Category: Buddhism

Introduction

The tradition beliefs in China such as Confucianism and Buddhism have played a major role in influencing the political, social, and economical activities in china (Mountunion.edu, 2011).

The following paper will look into various ways in which these two institutions have played towards impacting the culture of the Chinese nation (Mountunion.edu, 2011); but first let us briefly discuss what both Confucianism and Buddhism really entails.

Confucianism is one of the Chinese moral and philosophical system that has been derived from the major teachings and ideas of the Chinese philosopher known as Kong Fuzi, popularly known as “ Master Kong” (Mountunion.edu, 2011).

This particular institution is a very developed system in which all aspects of culture including “social, political and economic, philosophical and quasi religious” have been incorporated in such a way to influence the way of life on some of regions in East Asia (Mountunion.edu, 2011).

Additionally, Confucianism is a very broad institution that has traditionally been spread in Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Taiwan among several other countries that Chinese people have inhabited (Mountunion.edu, 2011).

Buddhism on the other hand is one of the main religions in Asia and some part of East Asia that has incorporated multiplicity of traditions and cultural practices which have been greatly influenced by Siddhartha Gautama who is also popularly known as Buddha.

Buddhism has been classified into two major categories, namely; “the school of the elders” (Theravada) and “the great vehicle” (Mahayana) (Ling, 2005). Theravada is much distributed in Southeast Asia while Mahayana is also widely distributed in most parts of East Asia.

However, despite the fact that Buddhism is popularly known in Asia, it also has widely spread all around the world with a population of more than five million followers (Ling, 2005).

Discussion

Confucius and culture of China

Confucius is arguably said to have been very popular and famous individual who was also much respected in China; because of his great and influential ideas, Confucius therefore happened to be a very prominent individual from early time of 100 BC until the start of 20^th Century (Ling, 2005).

Because of his influential personality and his utopian ideas that greatly caused changes of the society to function better and improve tremendously in many sectors, the Chinese administration made it official to honor Confucius as one of the greatest philosopher and for these reasons his theories and ideas have always been highly regarded.

Among the many teaching that Confucius gave his disciples, up to today are always recorded for enlightening and educating other people in China. “The analects” contains variety of educational materials that has always been used in educating Chinese people about morality and literature (Ling, 2005).

Additionally, Confucius lived a life full of honesty and integrity and because of that he was admired by his many followers (Ling, 2005); therefore if his ideas and teaching can be applied in the modern China they can positively contribute to a better Chinese culture.

Due to his great personality, Confucius was also instrumental in influencing issues of religion and those related to slavery. Because of the positive life lived by Confucius, his ideologies made a lot of positive changes to moral issues in the society as well in the field of religion where he contributed significantly in designing religion doctrines that are observed up to date.

Besides, his ideologies also has contributed greatly to abolition of slavery life practices and influenced the civilization by feudalism which exists up to date. Due to his great influence, his ideologies are celebrated today and widely practiced and are now regarded as cultural heritage by the Chinese people.

Confucius and politics of china

Confucianism is not a religion but rather a system of complex ideas and beliefs that’s has influenced the Chinese politics in many ways; due to the great personality of Confucius, his immense ideas and positivist life has remained very influential in the administrative policies of China.

Confucius ideologies for instance has influenced abolition of slavery and creation of feudal governance which have been applied by the Chinese administration to encourage better governance and facilitate improved democracy and more accountability within the government (freehostingguru.com, 2011).

Confucianism political theory which states that, “the legitimate ruler derives authority from heaven’s command, or the mandate of heaven” (Freehostingguru.com, 2011) can be applied in the contemporary society and governance issue to make the people respect authority because it is bestowed by from heaven.

Besides, this ideology influences the way of life of political leaders and since it asserts that leaders should not be motivated by self desires to rule but should instead be bold and charismatic enough for them to be good leaders (Freehostingguru.com, 2011).

Additionally, Confucius argues that people should elect leaders who are role model of the society; this way leaders with integrity can be elected who are able to prevent issues of corruption, promote peace and enhance positive leadership that will promote development as well as motivating the youths who are the leaders of tomorrow (Freehostingguru.com, 2011).

Confucianism and economical influence of China

Confucius was a very prominent person who encouraged people to have ideal morals and be active for well being of the society; in addition, Confucius was an activist who campaigned for “active participation in business” arguing that this was the best way to increase productivity and eradicate poverty (Freehostingguru.com, 2011).

This idea is no doubt very positive to the society and its application can promote economical development to both individuals and the country at large. Additionally, Confucius also advocated that, leaders and rules such as Kings should stop exploiting their citizens but rather utilize them for sustainability which is more important in building the future (Freehostingguru.com, 2011).

This advocacy is equally essential in any society since the issue of sustainability is always meant to ensure better future. Therefore if China can furnish its society with these ideas, there will always sustainable economic growth.

Confucius also believed that a society with large population had better chances of survival than a society with a small population (Freehostingguru.com, 2011). This is because a large population had the ability to generate huge human resource which is very important for economical development and can totally eliminate issues to do with insufficient labor in industries (Freehostingguru.com, 2011).

Today, china is among the most highly populated country in the world and they are also among the most developed economies in the world as well. With this large population, China has been able to fully utilize its population in having more labor in industries that has greatly improved its economic production.

Buddhism and cultural influence in China today

Buddhism was significantly appreciated and was generally accepted by the Chinese people since its invention and it is considered as keystone that led to “chinalization” due to its “open-mindedness” and because of the fact that it became universal among the Chinese people (Ling, 2005). For this reasons, Buddhism is popular followed in China and has contributed to the growth of the Chinese culture up to date.

Upon its introduction, Buddhism contributed very much to improvement of the Chinese literature and art from the onset. During these early times, Buddhist attitude towards literature was positive resulting in tremendous growth of literature which made it become popular among the Chinese people.

Indeed, Buddhism ideologies and theories have been very influential in improving Chinese literature and application of these ideologies can be very effective in development of resourceful, unique and stylish literature.

In addition, Buddhist also contributed to growth of art because of its influential music such as “Buddhist chant” which became very popular upon introduction of Buddhism religion (Ling, 2005). Therefore, adoption and application of this kind of music by the Chinese people can contribute to diversification of their culture since music is an

important aspect of Chinese custom (Ling, 2005). Furthermore, Buddhists do not eat meat due to their belief that animals are specials creatures and for this reason Buddhist are strictly vegetarians.

Today, there are so many diseases which have come about as a result of poor eating habits especially that are caused by consumption of red meat; this means that acceptance of this culture can positively influence the society towards healthier eating and thereby prevent diseases such as cancer and diabetes among others.

Besides, vegetables are healthy food components and very nutritious; unlike meat, vegetables contribute to strong body immunity system.

Buddhism and politics of china

Additionally, Buddhism believes very much in social action (Pannasha, 2011); therefore in a society full of corruption and poor leadership, Buddhism advocates for socials actions as a way of addressing social injustices. According to Buddhism, society should be managed in justice manner and without this, people should be ready to advocate for their freedom and liberty in their country.

The idea of mass action is resourceful to the Chinese people in fighting for their rights whenever oppressed or even deprived by their government (Pannasha, 2011).

According to Buddhism, there are three major source of misery in the society, namely; “greed, delusion and hatred” (Pannasha, 2011); these three major issues also happen to be the tenets of capitalist system.

According to Buddhist, such practices should not be allowed to dominate the politics of any ideal society and the only solution is social actions so as to eradicate such malpractices in the society for a better and civilized country. These ideas are essential towards social change and applicable in China politics in driving of the necessary social change (Pannasha, 2011).

Buddhism influence on economy of china

Buddhism is not only good in advocating for culture and politics, but it has some positive implications in terms of economical development as well. Arguably, Buddhism is popularly known for campaigning against poverty and unequal wealth distribution in the society which had served to promote equality in the economy.

Basically, there are three major principles in Buddhism religion which extensively describes the right steps towards achieving economical development and which can be applicable in China and the world at large for economical development.

These three principles are; Utthana Sampada, Arakkha Sampada, and Samajivikata and are very essential to economical stability and development as discussed below (Pannasha, 2011).

Uttahana Sampada is the first principle which also refers to “production of wealth through skilled and earnest endeavor” (Pannasha, 2011); this principle primarily highlights that there are six major areas that any community should really focus in order to develop economically.

However, among the six, there are three major categories which are very essential in enlightening the society for economical development; these are “agriculture, trade and government services” which are described as the most important with Buddhism emphasizing more on agriculture since it is the cornerstone of the economy for food production (Pannasha, 2011).

The Arakkha Sampada, is the second principle which put emphasize on “saving and protection” (Pannasha, 2011); according to this principle, the only formula to being successful in terms of economical development is through proper savings and investing in sectors that promote national economy and also by effective utilization of the national resources for sustainability in the society.

Buddhist also encourage giving of loans that empower individual persons or State and thereby promote their economical growth (Pannasha, 2011). The third principle known as Sanmjivikata, advocates for individuals, private sectors and the State to live within their means (Pannasha, 2011); this formula according to the ideologies of Buddhism is the most important in reducing over spending or under spending which consequently causes unequal distribution of resources resulting to poverty.

As such, Buddhist argues that it is only right for individuals to live within their means by spending right percentage of their income which is “neither too much nor too little” (Pannasha, 2011).

These three principles are no doubt the most influential in sustainability and development of many world economies in the world today and the basic principle of attaining financial stability. This means that application of this idea in the contemporary society could be a solution to economic issues of many people.

