palimar. Rise and fall of Buddhist Nuns. NJ: John Willey and Sons. 2004. Print.
Nakai, Patti. Women in Buddhism; Prajapati, the first Buddhist nun. NY: Oxford University Press, USA. 2002. Print.
The three jewels of Buddhism which are the main ideals at the heart of Buddhism are together identified as the Three Jewels, or the Three Treasures. These jewels are the foundation of all forms of Buddhism. These are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. It is by making these the central values of one’s life that one becomes a Buddhist. The first word Buddha refers both to the historical Buddha and to the ideal of Buddha hood. The Buddha word means the awakened one.
It is more meaning than what most people think of it as it applies to only shakyamuni Buddha who was a former prince of Siddhartha, and become the perfect Buddha in the 6th century before the Common Era in India.he is famously known as historical Buddha. The jewel of Buddha means all those who have awakened from the sleep of ignorance and blossomed into their complete potential. Those people who have been awakened and blossomed serve as teachers of others for this religion as its principles demands. (Maha, 1987)
The most important role of the jewel of Buddha is very profound just as important as the fact that they are awakened them. Bearing in mind that awakening leads to freedom from suffering and gain of salvation. The will of liberation, omniscience and Buddha hood, all comes from someone’s own understanding, his insight into his own reality. It does not come just from the blessing of another, from some mysterious empowerment, from some sort of clandestine gimmick, or from membership in a crowd.
It doesn’t even come only through ones faith, although some good faith may help. Moreover, it can’t come through contemplation, either, at least not by meditation alone. So, the most significant element of Buddha to Buddhists is that Buddha is a teacher, and he gives them a teaching. Now, teaching is not indoctrination; it’s not imposing a dogma. A teaching furnishes them with a set of ways that they can employ to develop , to learn, to think over, to meditate upon, and finally, to gain deep, profound transforming insight, wisdom, and understanding. Therefore, they take safe haven in the Buddha.
This helps them to turn to the teaching of the reality of happiness, the teaching of the method of achieving happiness in whatever form it comes, whether it comes as Christianity, whether it comes as humanism, whether it comes as Hinduism, Sufism, or Buddhism. The form doesn’t matter. Simply Buddha forms the core of a teacher, one who can point the way to Buddhists own reality. He/she could be a scientist or she/he could be a religious teacher. (Maha, 1987)
. The second jewel for Buddhist refuge is Dharma. Dharma means to be held. The Dharma principally means the teachings of the Buddha, or the truth he understood. Although dharma has many meanings, the most important is the meaning of the unmediated Truth or reality itself: as experienced by the enlightened mind -and Buddhist Teachings. The truth is mediated by language and concepts. In the second sense Dharma is the teaching that was born when the Buddha first put his realisation into words and communicated it to others at Sarnath in Northern India. This event is traditionally referred to as the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma.
The eight-spoke Dharma wheel is a common emblem of Buddhism. As well as this Dharma, refers to the entire corpus of scriptures which are regarded as constituting the Buddhist canon. These include accounts of the Buddha’s life known as the Pali Canon. The records of scriptures from a later date and the written teachings of those people who have attained enlightenment over the centuries are also included.
The entire list is many hundred times as long as the Bible. It represents a literature of supreme riches. It includes works such as The Dhammapada, The Diamond Sutra, and The Tibetan Book of the Dead. Another meaning of Dharma is the practices which are outlined within the scriptures. Regardless of the prosperity of its literature the essence of Buddhism is very simple: it is finding ways to transform oneself. It could be summed up as ‘learning to do well while closing down to do evil; sanitizing the heart’ as the Dhammapada says. (Barkhoff, 2000)
The uppermost meaning of Dharma is the reality reality that holds in freedom from suffering, holds in a state of bliss. Dharma is one own reality that Buddhists seek to understand and to open it fully. Dharma therefore, also consists of those methods and the teaching of those methods that are the arts and sciences which enable to open mind ness. Furthermore, there are practices that are done, which helps to open, which follow those teachings, which implement them in practicable lives, in practice and in performance, which deploy those arts-they are also Dharma.
Virtues and beliefs and practices are also Dharma. Even the qualities that are done to develop, the constructive qualities that guide toward freedom and reality are also included those in dharma. That is how dharma came to signify a religion in some circumstances and also duty and other kinds of routines in Vedic Brahmanism, before Buddha used it in the liberating way. (Barkhoff, 2000)
In later Hinduism, in the Bhagavad-Gita, dharma was used by God to say that do your dharma, which meant -do your duty or Follow your role as a fighter, Arjuna!” said God, “Krishna, you warrior, follow your dharma!”
