Category: Buddhism

Introduction

The four noble truths may be defined as the fundamental teachings of the Buddhism religion. The Four Noble Truths are simultaneously given as the first lessons to everyone being introduced to Buddhism. They describe the way of life of the followers and the factors that can cause suffering. The truths are not just philosophical interpretations, but also give cognitive methodologies to promote psychological insight of the believer (Tay 104).

It can be viewed as a particular guideline that may be utilized to improve the understanding of their lives and everything that surrounds them (Fenner 7). They reassure that suffering can be eliminated in someone’s life as long as the person or the believer follows the teachings strictly and wisely. Notably, the teachings represent a permanent cure for misery. Followers of Buddhism believe that they have the power inside them to end the pain in their lives. It is necessary to analyze each step to improve an understanding of their purpose and unique aspects.

The Truth of Suffering

The first noble truth in Buddhism teachings is the truth of suffering that is frequently referred to as Dukkha. It is suggested that a person’s life is full of frustration, pain, and dissatisfaction. The teaching of this truth is expressed in three different ways. One of them is defined as “suffering of suffering” whereby the person is aware of the torment, such as physical discomfort, war, and diseases (Laumakis 97). The other dimension is pain and frustration brought by the impermanence of all possible things. The last interpretation of the Dukkha is the expression of suffering that is inevitable. Moreover, it focuses on such issues as agony that one must experience as a human being.

It is suggested that one may have to look at various aspects of suffering to be aware of possible implications. The issue is that many people reject them, and they believe that they are quite outdated (Sumedho 11). Some state that a particular inconsistency is present because several interpretations of the teachings are possible. One may think that it is suggested that an individual is capable of controlling his or her happiness if moral principles are respected (Gowans 124).

However, it is possible to argue with this objection, and it was most likely meant that relief is only temporary. The first noble truth is criticized because it encourages hopelessness. It is possible to argue that Buddhism, as a religion, is pessimistic since it majors in suffering. On the other hand, one of the core aspects that should be highlighted is that it helps to identify issues that are present in the life of an individual, and this position allows having a better understanding of what course of action is required to resolve them.

The Noble Truth of Source of Illness

The truth suggests that the lack of knowledge can be one of the primary causes of illness. Craving can be regarded as one of the sources according to the noble truths (Carus 102). Human beings often find themselves in trouble due to a desire to get access to things, which are not in their capacities, such as material wealth and mental satisfaction. Therefore, the truth holds that human beings are in constant motion to rearrange themselves in a pleasant manner (Netland 109).

Therefore, individuals are not satisfied with what they have as well as what they are. One of the aspects that are frequently misunderstood is that some are not aware of the fact that the core issue is not craving. The primary problem is spiritual ignorance, and it could lead to severe complications in some cases. Moreover, such individuals are not capable of developing a particular state of mind that is crucial to attaining wisdom (Velez par. 57).

It is also possible to argue that the situation is not the same for every person, and this approach cannot be applied in all cases. Some people are born with problems such as hereditary diseases that do not come from cravings. Critics argue that it is inevitable, and it can occur to any individual regardless of his or her religion. However, it should be regarded as a general guideline, and one may have to explore his or her thoughts to understand how to avoid craving and ignorance.

The Truth of Cessation of Suffering

The third noble truth makes Buddhism look optimistic. It sensitizes that suffering can be eradicated out of the lives of humans (Matthews, 145). Buddhism teaches that humans should take a ‘middle way’ approach to deal with suffering. However, the third noble truth is confusing since it needs spiritual development and maturity. It is stated that desire may be extinguished by deliberating oneself from the attachment.

Therefore, the possibility of liberation is present, and the concept of Nirvana is introduced. It can be described as a state of mind where a human can reach to be free from suffering. It is also a condition in which one is full of spiritual happiness without fears and emotions (Carus 110). The truth suggests that believers should major in freeing themselves from the chains of suffering (Trainor 76).

The Truth of Path to the Cessation of Suffering

This truth entails giving specific solutions to suffering, and it provides the noble eight-fold path. Individuals should be aware of the fact that they should have access to the necessary knowledge to ensure that their practice of Buddha’s teaching is appropriate. Moreover, it is suggested that one should focus on cultivating a relevant attitude and be peaceful. Meditation is also particularly interesting because it is believed that it may alter the mind of a person. It is possible to state that enormous attention is devoted to ethical aspects, just like in many other teachings.

The eight paths can be divided simultaneously into precepts, meditation, and wisdom. The first approach is utilized to help a person learns how to control the body and the mind (Carus 112). Mediation, on the other hand, assists a person to comprehend how to unify the mind. Finally, wisdom is crucial in the first two practices since it enables one to reach enlightenment. Buddha describes the Eightfold Path as a way to enlightenment (Carus 112). Once a person achieves a particular level, there is no need to use the Path again. It is imperative to understand that the primary goal of this approach is to ensure that all behaviors that are viewed as wrong are eliminated. Moreover, additional ones may be introduced if an individual is determined to achieve the highest possible level (Harvey 69).

Conclusion

In summary, it is evident that the Four Noble Truths can be viewed as fundamental principles of Buddhism, and their primary objective is to eliminate suffering from the life of an individual and achieve enlightenment. The teachings suggest that the quality of life may be improved if the source of pain is addressed and necessary measures are taken. However, the issue is that there is no definite cause in some cases, and the process will take a long time until one identifies the primary causes of his or her unhappiness. Overall, it is possible to state that any selfishness can be quite problematic, and one may consider these principles to enhance views on life and to become spiritual.

Works Cited

Carus, Paul. The Four Noble Truths and The Eightfold Path. Altenmünster, DE: Jazzybee Verlag, 2012. Print.

Fenner, Peter. The Self and Its Destiny in Buddhism. Victoria, AU: Deakin University, 1990. Print.

Gowans, Christopher W. Philosophy of the Buddha. London, UK: Routledge, 2003. Print.

Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University, 1990. Print.

Laumakis, Stephen. An introduction to Buddhist Philosophy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University, 2003. Print.

Matthews, Lewis. The Four Noble Truths of Wealth: A Buddhist View of Economic Life. London, UK: Enlightened Economy Books, 2014. Print.

Netland, Harold. Buddhism: A Christian Exploration and Appraisal. Downers Grove, IL:IVP Academic, 2009. Print.

Sumedho, Ajahn. The Four Noble Truths. Taipei City, TW: Buddha Education Foundation, n.d. Print.

Tay, Ching. From the Four Noble Truths to the Four Universal Vows: An integration of the Mahayana and Theravada Schools. Hacienda Heights, CA: Buddha’s Light Pub, 2002. Print.

Trainor, Kevin. Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide. New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Press, 2004. Print.

Velez, Abraham. “Buddha.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, n.d. Web.

One of the key branches of Buddhism, Mahayana is thoroughly discussed in Mitchell’s book, Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience.

The author devotes an entire chapter of his paper to Mahayana as the teaching of Buddha, thus, allowing to understand the key differences between the former and the original Buddhist teachings.

With a deep insight and a careful analysis of the key principles of the two teachings, Mitchell helps the readers to understand the impact that Mahayana, or The Great Vehicle, has had on Buddhism¹.

According to the existing evidence, there are actually two key branches of Buddhism, which are the Theravada and the Mahayana Buddhism. Therefore, it is most reasonable to compare the two to see what exact specifics define Mahayana Buddhism.

Appropriately enough, the comparison should start with the pivotal figure in Buddhism, i.e., The Enlightened One himself. According to the Theravada traditions, the number of times when Buddha gets a mentioning are close to zero – it seems that not the Buddha, but his teachings are what matters to the Theravada adepts most.