Reference

Ling, H. 2005. Buddhism in China. Beijing. China intercontinental pres Freehostingguru.com ,2011. Confucianism. [Online] (Updated 2009) Available at: http://confucianism.freehostingguru.com/

Mountunion.edu. (2011). Buddhism Vs Confucius. [Online] (Updated 2011) Web.

Pannasha, V. 2011. The Buddhist Way to Economic Stability. [Online] (Updated 2011) Available at: http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma5/ecostability.html

Introduction

Hinduism and Buddhism are the major religions in India. The religions enjoy a huge following and have very many specific beliefs that guide their followers. Buddhism is the development of Hinduism. Thus it contains some beliefs that can be compared to Hinduism.

Despite this, its beliefs take a different direction in some instances. The two religions share similar beliefs regarding the concept of rebirth and Samsara, although differences exist when the two concepts are considered beyond the surface. In Hinduism, the Upanishads and ancient Vedic hymns describe a universal deity known as Brahman. Being considered omnipresent, this deity conveys a sense of immanence.

Similarities

The concept of Samsara is a Hinduism belief relating to what happens to humans after death. Thus, it seeks to describe how humans exist in a continuous cycle of reincarnation. This concept has its origins in the Vedas, an old scripture of Hinduism. This scripture was produced between 500BCE and 1500. Samsara refers to the processor rebirth whereby the individual is reincarnated in a succession of lives.

This is based on karma, defined as a metaphysical record of an individual’s moral worth. Thus, a person is reincarnated based on their moral behavior in life. Individuals are expected to behave as expected by religious doctrines so that they can have good karma and not bad karma. Bad karma can only assure an individual that they will be reincarnated as an animal, or in a form that suits their character.

The word Samsara means, ‘To flow together,’ showing how the cycles depend and follow each other. Hinduism considers this rebirth as a curse and not a blessing. Thus, it is seen as a chance for the individual who is reborn to cultivate their spirituality so that they can be released from the Samsara.

In Hinduism, Samsara is compared to the caste system or Varna. In this regard, an individual can eradicate their karma and be born into a higher caste system. This means that their duty in life can change as they advance into different castes. Achieving a higher caste would also mean that the individual is closer to Moksha. The individual can then realize union with Brahman. This is where the individual can exit the cycle of rebirth.

Thus, individuals within the lower caste have more requirements to realize union with Brahman. Samsara can also be compared to how Buddhists view rebirth. Buddhists also believe in karma. A difference exists in that according to Buddhists, karma results in reincarnation into one of six types of beings.

These are demigods, hungry ghosts, humans, gods, animals, and hell-bound beings. Humans are the only beings that can achieve a state of Nirvana. Thus they can exit the cycle of death just as it is in Hinduism. Moreover, ignorance is also vanquished during this phase.

In both Hinduism and Buddhism, the followers consider an exit from rebirth as the ultimate goal. Living entails following all the requirements of religion. This means that the individual lives a religious life all through. Moreover, the individual should play a role in society as expected by religion. While a Hindu’s main goal is to escape Samsara by fulfilling its requirements, a Buddhist seeks to escape karma by detaching from it.

Buddha is attributed to have discovered how to take the shortcut for achieving enlightenment while beneath the Bodhi tree. In Hinduism, the ultimate goal of life is not to achieve an increasing form of rebirth. Instead, the goal is to escape Samsara entirely. This is where the soul is reunited with Brahman. The means to this end is defined as yoga or yoke. The concept behind this idea is that the individual ‘yokes’ themselves to the divine.

Siddhartha Gautama is considered as one of the Buddhas who have been able to live over time. In Buddhism, he is commonly referred to as ‘The Buddha.’ Thus, he has been distinguished from the others because he taught Dharma to the believers. Those who have come after Siddhartha are considered to be Arhats since they had the advantage of Siddhartha’s teachings to guide them, which other Buddhas did not have.

Siddhartha, in his teachings, was able to describe how the individual can reach enlightenment. After death, the person will have reached a level known as Parinirvana.

This is where life and death meet in a state of immortality. This period is characterized by the spiritual joy that exists in eternity. It is now that the individual becomes a full Buddha or Arhat. Despite this, an individual can still delay reaching this stage by helping others to achieve the same state. Thus the individual becomes a Bodhisattva.

The views the subscribers of religion have on their religion also guide how they conduct themselves in real life. Both Buddhism and Hinduism are primary religions in India. They differ significantly from Christianity, Judaism, and Islam in their opinions about animals. Both religions share this major similarity. Being a religion based on polytheism, Hinduism has many traditions that exist within it. Hindus do not have a single view of animals.

Moreover, many Hindu gods are in the shape of animals, for instance, the Hanuman who takes the shape of a monkey. Such animals are not to be harmed, but they are to be protected by the Indian law. Moreover, other Indians are vegetarians because of the concept of Ahisma. Both Hindus and Buddhists believe that animals will be reincarnated, as well, because they have souls just as humans do.

Hinduism and Buddhism also hold that humans can be reincarnated into animals and vice versa because both are considered to be in the same plane of reincarnation. Moreover, humans are regarded as being at the apex of what life is about. Thus, reincarnation into an animal results from negative karma and an unhappy state.

Buddhists believe that both humans and animals have ‘Buddha nature,’ which means they have the potential to reach enlightenment. Being born an animal is regarded as bad since it becomes harder to improve an individual’s karma and achieve enlightenment. Thus, both religions view animals in a complex manner.

Differences

It has been argued that Buddhism, in itself, is not a religion, but a philosophy. However, this can be considered as a semantic issue that is dependent on how a person views religion. Moreover, Buddhism also lacks the concept of god. This also depends on a person’s definition of ‘god.’

Unlike other religions, Buddhism does not create a separation between creations and the creator. Instead, it considers the process of creation as an independent one. Buddhism also teaches that the ‘gods’ also go through the process of life and death. They also move towards the transcendence of death. However, for many Buddhists, the Buddha is considered as a personal deity.

In contrast to Hinduism, the Buddhism doctrine ‘Anatman’ advances the thought that the self does not exist. Thus, all the feelings that an individual possesses are illusions. This illusion creates a desire for something, resulting in karma. According to Buddhist beliefs, denial of the self leads to nirvana.

This is where karma is no longer produced, and there is a state of non-existence. Thus, karma results from a specific activity occurring in human life. This depends on the decisions a person makes and how they conduct themselves in daily life. In Buddhism, recognizing the illusionary aspects of life is important.

According to Buddhist teachings, every physical or spiritual thing that binds a person can be overcome. Thus, life and death, as well as karma, cannot bind one at all. It is easy to surpass life and death through the practice of Buddhism. It is also important to practice personal meditation, an element that is missing in Hinduism. According to Buddhism, true understanding can be achieved without teachings or Scripture but through practice.

Thus, Buddhism is set apart from Hinduism because it does not rely on the teachings from Scripture for an individual to achieve enlightenment. Scripture can only be used as a guide, but it cannot guarantee enlightenment unless the individual works towards its achievement.

Hinduism is a religion that is characterized by giving oneself to the teachings of Brahman. In Hinduism, this is known as Bhakti. In religion, it is a difficult task to pray to an absolute being that is impersonal because it is considered formal and lacks a distinction from itself. This is the reason for the existence of many gods and deities within the Hindu religion. For instance, the Shiva statues in ancient India were used for personal worship.

Thus, the worship persisted during the Vedic period and with the advent of writing. These writings were able to popularize spiritual devotion and knowledge. This was done using legends and myths that shaped national events.

The writings were attributed to the growth of Hinduism in a period when Buddhism was also gaining followers, although it did not recognize the Vedas. It is evident that Hinduism relied on such scriptures for growth. Some of the readings are known as the Puranas, while others are called the Epics. These religious texts portray the Supreme Being as a human being or human-like supreme beings in various forms.

The concepts in Hinduism are transformed into their usage and meaning when it comes to Buddhism. This is what has led to the many differences that arise, causing Buddhism to be viewed as a religious form of Hinduism.

In some forms of Buddhism like Mahayana, which exists in East Asia, the followers believe that there is an eternal Buddha born of a virgin. Some beliefs also teach that individuals who are enlightened can survive death and maintain their physical selves even after death. There is also special heaven called pure land where the Amitabha Buddha resides.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the underlying goal in both Hinduism and Buddhism is that the spiritual individual will be liberated from the cycle of life and death. Thus, there is also a detachment from the karma that guides the process. Both religions are characterized by various similarities because Buddhism can trace its origins to Hinduism. The religions also have differences when it comes to the belief systems applied.

Bibliography

Coogan, Michael David, and Vasudha Narayanan. Eastern Religions: Origins, Beliefs, Practices, Holy Texts, Sacred Places. Oxford: New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Lecture. “Hinduism”: modern (1800s) umbrella term for diverse traditions. 9/24/13 Lecture. Mahayana Buddhism. 10/1/13

Lecture. Recap: the Buddha Story. 9/26/13 Lecture. The Hindu (Buddhist) universe moves through cycles of creation & destruction and lack of creator god. 9/19/13

Lewis-Highcorrell, Donald. Witch School Second Degree: Lessons in the Correllian Tradition. Woodbury: Llewellyn Publications, 2008.

Trainor, Kevin. Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Siddhartha Gautama, who is also known as Buddha, once said, “Anger will never disappear so long as thoughts of resentment are cherished in the mind.” This statement holds a lot of truth in it when it is analyzed psychologically. Anger is a psychological problem that starts in the mind. It always occur when one has some sense of resentments in the mind, either because one feels shortchanged or a feeling that something did not go as per the expectations.