This Buddhist term, ‘Dharma’ may be compared to a guide as the Christians use the scriptures of the bible as their core guide in their Christianity life. The pursuing of one’s bliss gives Buddhist freedom. The word bliss means – your freedom. Dharma therefore means, ‘follow your freedom!’ it came more to mean that in India, after Buddha’s time, also in another strand in the Gita, in Hinduism and Jainism, as well as Buddhism. Ultimately, dharma is a place to take refuge in reality itself, because that is the only safe and sound refuge. If protection is taken in any unrealistic thing, it could be blown down by this-and-that howling wind.
However, when refuge is taken in reality, which is what endures. It is uncreated. It is not made by anyone. It is there, and therefore it can give refuge. The ultimate taking of refuge is embodying reality in our being, realizing that reality is the body and breath and thought and mind. Therefore, the absolute refuge is only being Buddha ourselves. But meanwhile, to whatever extent they can open to reality and take refuge in reality, ‘the second jewel dharma’. (Marcum, 1989)
The third jewel is sangha. The term sangha has two meanings in Theravada Buddhism. The first meaning denotes the community of monks and nuns that follow the Buddha. This is the community of followers of the Buddha who have taken monastic vows. The second meaning links the sangha to the accomplishment of a stage of higher knowledge. According to this description, the sangha is the followers of Buddha who have attained the first inspirational path sotapanna or “entry into the stream flowing inescapably to paradise.
In the West, the sangha has come to mean the entire community of supporters of the Buddha, not just individuals who have taken monastic vows, or those who have managed to a stage of higher knowledge. This term parisa is much closer to this western use of sangha though this term- parisa- is virtually unknown in common manner of speaking. Because of its common usage in the West, the term sangha is used in a broad sense to mean the community of followers of the Buddha. (Schmidt-Brabant, 2000)
As said above, the society of those who like the jewels of refuge, who learn that teaching, seek that understanding, and work to exemplify that Dharma. They are consciously evolving toward being Buddha’s, sharing their understanding and bliss with others, as teachers of freedom to other beings, helping them discover these jewels. All Buddhists do this everywhere in the world and through time in many parts of Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Tibet, China, Korea, Mongolia, Japan, Vietnam, in ancient time and still now in India.
Generally, the three jewels are repeatedly said in common phrases in Buddhism which emphasize on there foundation. These phrases comprises of the three jewels of Buddhism as follows-: Namo buddham sharanam gacchami, Namo dharmam sharanam gacchami and Namo sangham sharanam gacchami. All Buddhists globally say this, each in his own language. Namo means- “I bow expressing trust and faith and respect, to throw you on the mercy of another. Buddham is ‘to the Buddha.’ Sharanam means ‘refuge,’ a safe place of regeneration/ a resort. Gacchami means ‘I go.’ It solely therefore means “I bow to Buddha and resort to him as refuge Sangha. (Marcum, 1989)
As I conclude, Buddhism is not an abstract attitude or dogma. It is an approach of life and therefore it only has any meaning when it is embodied in people. So Buddhists place great value on the fellowship of others who are treading the same path, and those who embody its goal. In the broadest sense the Sangha means all of the Buddhists in the world and all those of the past and of the future. Buddhism being a pathway, some people is further highly developed along it than others, and scrupulous respect is paid to the lineage of great teachers down the millennia. This can be crowned by the deeper knowledge and understanding of the three treasured jewels of Buddhism.
The religious tradition that is going to be covered within the framework of the current essay is Buddhism. My conversation partner is not yet very experienced in terms of Buddhist practices, but she was rather interested in sharing her beliefs with me and drawing parallels between her beliefs and Christianity. I believe that this discussion is essential because Buddhism is rather similar to Christianity, and there may be numerous ways to link concepts from her religious tradition to mine. The current essay is going to discover the depths of Buddhism through the lens of personal communication between representatives of two different creeds who engaged in a peaceful dialog to share worldviews and exchange information.
Conversation Partner’s Beliefs
An essential finding that cannot be overlooked when reviewing my conversation with a Buddhist is a strong individualistic component that many Buddhists seem to place at the forefront of their religious practices. Van Gordon et al. (2015) noted that there are the Four Noble Truths helping one navigate through the world around them: suffering is real, desires cause suffering, ceasing desire means ceasing suffering, and moderating one’s lifestyle is the key to ending suffering. My conversation partner mentioned Siddhartha Gautama (the future Gautama Buddha) when dwelling on the path of enlightenment and the crucial value of meditation. According to the most common stories of how Buddhism appeared, it was Gautama who meditated profoundly and reached the state of enlightenment, glowing from within (Wright, 2017). The biggest role when discussing Buddhism is often given to the ability to see the light and become one of the sources of it.