On the contrary, the Mahayana Buddhists seem to focus on Buddha’s personality. Mahayana, however, mentions not only the historical Gautama Buddha, but also a number of others, such as Amitabha Buddha and Medicine Buddha.

Another important difference between the two branches of Buddhism is the key objective of the path of a true Buddhist. According to Theravada Buddhism, the goal of its true adept is to achieve self-liberation, which means that of the three selves, the one-self concept is stressed the most.

Mahayana Buddhism, in its turn, also sets the goal of self-liberation, yet it also states very clearly that the followers of Buddhism must also focus on the relationships between them and the rest of the world, maintaining fragile balance between one’s self and the selves of the others.

However, the above-mentioned two types of Buddhist teachings are not the only interpretations of what Buddha was trying to convey to his students; according to the existing records, there are four major schools of Buddhism in China; to be more exact, there are Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana and Nikayas².

While each of the schools mentioned above has its own subdivision, altogether, they make the bulk of the Buddhist teachings. However, each of the schools offers its own interpretation of Buddha’s postulates.

While each of the schools is based on the same idea of enlightenment as the climax of one’s spiritual progress, they actually have a number of differences, as it has already been proven above with the help of a comparison between Theravada and Mahayana.

When it comes to discussing the most peculiar school of Buddhist thought, Vajrayana seems an interesting choice. Also known as the Diamond Way, it practically obliterated distinctions between the esoteric and the exoteric.

The last, but definitely not the least, the mahasiddhas that the Buddhist teaching in China often mentions³ are worth taking a closer look at.

Typically used to denote the people who have acquired supernatural skills⁴, mahasiddhas must have inspired millions of people who follow the Buddhist principles.

Being a great example of the fact that that there are no obstacles in a man’s way except for the ones that he creates, mahasiddhas seem to have inspired the Tantric branch of Buddhism, opening new horizons for Buddhists of all times and continents.

Reference List

“Buddhist Masters of Enchantment.” Keith Dowman. Web.

Lustig, Verbard Andrew. Altering Nature. New York, NY: Springer, 2008.

Mitchell, Donald. “The Teachings of the Buddha.” In Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience, 33-64. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008.

“The Eighty-Four Mahasiddhas and the Path of Tantra.” Keith Dowman. Web.

Footnotes

1. Donald Mitchell, “The Teachings of the Buddha,” in Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience, 33-64 (Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008), 33.
2. Verbard Andrew Lustig, Altering Nature (New York, NY: Springer, 2008), 33.
3. “Buddhist Masters of Enchantment,” Keith Dowman.
4. “The Eighty-Four Mahasiddhas and the Path of Tantra,” Keith Dowman.

There are a number of things that happen in the lives of humans, which are beyond one’s control. For example, no one can control the fortunes and misfortunes that normally occur in human life.

Nevertheless, it is the responsibility of every individual to take charge of his/her own state of mind and control what it thinks about at any particular time. Buddhism asserts that taking control of one’s state of mind is the most important thing that people can do. In Buddhism, this aspect is called meditation.¹

The practice of meditation in Buddhism enables the believers to take control of things, such as fear, anxiety, hatred, confusion, and sorrow, which can make them commit sin.² By reviewing a number of books, I intend to prove in this paper that the practice of meditation is the main driving force behind Buddhism.

Meditation in Buddhism simply refers to practices that its believers use to make their minds think positively. The practice of meditation involves skills that develop and encourage concentration, positive thinking, and clarity regarding living and non-living things.³

When Buddhists engage in the practice of meditation, they get to understand the habits and behaviors of their minds. As a result, they are able to transform themselves into positive and understanding human beings.

Buddhists strongly believe that meditation offers a transformative effect that brings about a new a way of understanding life.⁴

Every believer is required to learn the concepts of meditation in order to strengthen their faith in the religion. The practice of meditation is normally taught through the Triratna Buddhist Community. The basic practices in meditation are taught according to the original teachings of the historical Buddha.⁵

The practices of meditation are considered effective if they are aimed at achieving calmness and emotional positivity among the believers of the religion. The practices are supposed to be taught by members of the Triratna Buddhist Order at Triratna Centers.

These members are highly skilled meditators and the students who learn how to meditate need to have an interest in Buddhism.⁶

Buddhist meditation is majorly divided into two categories: insight and tranquility meditations. The two categories of Buddhist meditations are combined and used at the same time.⁷

However, in some cases, the two meditations are used one after the other. In cases where the two are used separately, tranquility is used first, followed by the insight meditation. The two categories of meditation are normally used simultaneously to enable the believers to obtain maximum results.⁸

Insight meditation, which is also known as vippasana, uses a number of skills taught in Buddhism to enhance the believer’s faith. Insight mediation literally includes the skills taught in tranquility meditation and other areas of the religion.

Insight meditation helps Buddhist believers to practice absolute and important truths. It is said that Buddhist believers who practice insight meditation have the hopes of appreciating the truths of suffering and impermanence.⁹

The practice of insight meditation is majorly based on the concept of mindfulness. Mindfulness is an improved state of concentration in which the mind is given a chance to take control of the entire system of human beings. When a person is mindful of something, he carefully thinks and observes it.

Buddhist believers, through insight meditation, not only focus on what happens to and around them, but also try to understand how these things come to happen the way they do.¹⁰

The believers of Buddhism can only see the fruits of the insight meditation if they identify and understand the important truths taught in the religion. The believers are supposed to practice what the Buddhist doctrines say in everything they do.

The main part of Buddhist doctrines and practices, which is also provided for in insight meditation, is liberation. This implies that a Buddhist believer who practices insight meditation exclusively practices all the doctrines of the religion.¹¹

The second type of meditation, tranquility, is based on the concept of concentration. Tranquility meditation is used to immobilize the minds of the believers and guide them to concentrate on major things that affect their lives.

This type of meditation is intended to achieve its goals by using tools or virtues like loving-kindness and the recollection in Buddha’s sayings.¹²

Tranquility meditation assists Buddhist believers to achieve a number of goals in life.

Firstly, the believers are assisted to detach themselves from the external world to enable them to develop the need for happiness.

Secondly, the believers use this meditation to acquire a state of exclusive equanimity and self-fulfillment.

Lastly, tranquility meditation enables the believers to improve their concentration and reasoning with regard to what happens to them.¹³

In conclusion, this proposal intends to analyze the concept of meditation among Buddhist believers. The paper uses a number of books to illustrate the importance of meditation in Buddhism. The practice of meditation in Buddhism is primarily divided into two categories: insight and tranquility.

The two types of meditation are based on, among other things, liberation, which is the main doctrine of Buddhism. Consequently, the paper shows that mediation is the core of the practices that all Buddhists undertake in their lives.