The mind will be disturbed as one tries to imagine how the incident took place, and why it happened the way it did, and not in the manner desired. This will create a lot of disturbance in the mind. The mind will not settle as such an individual would be trying to reflect on why the incident took place the way it did. Recent psychologists have confirmed that anger is always a reflection of the mind’s status. Depending on the level in which the mind is not at peace, anger will always be reflected in various forms.

Understanding the nature of anger would demand that one knows factors that affect the mind. Scientists have demonstrated that the mind controls all the activities of an individual. Anger is a sign that an individual is not pleased with an act of another individual or a given process. It is a sign that the mind is not at peace with that a particular person or process. This distress in the mind wills illicit anger.

Depending on how massive the disturbance is in the mind, the resentment may take a shorter or longer time to be eliminated from one’s mind. As long as the resentment still exists, the anger will persist. Various factors will determine how long the resentment will last. For instance, when an individual is constantly exposed to the source of the distress, the resentment may take a longer time to disappear. This may be a case where one’s property is taken by another, but due to corrupt legal system, one is unable to recover the property.

When the property is taken away to a place the original owner will not be able to see it frequently, it is possible that this owner may overcome the resentment after a while and he or she may eliminate the anger. However, when the property is constantly at his or her sight, the thought that the property was once his or hers will keep the resentment burning.

When the resentment in the mind is kept alive, it is almost impossible to eliminate anger. This is because anger is a manifestation of resentment. It is an indication that the mind still refuses the fact that a given event happened in a way that is just. When one resents something or someone, there will develop a feeling that one should act in a manner that will be considered as settling the score.

When one develops such a feeling, then anger cannot disappear until the score is settled. The feeling can only disappear either when one forgets the incident, or when one feels that some form of justice has been served. As Buddha puts it, anger can only disappear when the feeling of resentment disappears. This is because when resentment is eliminated, the root cause of anger shall be eliminated.

The origins of Mahayana Buddhism are still unknown; neither their date nor their place of birth is known, and it is most likely that the movement evolved over time and in several locations. According to popular belief, it was established in India and is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Enlightened Supreme Buddha (Pandey, 2021). It is difficult to evaluate the early Mahayana since most depictions have been greatly influenced by modern sectarian movements and because the holy scriptures most revered by subsequent activities may not always be the manuscripts that best record the growth in its formative years (Loy, 2019). Mahayana Buddhism is a movement little known to the average person, so it is important to tell people about the values that representatives of this branch of Buddhism represent.

Theological Development of the Community

The most significant branch of Buddhism, known as Mahayana, is what most non-followers today refer to as “Buddhism” because of its ideas and traditions. Following the Second Buddhist Council in 383 BCE, when the Sthaviravada branch split from the Buddhist communities due to doctrinal disagreements, the Mahasanghika (“Great Congregation”) school emerged (Silk, 2020). The Mahasanghika branch of Buddhism was just one of many various Buddhist schisms that resulted from this first split.

The assertion that Mahayana evolved from Mahasanghika is backed not only by the terms’ resemblance but also by knowledge of the Mahasanghika beliefs that Mahayana adopted later. Mahasanghika disagreed with the Sthaviravada viewpoint that the main objective of the Buddha’s message was for each individual to achieve spiritual completeness, contending that an arhat was no more superior to any other human being and lacked any supernatural abilities or perceptions. An arhat, according to the Mahasanghika school, was merely a spiritual ascetic who followed Buddha’s vision as their path to enlightenment rather than one of the many alternatives that were popular at the time.

Their emphasis on the significance of the bodhisattva was the primary distinction between Mahayana and other schools. The goal of one’s journey to awareness was to help the entire world, not just oneself. After becoming woke, it was incumbent upon each person to help others become enlightened. Mahayana views the Buddha as an immortal, transcendental entity who is either limitless or has such a long existence that he may as well be. Spiritual merit, which moves one closer to become a bodhisattva, is granted for acknowledging this realization and committing oneself to follow in the footsteps of the Buddha (Silk, 2020). Then appeared Sakyamuni, who was like Buddha, and the other individuals, both before and after him, according to Mahayana.

The Use of Sacred Texts and Rituals

The Mahayana sutras are a large body of Buddhist literature that different Mahayana groups recognize as canonical. One hundred Mahayana sutras are still in existence, either in existing Sanskrit texts or in adaptations into Chinese and Tibetan. The Mahayana sutras are commonly seen by Mahayana Buddhists as having been trained by Gautama Buddha, memorized by his followers, and recounted as a result (Lee & Oh, 2019). They are seen as symbolizing the natural language of the Buddha during his exile after his parinirvana. Rather than being supported by historical data, this assertion is dependent on oral tradition. According to some conventional accounts of the Mahayana sutras’ dissemination, the Buddha definitely had several of its sections written down. Nagas are serpent-like mythical creatures that live in another dimension of existence.

According to these tales, the Mahayana teachings were only revealed later since the majority of people in the Buddha’s time could not comprehend the Mahayana sutras. Therefore, there had not yet been any humans who were a good fit for receiving these teachings. Some teachers hold that regardless of whether they are precisely the provable words of the historical Buddha or not, all directions that flow from the essential understanding of Buddha represent the Buddha’s speech. Even in the Pali Canon, there is confirmation for this viewpoint in the scriptures. The benefit of the entire teachings found in the Mahayana sutras has been compared to a loose collection of varied, occasionally incompatible teachings (Lee & Oh, 2019). As a consequence, it is difficult to make generalizations about the Mahayana doctrine.

The concept of the Bodhisattva path is fundamental to the Mahayana sutras, yet it is not exclusive to them. The Mahayana elaboration of this concept is unusual in that it uses the term “bodhisattva” to refer to anyone who has the desire to become a Buddha and does not require that this desire be created or expressed in front of a living Buddha. The Mahayana sutras also assert that everybody who reads and pays attention to these teachings has already gained the name of a bodhisattva from a real Buddha or will do so very soon (Lee & Oh, 2019). The Mahayana sutras emphasize “the acquisition of merit, the global currency of the Buddhist universe, a huge quantity of which was considered to be essential for the achievement of Buddhahood” as the primary practice. The Mahayana sutras themselves must be heard, memorized, recited, preached, copied, and worshipped in order to earn merit according to these sutras.

Social and Architectural Community Building

There are numerous different ways to practice modern Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. The majority of Buddhists worldwide are found in this group. In the past, the majority of temples, organizations, and Buddhist practitioners typically drew from a variety of diverse aspects of Chinese Buddhist theory and practice rather than belonging to any particular system (Bocking et al., 2014). Buddhists, or people who practice Buddhism, gather to worship in monasteries or temples. They have included buildings referred to in various areas and dialects as vihara, chaitya, stupa, wat, and pagoda. In Buddhism, temples stand in for the Buddha’s serene environment or country.

Chinese Buddhism as a whole has maintained this non-sectarian and eclectic quality in the present course. Organizations and temples in the Chinese Buddhist community have been impacted by the modernization of an ideology known as humanistic Buddhism. A sort of religious syncretism between Chinese Buddhism and other Chinese religions, such as Taoism, may also be practiced by Chinese Buddhists. The reform and opening-up era in late 20th-century contemporary China witnessed a notably significant rise in the number of Chinese Buddhist adherents (Bocking et al., 2014). Chinese Buddhism is also practiced outside of mainland China in Taiwan and other places where there are Chinese diaspora populations.

The Jogye Order and the Taego Order are the two prominent representatives of the Korean Seon school of Buddhism in Korea. Pure Land techniques are also incorporated into Korean Seon. About 10 million Buddhists live in South Korea, where it is primarily embraced (Bocking et al., 2014). There are also a few lesser-known architectural institutions, like the esoteric Jingak and Chinn schools, the Cheontae, and others. Numerous traditions of Japanese Buddhism exist, including diverse branches of Pure Land Buddhism, Tendai, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, and Zen. In the years following World War II, various new Japanese religions with a Mahayana focus emerged (Bocking et al., 2014). Lay initiatives like Soka Gakkai and Agon Shu make up many of the new beliefs. It should be mentioned that a significant number of Japanese Buddhists engage in Shinto rituals and activities, including going to shrines, gathering amulets, and witnessing celebrations.

The Formation of Hierarchical Structures within the Community

A number of hierarchical systems that have shaped the church’s structure have emerged during the historical evolution of Buddhism. The most critical two-level conceptual hierarchy of “Teacher-Student” appeared first (McRae, 2018). Systems of hierarchies that controlled the Mahayana Buddhist community’s structural stability had various points of origin and significance. Their focuses changed over the course of historical eras that placed varying amounts of emphasis on things like education levels or the establishment of reincarnated lamas. These hierarchies occasionally showed correlation, but they also frequently deviated.

The “Teacher-student” hierarchy evolved naturally into a hierarchy based on levels of spiritual development. Buddhist literature offers a thorough explanation of this system, illustrating the steps taken by the disciple from the start of the road to awakening. It should be remembered, though, that there is no set standard for spiritual perfection. A single person’s placement in a particular stage of this hierarchy is typically decided by social consensus after the qualities outlined in the texts are generally identified by the expert himself at a sufficiently high level of progression (McRae, 2018). Nevertheless, this scale is essential for creating a social order despite its conventionality. In the view of its adherents, the community’s organization has validity because it rewards members for their spiritual accomplishments.