From the point of ethics, Buddhist outlooks are also rather consistent since they do not divide people into classes and suggest that enlightenment is available for everyone irrespective of their societal role, wealth, or any other factor. My conversation partner was glad to mention that Buddhism became one of the first religious traditions where women were allowed to become monks. Nevertheless, the Noble Path covered in Buddhist literature is a complex route that does not have anything to do with gender and rather tests the person’s capability of remaining positive, steadfast, and composed (Shonin et al., 2015). Due to the fact that Buddhism required people to spend most of their time meditating, Mahayana Buddhism appeared, allowing people to attain enlightenment while also performing job duties or acts of devotion. It was one of the main reasons why Buddhism was able to go mainstream and help more people gain salvation.
One of the most renowned ceremonies available to Buddhists is the Uposatha. It stands for the days when the new moon and the full moon can be witnessed, as this time frame preceded the Vedic soma sacrifices in the past. All religious duties still have to be performed during the Uposatha period. During these days, Buddhists strengthen their meditation practices, recite Pali suttas, and offer flowers to the Buddha (if possible) (Cook, 2010). There are also eight precepts to be observed during the Uposatha, which include five conventional (not to steal, lie, kill, commit sexual offenses, or take intoxicants) and three additional commandments (not to eat food in the afternoon, attend entertainment, or sleep on a lavish bed) (Cook, 2010). My conversation partner noted that she would not follow all of the precepts due to personal reasons, but she would be willing to follow the conventional ones for sure.
An interesting rite that was mentioned by my conversation partner was the Bodhisattva vows. These declarations represent an essential part of Mahayana Buddhism, where the intended person is required to follow the path of enlightenment and declare their willingness to become a bodhisattva (Watt, 2017). The ordination requires a total of five monks: the head monk, the ceremony guardian, the master of secrets, and two assisting monks. My discussion partner was also interested in Abhisheka, the rite intended to launch the initiation ceremony and help the candidate emerge as a reborn person. Even though she has never tried it before, she thinks it would be an essential experience for her in the future.
My conversation partner is also a rather diligent Buddhist scholar since she is rather serious about studying the Pali Canon and navigating the sacred book of Buddhism called Tipitaka. There are almost forty volumes of the English translation of Tipitaka, and both the Theravada and the Mahayana schools of Buddhism accept the Tipitaka (Crosby, 2013). The essential knowledge included in the sacred Buddhist book is divided into the ‘three baskets of Wisdom’: the rule book for nuns and monks (the Discipline Basket), Buddha’s actual experiences (the Teaching Basket), and Buddha’s teachings explained (the Higher Doctrine Basket). According to Bhikkhu (2012), for example, Tipitaka is one of the most expressive religious manuscripts in the world, with many of the Buddha’s parables being practically identical to the ones used by Jesus.
Discussion
After hearing my partner’s description of the origin of Buddhism, I may conclude that Christianity, as an established religious tradition, seems to be much more detailed in terms of how most of its rituals and rites are discussed. While there are specific explanations present for both Buddhism and Christianity, I believe the latter to be more realistic to a certain extent. An interesting finding may be the fact that my partner’s descriptions of Buddhism disclose the latter as unconventional for the modern world. Even though numerous individuals across the globe value the words written in the Bible or the Quran, for example, the information included in Tipitaka is mostly perceived as fiction or a mere attempt to apply wishful thinking to Buddhism (Van Gordon et al., 2015). Even though this is a negative experience for Buddhists, they do not seem to be antagonistic toward such trends since their focus on orthopraxis does not allow for a lack of enthusiasm. Overall, it may be safe to say that my conversation partner’s beliefs are similar to mine when it comes to the view of the world and the key values that have to be nurtured by humanity.
Conclusion
I have truly enjoyed the experience of communicating with a person who practices different religious traditions and maintains a generally different lifestyle than most of us. I think that I have learned from her that there is a need for more positivity in everyday human life in order to pay just enough attention to problems surrounding us without becoming too preoccupied with the negativity. We were able to discuss all of our similarities and differences in a peaceful manner, reaching a consensus at the end of the conversation and having genuine fun throughout. Knowing that there are so many similarities between Christianity and Buddhism, I think I might be interested in engaging in a conversation with a person promoting the Muslim religious tradition in order to become even more well-versed in the topic.
References
Bhikkhu, T. (2012). Samyutta Nikaya. In Epitome of the Pali Canon (pp. 120-125). Lulu.com.
Cook, J. (2010). Meditation in modern Buddhism: Renunciation and change in Thai monastic life. Cambridge University Press.
Crosby, K. (2013). Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, diversity, and identity. John Wiley & Sons.
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Singh, N. N. (2015). Buddhist foundations of mindfulness. Springer.
Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Griffiths, M. D., & Singh, N. N. (2015). Mindfulness and the four noble truths. In Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness (pp. 9-27). Springer, Cham.
Watt, T. (2017). Spacious awareness in Mahāyāna Buddhism and its role in the modern mindfulness movement. Contemporary Buddhism, 18(2), 455-480.
Wright, R. (2017). Why Buddhism is true: The science and philosophy of meditation and enlightenment. Simon and Schuster.