Bibliography

• Gerner, Katy. Buddhism. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark, 2008.This book contains the main concepts of Buddhism. It is going to help me illustrate Buddhism as one of the major religions in the world.
• Ingram, Daniel M. Mastering the Core Teaching of the Buddha: An Unusually Hardcore Dharma Book. London: Aeon Books, 2008.This book contains aspects of meditation in Buddhism. It will assist me to explain how meditation forms the core of the Buddhism religion.
• Kuan, Tse-fu. Mindfulness in Early Buddhism: New Approaches Through Psychology and Textual Analysis of Pali, Chinese and Sanskirt Sources. New York, NY: Routledeg, 2008.This book contains the kinds of meditations used in Buddhism. It is going to be helpful in defining insight meditation and how it is applicable to the religion.
• Morgan, Diane. Essential Buddhism: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010.This book talks about the main practices undertaken by Buddhist believers. It will help me to show why tranquility meditation is regarded as a core practice in Buddhism.
• Segall, Seth Robert. Encountering Buddhism: Western Psychology and Buddhist Teachings. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2003.This book talks about the beliefs of Buddhists. It is helpful in explaining the impact of insight meditation on Buddhist believers.
• Shaw, Sarah. Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pali Canon. New York, NY: Routledge, 2006.This book sheds light on the applications of meditation in Buddhism. It will help me to explain the effects of insight meditation on Buddhist believers.
• Silva, Padmasiri. An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000.This book explains practices and beliefs found in Buddhism. It is important in explaining the impact of tranquility meditation on Buddhism.
• Teece, Geoff. Buddhism. Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media, 2005.This book illustrates the main practices of Buddhism. It is beneficial in explaining Buddhism as a religion.
• Waynne, Alexander. The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. New Yok, NY: Routledge, 2007.This book explains the characteristics and origin of Buddhism as a religion. It will help me to explain the origin of the meditation practice in Buddhism.
• Wood, Cavan. Buddhism. Oxford, Heinemann Educational, 2002.This book explains Buddhism as a special type of religion. It will help me to explain meditation as a special concept in Buddhism.

Footnotes

¹ Geoff Teece, Buddhism (Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media, 2005), 8.

² Geoff, 14.

³ Katty Gerner, Buddhism (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark, 2008), 6-8.

⁴ Katty, 10

⁵ Cavan Wood, Buddhism (Oxford, Heinemann Educational, 2002), 7.

⁶ Cavan, 9.

⁷ Sarah, Shaw, Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pali Canon (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006), 8-14.

⁸ Alexander Waynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation (New Yok, NY: Routledge, 2007), 96-100.

⁹ Seth Robert Segall, Encountering Buddhism: Western Psychology and Buddhist Teachings (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2003), 65-71.

¹⁰ Daniel M. Ingram, Mastering the Core Teaching of the Buddha: An Unusually Hardcore Dharma Book (London: Aeon Books, 2008), 57-60.

¹¹Tse-fu Kuan, Mindfulness in Early Buddhism: New Approaches Through Psychology and Textual Analysis of Pali, Chinese and Sanskirt Sources (New York, NY: Routledeg, 2008), 59-63.

¹²Diane Morgan, Essential Buddhism: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010), 124-128).

¹³ Padmasiri Silva, An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 129-133.

Thesis statement

By examining both canonical and modern sources about the Buddhist tradition, I will explore the role of Anapanasati as a meditation method for achieving the state of nirvana and enlightenment.

On the whole, one can say that this technique emphasizes by mental and physical experiences through which a person can eventually become liberated from his/her earthly desires and enter the condition which is called mindfulness (Alexander 2010). These are the main aspects that I would like to discuss in this paper.

This discussion is important for better understanding the practices that Buddhism involves and the major goals that a person intends to attain through Anapanasati.

The main elements of Anapanasati

Overall, it is possible to argue that Anapanasati is one of the mediation techniques that exist in various Buddhist traditions (Melton 2011, 34). This method can be employed by people living in different countries.

It should be taken into account that the descriptions of this method are present in canonical treatises such as Satipatthana Sutta which is a source that is accepted by Buddhists throughout the world (Soma and Pereira 2004, 7).

Furthermore, a variation of this technique is described in later texts such as The Three Pillars of Zen which is also very popular among the adherents of Buddhism (Kapleau 1989). It is vital to remember that this technique is now widely adopted by many people who are interested in Buddhism.

Moreover, the scholars and adepts of Buddhism believe that Anapanasati is vital part of this tradition (Boccio 2010; Burke & Marconett 2008). This is one of the points that can be made.

On the whole, Anapanasati is related to several elements that are critical for the supporters of the Buddhist tradition. In particular, a practitioner should pay attention to the experiences of the body and one’s mental processes. Furthermore, he/she should focus on such aspects as cessation, dispassion, or inconstancy.

Finally, an individual should pay attention to such a task as the release of one’s mind from the daily desires (Emmanuel 2013; Wynne 2007).

The most important goal is to free ones consciousness from such concepts as “mine” and “I” because they prevent a person from attaining the state of enlightenment and mindfulness (Odin 2011, 229; Chiesa & Malinowski, 2011).

These are the main objective that a follower of Buddhism should achieve through this technique as well as other practices.

The main aspect of this method is that a person uses his breathing in order to control his/her mental processes. At first, it includes a series of breathing exercises that enable a person to gain control of his/her physical experiences.

For example, at the beginning, a practitioner should count both exhalations and inhalations (Emmanuel 2013). To a great extent, this activity is aimed at preventing a person from thinking about the mundane aspects of life. The third state of this method is primarily related to the emotions of a person.

In particular, he/she should experience rapture as well as bliss; however, the main objective is to tranquilize the emotional sensations of a person; otherwise, he/she not become free from the mundane life (Chiesa & Malinowski, 2011; Grossman 2010). A person, who can cope with this task, can proceed to later stages.

Finally, a individual should think about such themes as the rejection of lust, power, money, and so forth. In this way, he/she can approach the state of enlightenment which is probably the ultimate goal of Buddhism.

Close attention should be paid to such a notion as mindfulness which can be explained as a state at which an individual is no longer concerned with such things as glory, power, money, sexual desire, and so forth (Alexander 2010; Rapgay and Bystrisky 2009).

In this way, he/she can reach Nirvana. Overall, the state of mindfulness is important for Buddhism since this term throws light on the intentions of people who follow this religious and philosophical movement. These are the critical dimensions of Anapanasati and its influence on a practitioner.

As it has been said before, this method has been adopted in various traditions. For example, one can speak about the Theravada tradition, Indo-Tibetan traditions. There are certain variations that should not be overlooked by the practitioners.

For example, according to canonical texts, a person should go to a forest and sit under a tree (Soma and Pereira 2004, 232). However, such a requirement is not always met (Kapleau 1989, 181). This is one of the main aspects that should be considered by scholars and people who are interested in Buddhism.

Nevertheless, despite these differences the emphasis on breathing, emotional tranquility and mindfulness is essential for people who prefer Anapanasati as a way of meditation.

On the whole, scholars, who examine Buddhist rituals, believe that Anapanasati is supposed to affect both body and mind of a person (Ling, 2008; Woodhouse 1999).

These elements should not be separated from one another since this separation can undermine the main aspects of this meditation. This is one of the issues that should not be disregarded when one discusses various aspects of meditation in Buddhism.

Thus, one can argue that, Anapanasati is an important part of the rituals in Buddhism. It is one of the ways through which a person can attain nirvana and enlightenment. Certainly, one can argue that Anapanasati is the only meditation technique that is used nowadays in many countries.

However, this method should certainly be considered by people who practice Buddhism or study various dimensions of this tradition. These are the main arguments that can be put forward while discussing such a meditation methods as Anapanasati.

Reference List

Alexander, James. 2010. Thai Meditations: An Introduction to Buddhism and Mindfulness. Boston: Booksmango.

The author of this book provides an explanation of such a notion as mindfulness and importance for the followers of the Buddhist traditions. I have used this source to elaborate many of my arguments.

Boccio, Frank. 2010. Mindfulness Yog: The Awakened Union of Breath, Body, and Mind (Large Print 16pt). London: ReadHowYouWant.

This book contains sections about the use of breathing techniques in different traditions of Buddhism. The authors of this work explain how Anapanasati connects physiological and spiritual aspects and this information has helped to discuss the main goals and principles of Anapanasati.

Burke, Adam, and Sean Marconett. 2008. “The Role of Breath in Yogic Traditions: Alternate Nostril Breathing.” Biofeedback 36, (2): 67.