Gender Roles within and outside the Religious Center

It is a revolutionary phenomenon for Buddhism to witness the rise of female monasticism. The establishment of female monastic communities helped raise the status of women in Asian nations. In the years that followed, the Buddha’s proclamation of gender equality began to take shape. Mahayana Buddhism does not discriminate against women or men since it acknowledges the relativity and prudishness of gender differences (Pandey, 2021). The Mahayana teachings on the Buddha, who is present in everyone, regardless of gender, helped to elevate the standing of women in religion. In the Mahayana paradigm, the bodhicitta idea is crucial. It is predicated on the idea that all organisms were mothers to all other living things during their different incarnations in samsara. The connection between kindness and care and the concept of a mother highlights the important place that women play in Mahayana Buddhism. Women now have equal opportunity to become enlightened thanks to the tantric Mahayana tradition.

It is well acknowledged that the Buddha valued women and advocated for the equality of all individuals, regardless of their position in society, caste, color, or gender. The Buddha was also the first to organize a female monastic society, which went on to become the first female institution in the world and has been around (Pandey, 2021). Women received a more significant religious position as a result than non-specialists. It is well known that the Buddha did not discount the possibility of a woman reaching significant levels of spiritual practice, including the arhat state.

The Buddha did not, however, decide to locate a female monastery community right away, and it was only after repeated pleas from women that he decided to educate the nuns. It was a result of the challenges the monks faced. The early Buddhist monks led a life of begging; except for a few monastic items, they had nothing, and they sometimes even remained alone or in small groups. They had to walk great miles begging for alms in order to find nourishment. It was difficult for them to defend themselves against wolves or robbers because they lacked weapons and adhered to the philosophy of non-violence. It was significantly more complicated for women to lead a monastic life in these conditions.

The Mahayana paradigm elevated women’s spiritual standing. It does not discriminate against women or men and acknowledges the relativism and prudishness of gender distinctions. The voidness of all things is argued in the prajnaparamita cycle sutras, which are significant in the Mahayana canon (Pandey, 2021). They also contend that all ideologies, including those based on gender, are empty and conventional. Women’s religious standing was also influenced by the Mahayana teachings on tathagatagarbha, or the Buddha’s nature that resides within everyone, regardless of gender.

Summary

Mahayana Buddhism’s beginnings are still a mystery; neither its beginning nor its location is known, and it is most likely that the movement developed over time and in several locations. The majority of representations have been greatly influenced by the goals of contemporary sectarian movement patterns, and the religious texts most highly regarded by later groups may not necessarily be the texts that best capture the movement in its formative years, making it even more challenging to assess the early Mahayana. The Mahayana sutras, a body of literature that was originally written some four centuries after the Buddha’s passing, are the tradition’s earliest sources. The Mahayana tradition of Buddhism is known for its respect for and tolerance of women. Instances of the perception of women as full members of society are female monastic institutions.

References

Bocking, B., Cox, L., & Yoshinaga, S. I. (2014). The first Buddhist mission to the West: Charles Pfoundes and the London Buddhist mission of 1889–1892. Diskus, 16(3), 1-33. Web.

Lee, K. C., & Oh, A. (2019). Introduction to human view intervention: A Buddhist counseling technique based on Mahāyāna Buddhist teachings. Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health, 21(2), 132-151. Web.

Loy, D. R. (2019). Nonduality: In Buddhism and beyond. Simon and Schuster. Web.

McRae, E. (2018). Suffering and the six perfections: Using adversity to attain wisdom in Mahāyāna Buddhist ethics. The Journal of Value Inquiry, 52(4), 395-410. Web.

Pandey, R. (2021). Growth and Development of Buddhism. Web.

Silk, J. A. (2020). Origins of the Mahāyāna. Indo-Iranian Journal, 63(4), 371-394. Web.

Introduction

Buddhism and Christianity are religions that have shaped the moral stature and beliefs of numerous individuals. Buddhism is a creed that entails beliefs and teachings that advocate for the purity of actions through restraint of pleasures. This religion stems from the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama who lived around the fifth century BCE (Hopfe & Woodward 2009).

The Buddhist notion states that an individual that engages in the worldly delights is not firm enough to resist inducement by the devil. Unlike him is the individual that manages his desires and renounces worldly bliss, it emphasizes that such persons are not easy to tumble to temptation.

According to Hopfe and Woodward (2009), Christianity is a religion, which its adherents believe in the existence of His son who is Jesus. They consider Jesus as the link between them and their creator who is his father.

Christians acknowledge the bile as the paramount book that contains the principles by which they should conform. In furtherance of this, it is obligatory for a Christian to practice the ideals that the Bible highlights. This is the largest religion and comprises of various denominations, for example, the Roman Catholic Church and Protestantism (Ingram 2008).

Similarities of Buddhism and Christianity

According to Kumar (2003), Christians commonly regard themselves as the embodiment of the form of God and hence consider themselves equivalent. Buddhism shares this thought and believes that acknowledges the impartiality of the humans but attributes this equality to different reasons. Buddhism stresses that every individual is capable of attaining “Nirvana” which is the point of supreme purity, which will render everyone identical.

These similarities highlight the concept that governs the religions stating that no individual is above reproach in the perspective of religion(Hopfe & Woodward 2009). The privileged persons of society such as presidents and the rich have similar chances in comparison to the destitute persons. Secondly, Christians adhere to the principles of the Ten Commandments as a instruction manual to administer their daily duties and their relations to other persons (Kumar 2003).

The Buddhists embrace a similar precept that entail five chief guidelines that control the human relations consisting of refrain from terminating life, desist from taking that that is not given, refrain from adultery, desist from lying and not to engage in act that induce temptation. The factors that these guidelines propose are similar to the Ten Commandments that exist in the Christian literature.

According to Ingram (2008), Christians believe that adherence to the Christian principles can guarantee them a place in heaven. They deem firm observance of the doctrine, its proponents will lead to betterment of an individual’s life, and his virtuous deeds are replicated by good fortunes. This means that execution of the Christian guidelines positively influences the individual’s environment.

Buddhism embrace a similar perception, since it accentuates that pursuance of virtuous endeavors will initiate a pattern through which the individual will experience good deeds in return(Ingram 2008). The continuous implementation of good actions leads to an individual’s rebirth and eventually one is able to reach “Nirvana”. This term describes the pinnacle point of self-realization and knowledge, which individuals attain after engaging in virtuous acts(Hopfe & Woodward 2009).

Differences of Buddhism and Christianity

Buddhists do not recognize the existence of God and perceive his existence as being irrelevant to an individual’s belief and perceptions. According to Hopfe & Woodward (2009), they believe that a person’s willingness is paramount to guarantee the acquisition of the pure state, which is the Nirvana.

Contrary to this, Christians appreciate the existence of God and acknowledge Him as their path to perpetual life and enjoyment in the confines of heaven. Secondly, Jesus was declaring his divinity during his sermons and held to this until His demise. Jesus also did resurrect from death after enduring torturous intimidation and crucifixion.

According to Kumar (2003), Buddha never considered himself divine but as an equal to all other persons. In addition, Buddha died similar to all mortal beings unlike Jesus who experienced reincarnation (Hopfe & Woodward 2009). Although both religions advocate for the implementation of similar notions, the pioneers of these religions were contrasting in their physical capacities.

Thirdly, many of the sentiments of Buddha are encompass values that will benefit the conscience of the individual unlike Christianity where the fulfillment of the values guarantees on perpetual existence in the heavens. According to Kumar (2003), Buddhists believe that adherence to their teachings assures them of a fruitful life that is worthwhile.

Their principal intention is the alleviation of suffering through developing good rapport with others. The foremost intention of Christians is to develop an enduring friendship with God and his fellow Christians to assure him of accommodation in paradise.

The fourth variation of Buddhism and Christianity involves the perceptions of the life beyond an individuals demise (Hopfe & Woodward 2009). Buddha was insistent that existing persons are a re-embodiment of earlier personalities that were traversing the earth. This contradicts the Christian conviction that upon an individual’s demise one receives judgment and subsequently experiences eternal life.

Conclusion

Buddhism and Christianity share some ideologies on the factor of human behavior towards his compatriot. The procedures through which he can implement these principles are comparable. However, numerous of the values that govern the two religions differ such as the divinity of their initiators. Buddhism does not recognize the existence of God but practices similar virtues. This highlights the supposition that although both religions are diverse elements they also encompass similar traits.

References

Hopfe, L. & Woodward, M. (2009). Religions of the world. New York, NY: Vango Books.

Kumar, N. (2012).Buddha and Christ – Two Gods on the Path to Humanity. Delhi, IND: Exotic India 1, 3.

Ingram, P. (2008). Buddhist-Christian dialogue in an age of science. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Web.

Introduction

To a great degree, there have been differing strong beliefs in the supernatural power or powers that control human destiny and customary way of operation or behavior which go under the name “Buddhism”. It requires great physical and mental effort to accomplish or comprehend anything true of Buddhism as a whole.

In the most significant or elementary relating text to the vitally necessary virtues or prominent attribute of the doctrine of Buddha pointing out that life is interlocked with afflictions caused by an inclination, that aching is temporal, and that education that results in understanding and the spread of knowledge attained using right manner, understanding and contemplation of spiritual matters liberate someone from an inclination of affliction and renaissance.

However, there is admittance to the existence, reality and truth that in one general conscious awareness, Buddhism is man’s inclination to support or be loyal to and to agree to an opinion of the Teaching of Gautama, the Buddha; in others it is the strong belief in a supernatural power or powers that control human destiny’s philosophy which has come to have or undergo a change (physical features and attributes) about that teaching. Buddhism is in fact a family of religions and philosophies.

In truth (often tends to intensify), the term “Buddhism” stands for a large in spatial extent and multifaceted religious and rational specific practice of long-standing, the period during which it existed of which lengthen in time over 2500 hundred years and has adherents in diverse nations.

However, there is contemplation that Buddhism is a philosophical way of life and the code of ethics, but many declare it untrue to the characteristic of a religion. As Buddhism does not strictly believe in a theistic-creator God, as found in the Semitic religions, Though it believes in supernatural beings and spirits.

At the same time, we cannot describe in words Buddhism as an atheistic system, as it has no value or importance in common with the schools of thought that is allegiance to atheism.

To be precise, Buddhism is neither theistic nor atheistic, but non-theistic, for it neither establishes nor strengthens as with new evidence or facts nor denies the authenticity of God, but rather refuses to acknowledge it. In consideration, Buddhism has the seven important traits that mark any religion, via the realistic and habit measurement, the pragmatic and a strong feeling dimension, the principled and legal dimension, the people assembled to promote sociability and communal activity and institutional dimension and finally the dimension that is concerned with or affecting physical as distinct from intellectual or psychological well-being

Buddhism gives its disciples a system of habit worship, spiritual experiences through the act of intervening to bringing about a settlement, story about mythical or supernatural beings or events and mythical stories, systematic conceptualizations of philosophy and principles, laws adhering to ethical and moral principles similar to the law of Ahimsa, social and spiritual institutions like the Sangha and area set aside for the activity of worshipping like the temples and consecrated sites. All these distinguishing qualities of Buddhism show the fact that it is a religion, which pleases or stimulates the needs of peoples’ hearts and heads and, in succession, guides people to their utmost or extreme fate.

Origins of Buddhism as a “renouncer” tradition

The question that arose for consideration or solution with Buddhism is compounded by broad geographical growth connecting several diverse cultural, ethnic, and linguistic groups; however, it has been mostly restricted to the Indian subcontinent, the land of its origin.

The instant historic set of facts or circumstances in which Buddhism came into existence is the Hinduism of the fifth century B.C., which is more devoted to the doctrine or a cult or the practices of a cult than narrowly and conventionally moral.

Buddhism came into existence from antediluvian India and has several essential prominent attribute or aspect which is shared equally with another or others. Buddhism emphasizes the learning or discovery with certainty and may be regarded as renouncer traditions, however, the renounced tradition act or have an effect in the essential function throughout the formative era of Indian religious account.

Buddhism, like Jainism, belongs with the renouncer (Sramana) tradition, which judges or regards a life of discipline and the doctrine that through renunciation of worldly pleasures it is possible to achieve a high spiritual or intellectual state as the perfection of life and the Arahat as the person, who has achieved this goal in its integrality.

Although, it is characterized by departure from accepted beliefs or standardized philosophy that does not accept the authority of the Vedas as true, refuse to accept or acknowledge the act of killing (an animal) to propitiate a deity, keep or maintain in unaltered condition the pre-eminence of Ahimsa, values sincerely felt or expressed living which is characterized by or preceding from accepted standards of morality or justice, criticizes the superiority of human beings on the foundation of birth, opens the threshold of structured religious life for all people having the same social, economic, or educational status of as well as women, Speak, plead, or argue in favor of deep awareness of and sympathy for all living beings and sends out enthusiastic missionaries to spread its beliefs.

In its form without additions or modifications, the ideal renouncer is seen to Increase to a higher point above the social world and all its wishes, interruptions and responsibilities, and, from a vantage point of disposition to be distant and unsympathetic in manner, to seek the way in the direction of complete attempt to achieve equal rights or status from samsara (Mills 54).

With this, we consider the origin of Buddhism, its doctrinal development, its territorial expansion, and its present status as a living religion of the world (George and McLean 412).

This doctrine that all life is suffering is common to renouncer traditions and is the first noble truth of the Buddha. To be free of suffering one needs to be free from action and its effects. The renunciation of action at first meant ritual action but comes to refer to all activities in the social world.

This renunciation of action could be achieved through asceticism (tapas) and meditation, which means techniques of altering consciousness or withdrawing consciousness from the world of the senses to experience total world transcendence (Flood 76).

The comparisons of the central tenets of Buddhism, as outlined by Gethin, to the monuments and edicts of Asoka Maurya are not altogether apposite. Asoka was flowing with the milk of human kindness, and his love and sympathy embraced the whole of animate creation. He had a high sense of duty, which urged him to scorn delights incidental to his position and live laborious days. He was ready to transact state business at all hours and places, and he directed all his resources and energies to the alleviation of the sufferings of humanity and the Dissemination of the Dharma, as he understood it.

Indeed, the contented state of being happy and healthy and prosperous of his subjects in particular and the men and beings, in general, was such a dominating passion of his life that he could never feel satisfied with the use of physical or mental energy or despatch of work.

Despite this, the noteworthy inscriptions of Asoka are of immense value. Even they are highly valuable as the characteristic of the present records put together out of existing material under the orders of the great king.

Nevertheless, the inscription describes the abstract or general idea inferred or derived from specific instances of Dharma of Asoka. Though they were moral and spiritual, and they throw much light on the act of governing or exercising authority, political, economic, and social life of the people.

These inscriptions can be regarded as the life history of Asoka and greatly help the Buddhists in informing an idea of the considerable prominence, ideals, and greatness of the remarkable king. The language is simple and expresses dignity; especially formality or stateliness in bearing or appearance. The Buddhists believe that on going through them, they feel as if his voice is speaking to them straight and confiding what is passing in their mind.

Thus, there is ample evidence regarding the Mauryan Kings. But these sources refer primarily to the administrative system and social life yielding very few details regarding political history. In line with this, the monuments belonging to the Mauryan periods speak of the culture and civilization of this period. In addition, Ashoka’s edicts advised the people to be kind, to speak the truth, and not to kill any living being. (Williams 80).

Works Cited

Flood, Gavin D. An introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Print.

Mills , Martin, A. Identity, ritual and state in Tibetan Buddhism: the foundations of authority in Gelukpa monasticism. New York: Routledge, 2003. Print.

Vensus, George A. & McLean, George. Paths to The Divine: Ancient and Indian. Washington, D.C: CRVP, 2008. Print.

Williams, Paul. Buddhism. England:Taylor & Francis Group, 2005. Print.

Introduction

Religion has remained an important aspect in the civilization of mankind. Whereas religious practices and belief systems may vary, the presence of a supreme being who is always worshipped is common. The deities are given special preference in any form of religious worship. This essay compares Hinduism and Buddhism.

Cultural and Geographical Origin

The cultural and geographical origin of Hinduism can be traced back in the fourteenth century. The Afghans, Persians, and Arabs first used the term “Hindu” to denote the inhabitants of the aforementioned regions. The Indus River gave rise to the name Hindus and hence, people who used to reside close to this river were generally referred to as the Hindu (Fisher, 2014). Before the close of the nineteenth century, Hinduism became a religion.

The term was used by the British colonial masters to describe all the religious groupings and practices that were dominant in this population. Nonetheless, the precise time when Hinduism began cannot be easily established. It has been described as a timeless religion. In other words, it is as old as humanity. According to historians, the early civilization that took place in the Indus valley contributed significantly towards the origin of Hinduism.

Historical records indicate that northern India was the most likely origin of Buddhism. The fifth century B.C.E marked the first time when Buddhism came into limelight. However, the cultural origin of Buddhism is believed to be Gotama. He is the principal Buddha.

The latter term refers to an individual who has been spiritually elevated and therefore more enlightened than other Buddhists. Buddhism has also been associated with the desire to alleviate human suffering across the world. Since the time it came into being, Buddhism has undergone several modifications in terms of religious beliefs and practices.

Specific Religious Practices

The aspect of worship is one of the most vital religious practices in Hinduism. Worship entails seeking the attention of God and Devas. For instance, when they need blessings, Devas is believed to be the provider of good tidings. God’s awareness in Hinduism has been enhanced through worship.

For instance, prayer, praise and invocations are collectively known as mantras (Flood, 2003). The meanings portrayed in the mantras can bring the presence of the gods close to them. Mantras also involve chanting and expressing full devotion to gods. A sacred river is used by those devoted to Hinduism to perform morning ablutions.

The second most important religious practice in Hinduism is the Bhajan. This entails singing to the deities as way of praising them. It is usually a devotional song that may be presented as a simple or complicated devotion. In most instances, Bhajans express love for the spiritual gods and may also be lyrical in terms of composition. The songs contain statements from scriptures and denote the supreme nature of the deities.

Finally, Hinduism values rituals as part and parcel of religious practices. Rituals are executed regularly. Some of the religious rituals are done in homes a part form the usual places of worship. However, individuals, villages and regions carry out the various rituals in diverse ways.

For example, rituals may be carried out after taking a shower or late in the evenings in order to appease the gods. When rituals are being carried out, the deities’ images are made available as a symbol of their presence (Michaels, 2004).

Buddhists believe in the practice of meditation as the only way through which followers can be enlightened both in the physical and spiritual world. Buddhists’ meditation also brings about spiritual freedom according to their belief systems. All the major practices of Buddhism often involve meditation because it is a central theme or pillar. However, different Buddhist nations have adopted various ways of meditating.

Both tranquility (samatha) and insight (vipassana) are used in Buddhism in the process of meditation. The second common type of religious practice is the mantras. It entails hymns and chanting that are directed to the divine powers. The mantras are believed to contain powers that are beyond human understanding. The term has been derived from one of the Indian sub tribes. It basically means safeguarding the mind.

Finally, the Mundras are also evoked through the mind by making use of certain images drawn from Buddha. During Buddhist meditation, particular ideas are supposed to be evoked in the mind. Ritual meditations also demand the use of mundras. The Buddha’s identity is symbolized by the mundras.