This article is valuable because it enables the reader to understand the influence of Anapanasati on other meditation practices used by Buddhist throughout the world.

Chiesa, Alberto, and Peter Malinowski. 2011. “Mindfulness-based approaches: are they all the same?.” Journal Of Clinical Psychology 64 (4): 404-424.

This article contains a survey of different meditation methods. Furthermore, this article will be used for explaining the goals of Anapanasati and the steps that a practitioner should take.

Emmanuel, Steven. 2013. A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy. Philadelphia: John Wiley & Sons.

This book is valuable for me because it gave me in-depth insights into various mediation techniques used in Buddhism. This book has provided me with some introductory ideas about Anapanasati.

Grossman, Paul. 2010. “Mindfulness for Psychologists: Paying Kind Attention to the Perceptible.” Mindfulness 1 (2): 87.

This source has helped me to discuss the emotional aspects of Anapanasati and its impact on a person who is engaged in this form of meditation.

Kapleau, Phillip. 1989. The Three Pillars of Zen. Boston: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.

This source is aimed at describing various aspects of Zen Buddhism. This book has enabled me to learn more about the variations of Anapanasati technique and application in Zen Buddhism.

Ling, Ong. 2008. “Anatomy; Physiology from a Buddhist Perspective: The kinesthetic Buddha, human form and function—Part 1: Breathing Torso.” Journal Of Bodywork & Movement Therapies 11 (22): 214-222.

This article explains the importance of breathing exercises for Anapanasati and similar mediation practices. With the help of this source, I was able to argue that Anapanasati incorporates both spiritual and physical aspects of human experience.

Melton, John. 2011. Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. New York: ABC-CLIO.

This book is aimed at discussing ritualistic practices existing in various religious and philosophical traditions. This source can give the reader a general idea about the practices existing in Buddhism, especially meditation methods.

Odin, Steve. 2011. “Buddhadāsa: Theravada Buddhism and Modernist Reform in Thailand.” Philosophy East & West 61 (1): 221-231.

This source throws light on the mediation practices used Theravada Buddhism and more modern versions of this philosophical and religious tradition. This source is important for explaining the impact of Anapanasati on various movements in Buddhism.

Rapgay, Lobsang, and Alexander Bystrisky. 2009. “Classical Mindfulness.” Annals Of The New York Academy Of Sciences 1172 (13), 148-154.

This article has been of great use to me because in this way, I was able to elaborate the concept of mindfulness and its relevance to Anapanasati. This is why this source has attracted by my attention.

Soma, Bhikku, and Cassius Pereira. 2004. The Way of Mindfulness: The Satipatthana Sutta 1949. New York: Kessinger Publishing.

This book will be used as a major source for describing Anapanasati as a mediation method. This source can tell about the goals of this technique.

Woodhouse, Mark. 1999. “Painted Cakes: Building a Path to Buddhism.” Library Journal 124 (16): 57-61.

I have used this article for explaining the connections between Anapanasati and the objectives that a Buddhist strives to attain.

Wynne, Alexander. 2007. The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. New York: Routledge.

This book depicts the main objectives of mediation techniques in Buddhism.

This source has been of great use to me since I used it for discussing the emotional state that a Buddhist should achieve through various rituals.

These days, the topic of sexual life has stopped being a forbidden matter of discussion, and, gradually, people tend to feel more comfortable about covering this aspect. They are interested in diving deep into this part of their life. This tendency also regards religions, as they predominantly imply strict rules regulating sexuality in order to achieve enlightenment. Buddhism also involves a particular attitude to this aspect of life. It does not stimulate its adherents to stick to austerity and chastity, though it does not approve of overindulgence. This way, the purpose of this paper is to review the Buddhist perspective on sexuality, covering the laws of celibacy, homosexuality, monasticism, and sexual yoga, and prove that it is not restraining in most points.

The Laws of Celibacy

Monastic Lifestyle

First of all, it is worthy to distinguish the lifestyles of both monks and laities. As for Theravada tradition, it includes 277 codes of behavior, which are essential to be stuck to in case an individual has completed vestiture. The major aim of these rules is to regulate the lifestyle of a person, which leads to achieving enlightenment. Monks agree on these regulations under their own volition, and in case they are not capable of following them, they have a possibility to exit the monastic community. It is considered to be more honest to refuse to stick to the aforementioned rules than to be a hypocritical member of the community, who consciously violates the codes. There are four primary regulations of a monastic lifestyle, and their violation is perceived as ‘defeat’ and leads to exclusion from the community. The first code regards the topic of this paper and addresses sexual relations.

Sexual abstinence is the most crucial aspect of a monastic lifestyle. Both homosexual and heterosexual sexual acts are considered to be the breakage of abstinence. Committing such an action, a monk excludes himself from the community. Other scandals of a sexual character, except for sex acts, lead to status decline and require guilt expiation. Monk-students, who contravened the vow of chastity, are not a member of the community. This principle appears to be relevant for Mahayana traditions of Buddhism and female monks, in schools where female communities exist (Langenberg 2015). There is no term ‘a married monk’, though there is the practice of ‘halfmonkhood’ when married teachers maintain their order, which is permitted in some cases. However, this event does not refer to the Theravada school of Buddhism.

Lifestyle of Laities

As for laities, the situation appears to be different to some extent, and they have more permissions in this aspect of life. There are five major rules of Buddhists-laities, and the third of them claims the principle of refraining from misbehavior in respect of sensual enjoyments (Langenberg 1971). There are also adherents, who are determined to follow eight codes, so they regard the third one more strictly. They prefer to stick to the vow of chastity, as is the case with monks. Consequently, these laities, as well as monks, are disciplined and devoted to religion considerably, so their sexuality is restrained significantly.

However, there are people, who are more liberated in this respect. They perceive the third code as a rule of learning, as well as other ones. It is not a commandment, which is heaven-sent, as there are no corresponding instructions in Buddhism. An individual is the only one, who is responsible for following or not following this principle. An adherent attempts to stick to a particular rule not for the reason of one’s will, but for the reason of understanding its benefit for himself or herself (Langenberg 1971). In case a person does not consider a particular rule helpful for him or her, he or she is not obliged to stick to it. In addition, whether a laity has hesitation on his or her moderation and capability to refuse from sex acts totally, he or she should make an effort and receive advice, which may relieve the challenge.

It is also worthy of determining the sphere the third rule is aimed to address. It contains the phrase ‘sensual enjoyments’, which is not restricted by sexuality. The desire to eat delicious food and others are also included in this term. Buddhism involves the thesis about the relationship between the feeling of disappointment in life and desires and preferences. It is essential to take the latter under control in order to minimize the suffering. Although this principle is easy to understand, it appears to be changeling to realize it.

The third code has some connections to the Christian commandment against committing adultery, though there is a significant difference between approaches and intentions of such an instruction. The traditional Christian perspective on this issue admits the possibility of having sex between spouses, and other options do not exist. Even whether this condition is followed, sexual relationships may be considered vicious, unless spouses intend to conceive a child. Other purposes of sex acts should be minimized, and for this reason, Christian tradition does not support using contraceptives. In general, this religion contains a wide range of restrictions, which are difficult to apply to real life. That leads to constant violation of commandments, which also regards sexual context, and people prefer to stick to permissiveness.

From the perspective of Buddhism, both Puritanism and permissiveness are extremities, and the correct approach implies finding the balance between them. Buddhism stimulate people to be conscious of their behavior and make their own choice based on their own reflections. Although Buddhism involves some codes restraining sexuality, compared to other religions, it appears to be more liberal in respect of sexual life. This way, its rules cannot be considered restrictive to a large extent.