Hinduism and Buddhism Practiced in the World Today

The two forms of meditation in Buddhism may be used at the same time or separately. Sitting meditation has been adopted by Buddhist schools in both Japan and China as way of exercising religious freedom in worship. The Tibetan Buddhism is particularly notable in the practice of Mantras.

This segment of the population that predominantly practices mantras has a strong belief that the presence of the deities can be brought closer when this religious practice is exercised. In other words, the deities are easily invoked through the mantras (Coogan, 2003).

In addition, Hinduism has fundamental practices that are unique in each geographical location. In some regions across the world, religious customs in form of rituals can hardly miss during important events such as death, marriage and birth. For instance, such rituals are common in India.

Conclusion

As can be seen, there are several similarities and differences between Hinduism and Buddhism. For example, both religions embrace meditation and mantras as ways of worshipping the deities. However, the Mundras exist only among the Buddhists.

References

Coogan, M.D. (ed.) (2003). The Illustrated Guide to World Religions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Fisher, M. P. (2014). Living religions (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Flood, G. (2003), Blackwell companion to Hinduism. New York: Blackwell Publishing.

Michaels, A. (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present (5th ed.). New York: Princeton University Press.

Although all three religious movements (Confucianism, Daoism, and Zen Buddhism) are perceived as separate now, the influence of the former ones on the latter one is evident: rituals, concepts, and philosophical constructs from Confucianism and Daoism have become deeply integrated into Zen Buddhism.

In his book Japanese Confucianism, Kiri Paramore discusses how medieval Confucianism influenced Zen Buddhism. In Song China, Zen Buddhism had to compete with the rising popular Confucianism, which both criticized Zen Buddhism and integrated some of its elements into its worldview. Zen Buddhism, at the same time, also borrowed some of the Neo-Confucianism’s elements. While Neo-Confucianism was a more socially integrated movement, Zen Buddhism was perceived by monks as a perfect synthesis of Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism, Paramore argues.

Although all Buddhist movements were influenced by Confucianism, Heinrich Dumoulin points out that the ties between Confucianism and Zen Buddhism were exceptionally tight. Zen Monks, who often traveled from Japan to China and back, brought Confucius’ ideas along, which resulted in a particular synergy between Confucianism and Zen Buddhism. In his book Zen Buddhism: Japan, Dumoulin argues that Confucian learning, ethics, and worldviews gained more attention and became part of the lifestyle in Japanese society. Zen Buddhism was strongly influenced by Confucianism, and its ideas were propagated by Zen Buddhists. In Zen monasteries, citizens could even study Confucian learning.

In his study of tea ceremonies and rituals, Okakura Kakuzo compares Zen Buddhism to Daoism. His examinations were presented in The illustrated book of tea. According to Kakuzo, both Daoism and Zen are focused on individualism and the ability to transcend. Moreover, to understand or reach the truth, it is essential to understand the opposites. Zen Buddhism borrowed this concept from Daoism. Daoism, as well as its successor Zen, opposed Confucianism with its individualistic trend. The ritual of tea, argues Kakuzo, was also taken by Zen from Daoism, and eventually transformed into the Japanese tea ceremony.

Steven M. Emmanuel discusses the Daoism influence on Zen in the book A Companion to Buddhist philosophy. He argues that the concept of “nothingness” was inherited from Daoism. The concept of “emptiness” and “nothingness” (Ch. wu, Jp. mu) is often mentioned and discussed in Zen philosophy. However, this word was used by early Buddhists in China, which was later replaced by another character that meant “sky” or “emptiness”. Zen continued to use the wu/mu terms, while other Buddhist schools and movements did not use the word in this sense anymore. Therefore, concepts significant for Zen were a transformation from concepts typical for Daoism.

Another similar concept that was derived from Daoism is the concept of free action or the “non-action”. Both philosophies see this act as a pure activity that is not focused on any willfulness. Thus, any action is only full when it is not interfered with other activities, thoughts, or actions, argues Roger J. Davies is his book Japanese culture: The religious and philosophical foundations. The Zen and Daoism philosophies are characterized through the “mu/wu” (“no, no, none”) definitions. It is an absence of action or thought, but it should not be perceived negatively.

Sarena Abdullah and Chung Ah Kow examine the Malaysian artists that were influenced by Daoism and Zen in their article Re-examining the objects of mystical reality. In the article, they discuss how these two philosophies regard objects as “events”, and time as a mental state that is only relative. Relativity is another concept that Zen inherited from Daoism. Together with the concept of ephemerality, Zen and Daoism explain that reality is conceived rather than seen.

Apart from Islam and Christianity, Buddhism belongs to the most popular religions that are commonly practiced in Asian countries. It encompasses a wide range of specific traditions, beliefs about the nature of things and the meaning of life, and spiritual disciplines aimed at facilitating one’s personal development. In Buddhism, the best path to freedom from suffering can be understood differently depending on the geographic region, and the degree of primary religious texts’ canonicity can also vary. Tibetan Buddhism is a branch of the discussed religion practiced in the territories of the former Tibetan Empire. Being extremely popular among ethnic Tibetans and other nations for hundreds of years, Tibetan Buddhism makes a significant contribution to its practitioners’ culture, history, political decisions, and philosophy of self.

Buddhism has a long history in Tibet, which makes its development an interesting research question. According to modern historians, it is widely believed that the religion based on the Buddha’s teachings first came to Tibet in the seventh century of the Common Era, with the period of its most active dissemination taking place between the seventh and the ninth centuries. Since the religious movement originated in India, the visits of the so-called panditas or the Indian Buddhist scholars given the right to teach others became extremely common. Indian Buddhism gradually became prevalent in Tibet to reduce the influence of other movements. However, modern researchers’ opinions on the most popular beliefs in pre-Buddhist Tibet are drastically different. For example, people practicing Bon, the religion that is similar to Buddhism, claim that it was the basis of the Tibetan people’s worldview even before the emergence of Tibetan Buddhism. At the same time, due to the number of traits and religious concepts demonstrating similarities between Buddhism and the Bon religion, researchers in the West tend to criticize this version. Therefore, due to culture-based conflicts and some groups’ willingness to prove their independence from the religious majority in modern Tibet, there are still some points at issue in the history of Tibetan Buddhism.

The period between the seventh and the ninth centuries is among the key milestones in the religious history of Tibet. Then, the key Buddhist sacred texts were translated from Sanskrit into the Classical Tibetan language due to the concerted efforts of local monks and panditas. The creation of neologisms was required to find the most adequate equivalents for the key Buddhist notions, and the term “lama” emerged to substitute “guru” and facilitate the process of religious assimilation. Three hundred years of the growth of Tibetan Buddhism were followed by its rapid decline in popularity due to the efforts of the last Tibetan Emperor, Langdarma, who believed in the superiority of Bon over Buddhism and initiated religious persecution supported by the aristocracy. During his reign, the Tibetan Empire was constantly shaken by protests, disorders, and civil wars, which could also contribute to the instability of the official status of Tibetan Buddhism.

The so-called Renaissance of Tibet is the next important milestone related both to the region’s prevailing power structure and religious history. At the beginning of the eleventh century, after the death of many Bon practitioners in the position of power, the influence of Buddhist doctrines increased together with the activity of new translators of religious texts and groups founding new temples. After the construction of the Toling Monastery used as the key translation center in the late tenth century, the practitioners of Tibetan Buddhism increased their influence even more by building a range of monasteries and schools, the concentration of which was especially high in the agricultural areas of Western Tibet. Despite the ongoing armed conflicts between different kingdoms during the eleventh century, Tibetan Buddhism was able to maintain ground, and the number of new religious schools did not stop growing, leading to further popularization of meditation and other practices associated with the religion.

Throughout history, religious life in Tibet was impacted by numerous socio-political factors, including the reign of the Mongolian clans. Despite the period of Mongol dominance taking place from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, Tibetan Buddhism did not lose its positions – instead, being a Tantric-style religion, it became extremely popular among different Asian peoples. Despite becoming a part of the Mongol Empire, Tibet did not lose its independence in terms of religious and cultural life, and Tibetan Buddhism was chosen by the Yuan Dynasty as the official religion. Following the reduction of the Mongol influence, the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries became the period when the rate of Buddhist temple construction dropped in all macro-regions of Tibet, but it did not cause a significant rise of Bon. During the period of Tibet’s independence lasting up to the eighteenth century, Buddhist teachers managed to turn Tibetan Buddhism into the leading religion, which also resulted in the emergence of numerous sects and further sophistication of the structure of Buddhism.

Later, the creation of new branches of Tibetan Buddhism led to the growth of religion-based conflicts in Tibet. Thus, during the reign of the Qing dynasty, three schools of Tibetan Buddhism and some Bon practitioners united their teachings to curtail the growing influence of the Gelug movement. Despite these inter-school clashes in the past, Bon and all four schools of Tibetan Buddhism such as Gelug, Kagyu, Nyingma, and Sakya managed to survive and still have a lot of adepts in Tibet and other regions, including even some Western countries. Despite some organizational differences, all the mentioned schools are based on the interpretations of the Indian Buddhist doctrines, and this is why the key beliefs typical for all branches of Tibetan Buddhism can be singled out.

Concerning the doctrines and practices popular among the practitioners of Tibetan Buddhism, they relate to many components of the mind map such as religion, self, and time. According to the doctrine of cyclic existence, Tibetan Buddhists believe that a person’s life is a component of “the beginningless series of incarnations” that is almost impossible to control. These incarnations are interrelated and are not random since actions committed during the previous life heavily impact the circumstances of the next incarnation, shaping the widely known concept of karma. The two notions contribute to the religion-specific definitions of right and wrong and justify the need to avoid doing evil. Also, cyclic existence and karma impact people’s understandings of the self, preventing them from limiting it to their current physical body and temporary personality traits. As a result, the belief in reincarnation heavily impacts various aspects of Tibetan Buddhists’ life.

Apart from explaining the complicated structure of human experience, the doctrine of cyclic existence helps to set the goals of spiritual development, which makes it connected to such elements as the self and culture. According to the Tibetan Buddhist interpretation of the Buddha’s teachings, there is an opportunity “to break the vicious cycle and escape from the suffering” by increasing knowledge and overcoming ignorance. To approach the final goal of spiritual growth, one is expected to become dissatisfied with the cycle of life and death and follow the great teacher’s example that involves developing mental calmness and absolute equanimity. This part of the doctrine clearly influences Tibetan Buddhists’ relationships with themselves, encouraging them to keep track of any of their emotional reactions to understand the root causes of suffering and become dispassionate. Moreover, from the cultural viewpoint, the goal to stop the reincarnation cycle contributes to the culture of meditation, which involves diverse practices and techniques helping to achieve mental stability.

One of the key components of the Tibetan Buddhist philosophy of life is the importance of spiritual leadership. Stressing the significant role of the teacher, Tibetan Buddhists structure many of the key spiritual practices around Lamaism. Lamaism and Tibetan Buddhism are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably, whereas their connotations are drastically dissimilar. Being widely criticized by Western scholars and regarded as a religious “deformity unique to Tibet,” the practice of Lamaism involves finding new spiritual leaders to replace the previous ones, and choices are often made based on people’s wisdom atypical for their age. The practice of choosing lamas originates from the belief in the cycle of reincarnations, and the new lama is typically regarded as the previous teacher’s spirit in a new physical body. In general, since it impacts the structure of religious institutions, Lamaism can have implications to such elements of the mind map as time and politics. To begin with, in terms of time, the existence of teachers given the title of lamas helps to structure religious traditions and pass them down from generation to generation. At the same time, given that they enjoy prestige with common Tibetan Buddhists, lamas can influence Tibet’s political life to make sure that it does not run counter to the key religious principles.

The views on the nature of reality supported by Tibetan Buddhists are also an important part of the religious doctrine. Even though researchers specializing in religious studies have dissimilar opinions about the references to anatman in the Buddha’s teachings, different schools of Tibetan Buddhism have no disputes concerning the concept of no-self. The representatives of this branch of Buddhism support the idea that “beliefs in a self or soul” derive from “false imputations,” and a range of meditative practices used in Tibetan Buddhism is aimed at dispelling this illusion, thus promoting mental calmness. Contributing to the need for meditation, the acceptance of no-self can be analyzed in the context of culture and identity. To begin with, anatman is central to the Tibetan Buddhist culture of meditation since the ability to get distracted from the illusion of separate beings is also a goal of meditative practices that involve visualization and mantra recitation. Speaking about the dimension of identity, it is possible to suppose that such views on reality impact people’s aspirations in life and reduce problems caused by competitiveness and egocentrism.

In conclusion, there have been many highs and lows in the history of Tibet and the emergence of Tibetan Buddhism since its introduction in the seventh century. Despite the efforts of people practicing Bon and conflicts between various schools of Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism is still the most popular religion among the Tibetan people. The religious practices and doctrines peculiar to this form of the Buddhist tradition have strong links with politics, culture, people’s identity, and other aspects of life.

Bibliography

1. Lopez Jr., Donald S. Prisoners of Shangri-la: Tibetan Buddhism and the West. 20th ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2018.
2. Powers, John. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. New York: Show Lion Publications, 2007.
3. Ryavec, Karl E. A Historical Atlas of Tibet. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2015.
4. Samuel, Geoffrey. Civilized Shamans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993.

Introduction

After the inception of Buddhism in India, its ideas presented in scriptures and treatises started spreading to China and then to other countries of East Asia including Japan and Korea. The process of adopting the Indic Buddhist philosophy was marked by the exchange of values between the two cultures which significantly influenced the further development of the whole East Asian civilization before its interaction with the West. The unique Chinese Buddhist tradition was formed under the impact of the long-established worldview of the Chinese culture on the original ideas of Buddhism. The fundamental values and the perception of the world introduced by Buddhists were very different from the traditional Chinese philosophy represented by Taoism and Confucianism. That is why, as a result of the cultural adaptation that lasted for centuries, Buddhism underwent a series of substantial transformations and became an integral part of the Chinese tradition. It ultimately changed into a specific Buddhist affiliation within the Mahayana tradition.

Sinification as the process of Buddhism formation in China justifies the great influence of this country on the spread of Buddhist ideas in East Asia. Therefore, the paper claims that China is not overdetermined as a decisive agent in the adoption of Indic Buddhism because the rich Chinese tradition was powerful enough to absorb and transform a new confession. To support the claim, the historical overview of the era of the emergence of Buddhism in East Asia, as well as the description of Chinese translations of doctrinal texts, will be presented. Also, three main Chinese Buddhist schools’ ideas will be articulated to determine the extent of transformations the religious tradition underwent in Japan and Korea. Finally, many philosophical, institutional, and cultural factors will be exemplified to underline the inevitability of the process of Sinification.

Historical Background of the Spread of Buddhism in East Asia

Buddhism appeared in China at the beginning of the Christian era. Its emergence in this country was connected with the close trade relations with India where Buddhism had formed as a prominent religious and philosophical doctrine. Being a part of the commercial interactions via silk routes, China and India exchanged much more than goods. With the help of these connections, the first Buddhist scriptures entered the Chinese lands and triggered the inception of a long history of Buddhism development in East Asia. During the 3-5^th centuries, the Chinese emperors repeatedly invited some prominent Indian monks to preach their doctrine to the Chinese people. Soon after it spread all over the territory of China, it started influencing other regions of East Asia. Such a process was correlated to the fact that China was geographically situated on the trade crossroads between different countries. Inevitably, the exchange of ideas, worldview perspectives, and scriptures made an impact on the philosophies and religions of such countries as Korea and Japan.

China was even more authoritative in the process of Buddhism emergence in East Asia than India was. This fact finds its explanation in the geographical positioning of these countries. Indeed, the Indic Buddhist ideas entered China from central Asia and then from China further to the East, to Japan, Korea, and other countries. Each territory had its own indigenous beliefs and traditions which could not remain subordinate and caused the following changes.

However, the Chinese version of Buddhism appeared as a transformation of Indic Buddhism under the influence of Confucianism and Taoism that had been dominant doctrines in the country. These religions were very different from what Buddhism claimed to be the essence of life. That is why the history of the new religion in China is marked with controversy between the traditional beliefs and the new invading religious paradigm. The Chinese philosophers who followed Confucianism refused to adopt Buddhism. They tried to fight it claiming that it was “the antisocial, individualistic, and other-worldly philosophy.” Thus, the Buddhist teachings in their pure form could not exist on the territory of a country with such powerful traditions and philosophies. The transformations were made at the earliest stages of the new doctrine’s entering into China when the first translations of Indic scriptures on Buddhism were made.

Chinese Translations of Indic Buddhist Texts

The first Indic texts started being translated into the Chinese language in the early 2^nd century. According to Gethin, the first center of Buddhism in China was in Lo-yang where foreign monks, such as An Shih-Kao and Lokaksema worked on the translations of the original scriptures. These texts included meditation-related works, for example, “non-Mahayana “Anapana-smrti Sutra” or “Discourse on Mindfulness of Breathing” and proto-Mahayana “Pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhavasthita-samadhi Sutra” or “Discourse on the Samadhi of Direct Encounter with the Buddhas of the Present. Besides, during this period, the translation of The Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines was also made. Although these works were called translations, the emergence of a specific Chinese Buddhist canon was caused by the character of the interpretations of original ideas presented in Indic texts.

The basics of the religion never reached people in their original form because the monks transformed the texts significantly changing the messages. The scripts were never translated into the Chinese language “en bloc,” which is explained by the long period of work on translation and the influence of Chinese literacy. Several generations of monks spent centuries completing the translations of scripture. As Gethin notes, about a thousand years were spent to translate “Great Treasury of Sutras” (“Ta-Tsang-ching”). During such a long period, people who worked on the translation, as well as the development of language and culture, made a significant impact on both the character of narration and the content. Therefore, the Chinese Tripitaka is not a single text but rather a collection of canonical texts. It contains “the Chinese translations of Buddhist sutras and sastras made over the centuries, as well as a variety of indigenous Chinese treatises relating to Buddhism.” Indeed, the scope of Indic texts was enriched by the original works of the Chinese Buddhists.

The traditional Chinese attention to detail and need for explanations led to the creation of some components that, in the opinion of the translators, were lacking from the original. These changes in the scriptures subsequently formed a new canon that was significantly different from the one that existed in India. Overall, the Chinese Buddhist tradition was based on “Mahayana” and “Hinayana” and existed in three divisions, including Sutra, Vinaya, and Treatise. These canonical texts were created by Indian and Chinese monks and became the basis for the Chinese Buddhist tradition.