The Attitude to Homosexuality

As is evident from the aforementioned, Buddhism appears to be quite understanding concerning sexuality issues, though its position on homosexuality may be exact. The traditions of this confession determine this event as incorrect sexual behavior, and it is proclaimed in Vinaya. As for the Theravada school, the adherent stick to the model described at the beginning of the paper. Vinaya, which is obligatory for monks, contains restrictions of gender presenting features and homosexual desires and actions. The primary five precepts, which laities follow, do not mention homosexual relationships (Gleig 2012). However, the majority of interpretations consider that these codes cover both heterosexuals and homosexuals (Gleig 2012). Despite the fact that this issue causes multiple discussions, adherents tend not to start practicing non-traditional relationships.

Other theories of Buddhism, namely Mahayana and Vajrayana, appear to be radical in this context. In the canonical Lotus Sutra, which underlies the doctrines of Buddhist schools Nichiren and Tendai, a bodhisattva is forbidden to have close relationships with five types of non-men. This list involves passive and active homosexuals, eunuchs, hermaphrodites, and impotent (Gleig 2012). It should be highlighted that such an attitude to homosexualism is common among Buddhist theories, and none of them admit it.

Sexual Yoga

There is a great variety of theories in Buddhism, and Vajrayana is one of them. It implies a tradition within Mantrayana, which is associated with Tantra. It presents an esoteric system, and its main purpose is reaching freedom as a psychological condiion, when an individual does not encounter any frames. This theory involves sexual yoga or tantric sex, which is a range of practices, aimed to exercise sexuality using yoga poses.

According to Tantra, sex may be one of the methods of achieving enlightenment. This perspective involves the perception of sex as a practice of self-perfection, and the partner is depicted as the personification of God. In addition, all the poses are titled yoga asanas. Tantric sex is characterized by the sloth of moves, which supplies the long duration of the act and gradual learning of new and higher energetic conditions, and aestheticization of the enjoyment. Participants are determined to acknowledge each moment in order to perceive the energy, which creates during this process, via their consciousness (Langenberg 2015). Tantric sex does not always include reaching the final point, but focuses on the continuous growth of consciousness.

This way, some theories of Buddhism may accept sexuality, and moreover, sex may be a part of practices aimed to achieve enlightenment. Such an aspect is not common among other confessions, which tend to regulate sexual life more strictly. They perceive it only as a method of conceiving a child and appear to be totally opposed to having sex for other purposes. For this reason, Buddhism may be considered flexible and free to any expression of sexuality and any attitude to it as soon as it is conscious.

Conclusion

As is evident from the information presented above, these are particular restrictions in the context of sexual life in Buddhism. Monks are obliged to refuse from it totally, and the violation of this rule may cause negative consequences and lead to exclusion from the community. Laities are required to follow the vow of charity, as they have a possibility to make a conscious decision in this regard. It is also should be highlighted that the Buddhism perspective implies a radical negative attitude to homosexuality. However, there are significant liberations in this confession, for instance, Mantrayana regards sex as a method of achieving enlightenment. For this reason, this confession may be considered the most flexible in relation to sexual life.

References

Gleig, Ann. “Queering Buddhism or Buddhist De-Queering?: Reflecting on Differences Amongst Western LGBTQI Buddhists and the Limits of Liberal Convert Buddhism.”Theology & Sexuality 18, no. 3 (2012): 198–214. Web.

Langenberg, Amy Paris. “Reading Against the Grain: Female Sexuality in Classical South Asian Buddhism.”Religion (London. 1971) 49, no. 4 (2019): 728–34. Web.

Langenberg, Amy Paris. “Sex and Sexuality in Buddhism: A Tetralemma: Sex and Sexuality in Buddhism.” Religion Compass 9, no. 9 (2015): 277–86. Web.

Three jewels namely: Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are the three main aspects of Buddhism. Dharma is a name that is used to define the teachings of the leader called Buddha while Sangha describes the entire community of Buddhism.

The religion is however, not universal as compared to the others. This is because it varies from country to country and from one sect to another. To try to unify it, the monks and nuns still follow the teachings that existed during the ancient times.

It is a sin to lie, still, kill, and engage in sexual acts and to take intoxicants for the nuns and monks. An exception is given only for some of the nuns and monks from Japan and Korea who are allowed to marry and have families of their own.¹

The rest should follow the latter. If the sins are committed, the monks and nuns risked expulsion which was a very embarrassing moment for them.

This was ensured through taking of oaths and going through training sessions and seminars regularly to remind them on what they are expected to do. Religious activities are carried out by the monks and the nuns as well as giving service to the community without bias.²

Buddhism is one of the most dominant religions in the world. Today, the religion is diverse compared to the way it was some few years ago. It has been adopted as a culture and a political basis in some counties of the world.

It is taking new forms in ceratin countries especially because of the way certain governments are trying to eliminate it. It is also vital to note that the Ancient Buddhists’ pictures and carvings have been stored in museums and myriads of stories written about them, how they started and progressed till this date.

Templates have also been developed to explain how and why this religion came into existence. When relatives die, there are rituals that are carried out in harmony to mourn the loss.

In order to ensure that its existence is not eliminated from the face of the earth, some universities and institutions of higher learning have adopted it as part of the curriculum.

Students are taught about the religion so as to keep it alive. There are quite a number of rituals that are always followed such as ringing the bell in Japan on the eve of every New Year.³ The people take it both as a religious and a cultural practice. Some of the rituals, beliefs and acts conflict with the expectations of the government.

For instance, this religion was abolished ling ago in China for the same reason. All the temples that were used for worshiping were brought down, nuns and monks demanded to follow a secular life failure to which they would find themselves in trouble. The government assimilated Tibet.

This eventually made Dalai Lama to vacate the country. Several other countries including Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand are working hard to recover the religion. Since they followed the Buddhism religion, the monks and nuns were killed and others taken to prison.

On separate occasions, the Tibet people, monks and nuns have always protested with the aim of bringing back the religion to its feet. The religion is still prominent in Asia and it is treated as a culture not a religion.⁴

Bibliography

Garfield Johnston. “Buddhism and Modernity.” Smith College, Melbourne. Web.

Julia Hardy. “Religion Library.” Buddhism. Web.

Sahn, Seung. On Kong-an Practice in Only Don’t Know: Selected Teaching Letters of Zen Master Seung Sahn London: Shambhala Publications, 1999.

Footnotes

1. Hardy Julia, “Religion Library,” Buddhism.
2. Seung Sahn, On Kong-an Practice” in Only Don’t Know: Selected Teaching Letters of Zen Master Seung Sahn. (Boston & London: Shambhala Publications, 1999), 145.
3. Ibid 146.
4. Johnston Garfield, “Buddhism and Modernity.” Smith College, Melbourne.

Introduction

Buddhism is one of the religions, which has played an important role in the history of China. This religion, which spread to China from Central Asia, moved from being an insignificant religion to enjoying widespread acceptance by many Chinese. However, the influence of Buddhism was because of the collapse of the Han dynasty in 220 AD.

Williams suggests that this collapse created a spiritual vacuum that the popular religions of the time tried to fill (131). Of all the competing religions and philosophies of the time, Buddhism was able to obtain the greatest support. This paper engages in a critical analysis of the attractions that Buddhism offered to Post-Han China.

The Han Dynasty

The Han dynasty, which existed between 206 BC, and 220AD was characterized by a centralized administration with an emperor who expanded the boundaries of China through conquest. The empire had a strong army that was used for expand the territory under the administration’s control. In the course of the Han dynasty, Confucianism influenced the structure of government and this philosophy was the most influential in society.