The Transformation of Indian Buddhism in Chinese Buddhist Schools

As it was stated earlier, the significant number of translations of the primary scriptures led to interpretations and changes in the original ideas. The two countries, China and India, had their own distinct and rich histories, traditions, philosophies, languages, and their particular features of a worldview that had been forming for a long period of their development. The difference in mentality marked the overall understanding of the principal characteristics. According to Ch’en, the ancient Chinese religious system was formed based on simple ideas, such as the existence of heaven, the importance of worshiping the ancestors, and respect for natural forces. In contrast, Buddhism introduced a complicated hierarchical system of heavens and hells, claimed that life is illusory and is all about suffering. When encountering the Buddhist beliefs for the first time, the Chinese found out about karma which enabled rewarding good deeds by rebirth into good existence, and evil deeds into evil existence. Thus, many canonical ideas brought to China from India were contradictory to the existing tradition.

However, Buddhism found some similarities with the dominant Chinese religious beliefs. The general questions that people asked in both countries were the same. For example, Buddhism broadly utilized the traditions of meditation, the texts on which were translated initially. This idea was widespread in China, too, and exemplified the similarity in the attitudes to religious practices between India and China. Thus, the new religion managed to conform to the environment and, despite some changes, survived and became dominant. Similar transformations took place in other countries and territories of East Asia and allowed for the formation of unique Buddhist schools. Since Buddhism spread to East Asia through China, the Sinified version of the doctrine reached Japan and Korea. Nevertheless, the scholars identify two main groups of Chinese Buddhist teachings, including those having a “direct Indian counterpart” and the ones “native to China.” The Korean and Japanese Buddhist systems “derive directly from the Chinese forms and schools” and need to be analyzed as examples of the Buddhist transformations.

Ch’an Buddhism

One of the prominent forms of Buddhism that emerged as a result of the Chinese influence on Buddhism was Ch’an. This school originated around the idea of “the attainment of a deep state of peace through calm meditation.” The adherents of this stream followed the teachings of the Indian monk Bodhidharma who initiated the transferring of the knowledge from teacher to pupil. During the existence of Ch’an, some principal ideas were changed thus forming a new perspective on the awakening and the experience of four noble truths. Indeed, Ch’an monk Shen-hui introduced the concept of sudden awakening as a new approach as opposed to the gradual awakening that was preached originally. According to the new teaching, the notion of awakening is closely related to the understanding of four noble truths. Shen-hui thought that one cannot absorb the truth in pieces but should either learn it instantly as a whole or not understand it at all. Thus, there cannot be any gradual awakening as traditional Buddhism claimed, but there is a sudden awakening that one can reach with the help of meditations.

Pure Land Buddhism

Another significant Chinese school of Buddhism was Pure Land Buddhism. It consisted of the perception of the personality of Buddha. According to Gethin, early Buddhist teachings did not view the Buddha as a “directly accessible” being, and “devotion to the Buddha centered on the worship of his relics.” However, upon the Chinese influence of Mahayana on these early ideas, the belief that different buddhas existed in other divisions of the universe. These other places where buddhas were able to foster their teachings in the most favorable ways were called “pure lands” or “Buddha fields.” Such pure lands were regarded as sacred places to which one might be reborn. This idea was dominant in Pure Land Buddhism and was articulated in such sutras as “Vision of the Realm of Happiness” and “Meditation on the Buddha of Boundless Life.” Gethin states that the first one (consisting of two smaller sutras) was originally from India when the last one was composed in East Asia and probably in China. This underlines the influence of the Sinified version of Buddhism.

Tien-t’ai and Hua-yen

The third form of Buddhism that emerged under the influence of China embraces Tien-t’ai and Hua-yen. These teachings emerged based on the contradictory Buddhist texts that had been translated into the Chinese language. To organize them in a whole system, it was claimed that “the Buddha adapted his teachings according to the ability of his hearers to understand.” Thus, different concepts covered in various translations found their common interpretation in Tien-t’ai and Hua-yen. The idea of “interpenetration of all phenomena” unifies these two schools. This idea means that everything is engaged in a threefold truth – it is empty of existence, temporary, and is between existence and non-existence.

Therefore, the transformations that the Buddhist teachings encountered as the result of the Chinese influence were significant. Separate schools emerged as distinct doctrines, each interpreting the values and laws articulated by Indian Buddhism in their ways. The Sinified versions of the teachings were marked by traditional views of the countries or the lack of plausible explanation of some notions. Such changes had particular reasons which need to be examined closer.

Factors Influencing the Sinification

It is essential to note that the collision of two dominant cultures with a long history of development could not pass without changes for both of them. Indeed, even though it is claimed that Buddhism was Sinified thus showing that the Chinese tradition overpowered the Indian one, the original Buddhist ideas changed the Chinese worldview, too. The transformations in the doctrine that took place in China were influenced by philosophical, institutional, and cultural factors.

Philosophical Factors

The radical difference in the perception of the world that has already been addressed in this paper is reflected in the two opposing philosophical directions. The first one was represented by Confucianism and Taoism in China and the second one by Buddhism in India. The transformation of Buddhism in China was exposed to the influence of the existing philosophical doctrines. The changes were based on several distinctions between the two philosophies.

Firstly, Buddhist doctrines are oriented on the notion of karma and the process of rebirth. The essence of life is viewed as suffering from the attachments to earthly things and the everlasting willingness of living beings to eliminate the suffering and experience awakening. Buddhists, therefore, idealized the universe and interpreted it as a place of several forms of existence. On the contrary, traditional Chinese philosophy did not view the universe as an ideal. It perceived the world without the notion of karma or cessation of suffering. According to the Chinese beliefs, all phenomena exist either on earth on in heaven, and there cannot be any form that one could be reborn into.

Secondly, the Buddhist attitude to the world and life is characterized by a psychological approach. The learning of the four noble truths and the gradual awakening was viewed by Indians as separate stages of human development. The understanding of the difference between conscious and unconscious is also a significant feature of Indian Buddhism. However, the Chinese worldview was utterly naturalistic and was not characterized by psychological patterns. The Chinese did not attribute suffering as the essence of life but mostly perceived the world as a combination of natural forces. Thus, the distinction in such ideas allows for describing Indian Buddhism as a pessimistic doctrine and Chinese philosophy as optimistic teaching. Consequently, it led to the transformation of what was the cessation from suffering (as in Indian philosophy) into the cessation for the enlightening in Chinese Buddhism. Therefore, the differences in core philosophical ideas between India and China became a significant factor in changing the Buddhist teachings according to the requirements of the Chinese world with its rich tradition.

Institutional Factors

The institutional factors concern the principles of the organization of the society and the structural perception of the world and people in it. The traditional system of interaction in China was formed by Confucianism and Taoism. These teachings consisted in the ordering of the family, the state, and the world. The subordination was explicit, and people perceived their existence in close relations with others. On the contrary, according to Buddhism in India, the ideal way of life is not being a part of a family or community but being separated from them. Any attachments, in Buddhists’ point of view, lead to suffering. Therefore, it is important to withdraw from society and live in abstention and “mendicancy.” Such a significant distinction had to be addressed to adopt a new perspective to the existing institutional paradigms.

The traditional Chinese doctrine viewed an emperor as a significant influencer of people’s lives. The organization of the society was subordinate to the emperor as the one who has the power. The diminished role of a monarch or an emperor in the society that Buddhism proclaimed was one of the reasons why the dominant doctrines suppressed the development of Indian religion in China. Therefore, the followers of Confucianism were eager to revive this religion as the main one trying to eliminate Buddhism. Thus, the opposing attitudes to the institutionalization of the world became a basis for the following Sinification of Buddhism.

Cultural Factors

India and China were different not only from the point of view of their philosophies of the organization of society. They also had different languages, literary traditions, and ethics. Therefore, cultural factors also played a significant role in the transformation of Indian doctrine according to the specific features of the Chinese world. Language and literacy in China were very well-developed by the time Buddhism entered its territories. It is essential to note that the differences in the description of the theological vision were marked by the structure of language. Indeed, when translating the scripts from Indian into Chinese, there were many difficulties because the ideas articulated in Indian sometimes could not be accurately rendered in the Chinese language. Ultimately, the translated texts were marked with the influence of the Chinese language and had to be transformed under the requirements of the local culture.

Overall, the description of the factors that impacted the changes in Buddhism shows that the Chinese influence was more significant. The impact of the Indian tradition on the Chinese culture was strong. Buddhism caused some significant shifts in the paradigm of world perception that was long established by Confucianism and Taoism. However, the extent to which the prosperous Chinese culture changed Buddhist doctrine was much more evident. The Indian variant of this religion failed to live as long as the Chinese version did. On the contrary, Sinified Buddhism flourished for centuries. It became the basis for consecutive canonical interpretations on the territories of East Asia. The Buddhist teachings of such countries as Japan or Korea and marked by the Chinese culture more than by the Indian one.

Conclusion

To summarize the discussion, Buddhism as a powerful philosophical doctrine emerged in India and spread to China in the 1^st century. Due to the collision of two rich cultures, the exchange of ideas and philosophical views inevitably influenced both parties. Buddhism as the original religion of India brought particular features of world perception to the Chinese world. However, the process of Sinification as the attribution of traditional Chinese ideas to Buddhism emerged as a stronger issue. Philosophical, institutional, and cultural factors played an essential role in the transformation of the overall pessimistic doctrine of India into Chinese Buddhism marked by Confucianism and Taoism. The new canon was acceptable for the Chinese people and helped to expand the theological system of world perception on the bordering territories. Indeed, the Chinese interpretations enabled the spread of Buddhism to East Asia and provided an opportunity for the inception of different schools of Chinese Buddhism. The popularization of the Sinified version of Buddhism allowed for the rapid advancement of the civilization on the territories of Japan, Korea, and other countries of Asia.

References

1. Gethin, Rupert. The Foundations of Buddhism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
2. Ch’en, Kenneth K. S. The Chinese Transformation of Buddhism. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2015.