During this era, Central Asian missionaries who styled the religion as a sect of Daoism introduced Buddhism to China (Chey 125). In its early years, Buddhism was viewed as a foreign religion and periodic persecution of Buddhists was common in the Han dynasty (Williams 131). As such, Buddhism played an inferior role in China over the cause of the Han dynasty.

The fall of the Han was precipitated by political instability caused by conspiracies among empresses and court officials. This instability led the military to overthrow the Han dynasty in 220 AD therefore ending the four-century rule of the Han.

After the fall of the Han, most of the scholars in China abandoned the Confucian philosophy that had been followed by the Han dynasty. In its place, many followed Buddhism, which offered a number of attractions to the Chinese population.

Attraction of Buddhism

The early centuries following the collapse of the Han dynasty post were characterized by widespread chaos and violence as warlords sought to assert their dominion in various regions. In these chaotic times, Buddhism brought about some sense of order for the Chinese people. Historically, religion has been used as a means for validating the authority of the ruling class.

In the same way, Buddhism enabled the rulers to solidify their authority over their subjects (Williams 130). The religion stipulated what it entailed being a good citizen and outlined the responsibilities that the subjects had to fulfill to their rulers. Buddhism brought about a sense of identity to the people of China.

A major cause of the fall of the Han was religious rebellion, which plagued China up to the overthrow of the Han dynasty. Tang notes that post-Han dynasty China as characterized by an extended period of division and civil war (170). The absence of an organized government in China encouraged the rise of warlords who tried to establish their own rule over China.

As Buddhism spread all over the land, the Chinese people had a common ground and they could once again exhibit a sense of unity. Buddhism offered a means of personal deliverance since it was a doctrine of personal salvation. Duiker and Spielvogel suggest that the collapse of the Han Empire “had a market effect on the Chinese psyche” (312).

The Confucian principles, which had been at the core of Han leadership, came under severe challenge. Confucianism had emphasized on hard work and the giving up of individual interests for the common good. The fall of the Han dynasty suggested that these values were not solid and individuals started to seek out messianic creeds that emphasized individual effort and the supernatural or the promise of earthly or heavenly salvation.

The disunity and political fragmentation facing post-Han China made individualism appealing to most people. Williams documents that most people attempted to live in harmony with the Source of Things and if necessary alone (131). Buddhism exhorted this kind of lifestyle and it therefore gained a foothold with the society.

Individuals no longer had to concern themselves with the communal good since the religion only held them responsible for their own personal conduct. Buddhism was attractive since it did not require major cultural changes for its new Chinese converts. In its introductory years, Buddhism was presented as a Daoist sect; a fact that increased its popularity since Daoism was already well known by the Chinese.

Tang notes that for a while, there was a clash between Buddhism and Daoism due to cultural differences between the two religions (170). However, these conflicts did not last since Buddhism was able to adapt successfully. By the post-Han period, Buddhism had completely merged with traditional Chinese culture and had become a part of Chinese culture.

Kuiper confirms that the early translations of Buddhist text into Chinese utilized Daoist vocabulary, which made them easy to follow to the Chinese (119). As such, new converts did not perceive Buddhism as a religion that tried to being about a new way of living for the Chinese. Instead, Buddhism was perceived as a part of Chinese culture and the sect produced had a Chinese spirit in it (Tang 170).

Buddhism offers an emotional satisfaction that was sort after by many especially in the intellectual circles. Confucianism which had been practiced in the Han dynasty emphasized moralism and complacency. In the post-Han era, the intellectuals began to reject this ideology and sought emotional satisfaction in hedonistic pursuits and philosophical Daoism (Duiker and Spielvogel 312).

However, the hedonistic pursuits and Daoism did not satisfy the deeper emotional needs that the people continued to feel. Buddhism inspired the people through its sophisticated meditative practice and they were able to enjoy the emotional satisfaction they sort. It continued to receive inspiration from the sophisticated meditative practices of the Indian

Another attraction of Buddhism in China was its emphasis on the values of charity and compassion. The post-Han China was characterized by a lack of virtue as communities went to war against each other. Buddhism taught of the values of humanity and exhorted individuals to treat each other in a neighborly fashion.

Through the concept of Karma, Buddhism taught that a person would be punished or rewarded in their next life based on their actions in the present life (Kuiper 118). The concept of Karma, which revealed that each person determined their own destiny through their individual actions, was attractive to the Chinese who were moving to a more individualistic form of society.

The teachings of Buddhism were able to provide solace in times of sorrow in a way that the other popular beliefs could not. Chinese Buddhism taught the indestructibility of the soul and this enabled the people to bear with the hardships that war brought about (Kuiper 118).Buddhism gave the people hope of a better life in the hereafter and this made the religion appealing to the people who were undergoing turbulent times.

Buddhism taught that life was suffering and this was a reality that many Chinese could relate to. However, Buddhism revealed that if one lived a good life, then they could attain Nirvana, which is a state of eternal bliss. Buddhism provided a means for the masses to acquire a formal education. In the post-Han centuries, Buddhism established itself as a powerful intellectual force in China.

Buddhist schools from India were set up in China and monastic establishments became widespread. For this reason, Buddhism became well established among the nobles and peasantry alike since it provided a means for education. Kuiper states that this attraction of Buddhism made the Sui dynasty of 581-618 take Buddhism as the state religion (120).

Conclusion

Religion has played a major role in the development of human civilization. This paper set out to analyze the attraction of Buddhism in post-Han China. To this end, the paper has demonstrated that Buddhism was able to emerge as a sufficient substitute to Confucianism in post-Han China.

Buddhism was able to meet the needs that the Chinese people faced following the state of unrest that followed the collapse of the Han dynasty. Because of the numerous attractions that Buddhism offered, the religion was able to obtain a large following throughout China and continue to play a crucial role in Chinese society for many centuries.

Works Cited

Chey, Siew. China Condensed: 5000 Years of History & Culture. New Delhi: Marshall Cavendish, 2005

Duiker, William and Spielvogel, Jackson. Cengage Advantage Books: World History. NY: Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.

Kuiper, Kathleen. The Culture of China. Boston: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2010. Print.

Tang, Yijie. Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity, and Chinese Culture. Beijing: CRVP, 1991. Print.

Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. NY: Taylor & Francis, 2009. Print.

This paper explores the life and religious traditions of the Dalai Lama, and describes how he exemplified the Buddhism tradition. According to Smith (243), Dalai Lama was a political and religious leader of Tibet. He was selected to head the Tibet State at a very young age (16 years), but later went into exile.

Despite the numerous hardships and challenges he faced, he never gave up. He went ahead to advocate for freedom and managed to prove himself as a political and spiritual leader of the Tibet people.

Several people regard Dalai Lama as both a godly king and a living Buddha.

The increased love that Dalai Lama expressed for his people prompted him to draft several letters which he sent to different states such as Britain and America with the aim of seeking support for changing Tibet from an open State into an independent or sovereign country.

Although his plea was not accepted, this rejection did not prevent him from supporting his people. For instance, he confronted the authorities that had oppressed his people for a very long time.

Dalai Lama did not seem to care for the consequences that would follow as a result of his engagement in political activities, and was ready to engage in extremely risky activities for the sake of his people.

Quite a large number of people opted to follow Dalai Lama when he went into exile. They later helped him to form an alternative democratic government that accommodated educational and cultural institutions (Hattaway 161).

The numerous works of Dalai Lama made him to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in the year 1989. This award was mainly as a result of his establishing non-violent policies, and increasing fight for human rights in the country and other areas that had reported high cases of human rights violation.

Apart from his participation in global environmental forums, Dalai Lama was always against the use of forceful ways in resolving problems. He expounded the importance of using peaceful means in resolving conflicts and exercising mutual respect and tolerance.

His main purpose was to fight for full preservation of all forms of heritages that were valued by fellow Buddhists.

When he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, he told his people that determination, courage, and truth would help liberate the Tibet people as they continued with their struggle for liberty (Harrington and Zajonc 13).

Dalai Lama regards himself as a common Buddhist monk who is preferred by the Tibet people because of his warmth and simplicity.

According to him, it is extremely important for people to exercise compassion, love, and forgiveness even in situations that appear very difficult for an individual to practice such virtues. Most of his teachings are based on spiritual enlightenment, and increasing a person’s understanding of the purpose or meaning of life.

In addition, Dalai Lama finds it worthy for individuals to have productive qualities such as compassion, love, and an understanding of universal responsibility regardless of religious, social or political background.

Although many people view Dalai Lama as a form of Buddha reincarnation, he believes that he is just a normal human being who has chosen to become a Buddhist monk for the sole purpose of serving his people (Harrington and Zajonc 19).

It is important for people to recognize and respect the wisdom and words of Dalai Lama irrespective of whether he qualifies to be a Buddha reincarnation. This is based on the fact that Dalai Lama has gone to an extent of risking his life so as to liberate his people.

Dalai Lama’s religious tradition can be understood through quite a number of ways as discussed in the following paragraphs. Being the leader of modern Buddhism, he has managed to attract millions of people affiliated to Buddhism religion.

Over the last fifty years, Dalai Lama has made tremendous efforts in modernizing and promoting Buddhism. This has consequently resulted into a profound impact in various areas of life and especially religion.

After leaving Tibet in 1959, Dalai Lama embarked on preaching Buddhism to people from different parts of the world. Most of his religious activities were conducted in India where he had sought refuge.

While in India, he managed to establish a number of education systems commonly known as Dharma Shala. These systems were used to teach traditions practiced by the Tibet people and they were also a way of maintaining the spirit of Buddhism faith.

Dalai Lama’s religious activities reached a peak during the 1960s when he managed to visit close to sixty three nations by preaching Buddhism. By 2005, he had managed to make close to three hundred visits in different parts of the world in the course of spreading religious teachings.

Through these visits, he helped to increase the image, profile, and the general awareness of Buddhism as a religion. His religious activities have transformed Buddhism into a popular religion within the new modern world.

Several people from western nations who were previously associated with Christianity have changed to Buddhism as a result of Dalai Lama’s effort to promote and explain the importance of being part of Buddhism religion (Bradley 113).

Another significant contribution made by Dalai Lama is his endless struggle to modernize Buddhism. Through his religious activities, Dalai Lama has established an appropriate platform for developing an association between various modern issues and Buddhism philosophies.

For example, his speeches have helped people to gain a good understanding of the modern ethical issues that affect the society in a negative way. These issues include the increasing cases of abortion and other unacceptable sexual behaviors.

In regards to abortion, Dalai Lama believes that engaging in such an act is just like committing murder to the unborn child according to the teachings from Buddhism religion.

In his view, it is important for people to avoid engaging themselves in such acts because they are not merely causing the death of the unborn child; they also go against the teachings and doctrines of Buddhism religion.

In order to help understand the contribution made by Dalai Lama in religion, there is great need for individuals to understand the humanistic religion that involves various activities carried out by people from different parts of the world. (Bradley 115).

Dalai Lama believes that it is not possible for religion to pervade individual activities because it is not easy to group human life in different compartments. Historically, Dalai Lama was very open to dialogue especially when communicating to Christians. His dialogue focused on two factors.

One of the factors was associated with his stay at exile where he experienced unique state of affairs including the India’s religious pluralism. His love for religion prompted representatives of different religious traditions to welcome him during his visit to Sarnath.

It is worth to mention that Dalai Lama was not just welcomed by the members of the Buddhist religion; he was also received well by other religions including the Hindus, Muslims, and Christians. At one time, he carried out common religious functions with a catholic priest in spite of the sharp contrast between the two religions.

Dalai Lama on behalf of other Christians, the two became very close friends to an extent of conducting both interreligious and intercultural dialogues together. The second factor which enhanced his religious activities was his dialogue with another monk by the name Thomas Merton.

In some of his writings, Dalai Lama explains that the dialogue between him and Thomas greatly enhanced his attitude towards Christianity. Based on this, it is worthwhile to consider Dalai Lama as a strong link between Christianity and Buddhism.

From a religious perspective, it can be said that Thomas Merton made significant contribution in strengthening Dalai Lama’s love for religion. With the help of Thomas, Dalai Lama was able to comprehend the importance of conducting dialogues involving people from different religions.

Apart from helping individuals to have a good future, a dialogue increases ones understanding of various practices undertaken by individual religions (Mehrotra 188).

In order to facilitate dialogue, Dalai Lama identified four techniques that could be used to convey an effective dialogue.

To start with, he explained the importance of inviting scholars with different religious traditions in order to gain a good understanding of similarities and differences that exist between various philosophical traditions.

By so doing, he emphasized that it would becomes extreme easy for individuals to enrich their thinking and at the same time acquire a deeper dimension of different traditions.

Secondly, Dalai Lama explained the benefit of holding frequent meetings involving practitioners with varying religious traditions. When conducting a dialogue, it is important to involve genuine practitioners who possess a unique experience in relation to the practices involving their individual traditions.

Thirdly, Dalai Lama suggested that followers with varying traditions were supposed to comprehend the importance of conducting joint visits to the pilgrimage to provide them with an opportunity of coming together from where they can pray together and share their individual experiences.

If it becomes impossible to conduct joint prayers, the followers can opt to conduct a silent meditation.

The last technique identified by Dalai Lama focuses on the need for religious leaders to hold joint meetings or gatherings as a way of sending a powerful signal to their individual followers (Jha 85).

If the leaders are not willing to come together, it becomes extremely difficult for followers to do the same because they rely on their leaders for guidance.

According to Dalai Lama, there is no need for an individual to change his or her religion. Instead, one should try to find alternative ways that can improve his or her religious practices. For example, a Buddhist who meets with a Christian should not convert his faith into Christianity.

However, he should struggle towards becoming a better Buddhist. Although Dalai Lama is against conversions from one religion to another, many people from western countries with Christian background convert to Buddhists. This might be caused by lack of strong spiritual experience in Christianity (Bradley 18).

It is also possible that people who choose to convert to Buddhism are not in support of institutional churches. This compels them to turn into Buddhism so that they can grow their spiritual way of life.

It is vital to mention that Dalai Lama’s increased involvement in religious activities was boosted by his desire to realize a more transparent and democratic method of conducting religious successions while maintaining the reincarnation doctrine.

His love for Buddhist teachings has enabled him to identify the interdependence that exists between the surrounding natural environment and people. He believes that different aspects in life are connected to each other and as such, individuals should regard all aspects of life as being equally important (Bradley 30).

From the above discussion, it can be noted that Dalai Lama has made tremendous contribution to Buddhism religion. Although he faced numerous hardships and challenges when advocating for the freedom of the Tibet people, he never turned back. He opted to use alternative methods of liberating his people.

His contribution to the welfare of the people involved the establishment of non-violent policies, and increased fight for human rights in the country and other areas that had reported high cases of human rights violation. Dalai Lama’s continuous struggle led to the Nobel peace prize award in 1989.

His contribution to Buddhism religion was done through a number of ways such as the establishment of an appropriate platform for developing an association between various modern issues and Buddhism philosophies.

He also emphasized the importance of conducting dialogues involving scholars with different religious traditions in order to gain a good understanding of similarities and differences that existed between various philosophical traditions.

In addition, he introduced the idea of having joint visits to the pilgrimage so as to provide followers from different religions with an opportunity of coming together, praying together, and sharing their individual experiences.

Through his work, one is able to gain a good understanding of the importance of establishing or finding alternative ways of improving personal religious practices other than opting to convert to another religion. In my view, Dalai Lama has managed to exemplify Buddhism tradition in a very effective manner.

Works Cited

Bradley, Paul. This Strange Eventful History: A Philosophy of Meaning : Pairs of Thinkers in Philosophy, Religion, Science and Art. New York: Algora Pub, 2011. Print.

Harrington, Anne, and Arthur Zajonc. The Dalai Lama at Mit. Cambridge (Mass.: Harvard university press, 2006. Print.

Hattaway, Paul. Peoples of the Buddhist World: A Christian Prayer Diary. Carlisle: Piquant, 2004. Print.

Jha, Rakesh. Sociology of Peace and Nonviolence. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre, 2003. Print.

Mehrotra, Rajiv. Understanding the Dalai Lama. Carlsbad, Calif: Hay House, 2009. Print.

Smith, Warren. China’s Tibet?: Autonomy or Assimilation. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2009. Print.

Heart Sutra is one of the key sutras in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Sutras are ancient texts, which constitute Buddhist holy writings. The YouTube video “The Heart Sutra” showcases Monks of Fu Yan Buddhist Seminary of Taiwan chanting this sutra. The uploader is “bodhimonastery”, whose channel is dedicated to Buddhist Bodhi Monastery in the US state of New Jersey. Understanding the main message of Heart Sutra is essential in ascertaining the value of Buddhist teachings in modern life.

The type of event is the chanting session. It takes place in what appears to be a temple room with large stone-made Buddhist statues. Within this session, a group of equally dressed Taiwanese monks pray and sing the verses from Heart Sutra. The chanting is melodic and rhythmic, creating the impression of synchronizing with the beating of a heart. The overall atmosphere is calm, meditative, and definitely ethereal.

The sutra is chanted in Chinese, but the general message is the same regardless of the language or even the version of the verses. Pulm Village offered a translation of Heart Sutra in English (New Heart Sutra translation by Thich Nhat Hanh). This sutra follows a bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara addressing the Buddha disciple Śariputra. He speaks about the emptiness in human existence and the impossibility of knowing the ultimate truth. Accepting one’s limited understanding is the pathway to achieving Nirvana.

One of the aspects of this sutra that is worthy of note is that it exists in two versions. Another YouTube video, “How To Chant The Heart Sutra Mantra : Force For Good with Robert A.F. Thurman”, shows a Buddhist author Robert A.F. Thurman give a talk about Heart Sutra. At the start of the lecture, the professor recites this sutra with the audience, but it is shorter than the classic version chanted by the Taiwanese monks. In essence, they both communicate the same idea, achieving a similar effect even though the length, the language, and the context are different.

The first concept that has helped me understand Heart Suntra is suggested by professor Thurman. The main theme of the sutra is emptiness, yet, it should not be understood literally. Emptiness does not mean the lack of meaning and the irrelevance of the search for it. It means embracing the unknown and the infinite nature of the universe and accepting human inability to grasp it mentally.

The second idea was also discussed by professor Thurman. It revolved around the search for meaning when there is none to be found. The vastness of reality propels people to attribute importance to the issue of no significance. The professor uses the analogy of a person looking into a mirror and thinking that their reflection is a real person. This explanation has helped me understand Heart Sutra and not overthink seemingly complex concepts.

Altogether, watching the monks chant Heart Sutra has put me into a meditative state of mind, compelling me to contemplate and reflect on the nature of life. Applying professor Thurman’s insight into the Buddhist understanding of emptiness has led me to view most of the world, especially Western societies as too hasty and overrating many superficial things in life. Probably, the most powerful lesson is that just like there are phenomena beyond human understanding, there are also activities and experiences, which hold no real value. Heart Sutra shows the Buddhist way of having a life, which is harmonic with the universe.

Works Cited

“New Heart Sutra translation by Thich Nhat Hanh.” Plum Village. Web.

“How To Chant The Heart Sutra Mantra : Force For Good with Robert A.F. Thurman.” YouTube, Web.

“The Heart Sutra.” YouTube. Web.

Religious beliefs followed by people in different countries influence the particular features of their daily life significantly. The adherents of various religious movements are inclined to organize their life according to the principles proclaimed within this or that religion with the help of following different rituals and practices.

Buddhism and Daoism are two religions which are spread in the Eastern countries, and millions of people share specific beliefs and norms. In spite of the fact that Buddhism and Daoism are similar in definite beliefs and basic ideals, there are a lot of differences in these two religions which are based on the history of their development during the centuries.

Buddhism has its origin in the 6^th century BC. Siddhartha Gautama known as Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived at the territories of Nepal in the 6^th century BC, and he developed the idea that the life is full of sufferings, people are responsible for their karma because of numerous reincarnations in the wheel of life and the only way to freed themselves is to achieve nirvana as the state of the spiritual liberation or enlightenment.

Buddhists do not believe in one god, but they share the idea about divine forces. Daoism began to develop in China during the 3^rd-4^th centuries BC (Fisher, 1997). The founder of the religious movement is Laozi who stated the main principles of Daoism in his texts. The foundational spiritual beliefs of Daoism are the idea of Tao as the search for the right way in order to achieve the universal harmony, the idea of reincarnation and eternal soul, and the principle of the life good for everyone (Ford, 2003).

Thus, Buddhism and Daoism are characterized by similar features and significant differences in spiritual beliefs and principles. The adherents of both the religions share the idea of reincarnation and spiritual development as the way to improve living (Fisher, 1997). However, if Buddhists are inclined to focus on karma and sufferings as inevitable features of the impermanent life, Daoists discuss life as perfect in its nature and a man as the main source of all difficulties (Zeng, 2012).

Nevertheless, Buddhists and Daoists concentrate of feeding themselves while achieving nirvana or finding the right way although many followed principles are rather different in their details. People can follow the principles of certain religions while practicing specific spiritual rituals. Buddhists focus on such spiritual practices as meditation and concentration to avoid anger and delusion and to achieve nirvana as the liberation from the earthly life.

In their turn, Daoists concentrate on finding the harmony with the nature while seeking for Tao. During their search, Daoists visit temples and shrines, focus on the worshipping deities. Today, Buddhists pay much attention to meditation as it was centuries ago, and Daoists focus more on philosophical ideas of Daoism in combination with visiting shrines.

Globally, Buddhists organize groups for meditation and realize pilgrimages with the help of which they spread the ideas of liberation from sufferings. Many Buddhists try to avoid luxury as well as poverty (Thelle, 2011). Daoists focus on the culture of temples where they proclaim the philosophical principles of happy living in harmony (Fisher, 1997).

Many Daoists choose the aspects of the rural life in order to be closer to the nature and find Tao. Although Buddhism and Daoism have different origins and basic principles, many specific features associated with the ideas of morality and spiritual development of the human are similar for both the religions.

References

Fisher, M. (1997). Living religions: An encyclopaedia of the world’s faiths. USA: I.B.Tauris.

Ford, R. (2003). Daoism and Chinese culture. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 123(2), 408-409.

Thelle, N. (2011). The “humanization” of Buddhism: Aspects of Western adaptations of Buddhism. Ching Feng, 10(2), 67-79.

Zeng, W. (2012). The different views on life between Daoism and Destructive Cult. Asian Social Science, 8(13), 264-268.