Category: Buddhism

Introduction

It’s known that India has two main religions which are so related to each other in some ways but they have different theories, and practice. If we trace the history of India we will find that in ancient India there were two philosophical thoughts, the Shramana religion and the Vedic religion. Buddhism and Jainism are considered as continuations of the Shramana traditions, while modern Hinduism is a continuation of the Vedic traditions.

Both of Hinduism and Buddhism have shared beliefs but they are different in the practice of duties, worshipped, the founders of the religions. It’s important to identify the similarities and differences between the two religions in some details because of the many similarities between them they may appear the same but in fact they are not.

Buddhism has two characteristics which distinguish it from the other religion. Buddhism as a religion refutes the ideas of eternal (Atman) and immortality in nature (Brahman) this is not found in Hinduism.

The following will discuss the similarities and difference between the two religions.

Both of them have common similarities as follows:

The two religions emphasize the illusory nature of the world. Both believes in the concept of karma role in keeping men bound to this world, the transmigration of souls and the circle of birth and death for each soul.

They assure the importance of human begins life and non- violence and compassion are necessary to them. Both believe in the existence of several hells and heavens. They also believe in gods which are existing on different planes.

Despite that both of them call for non- violence, peace and not to harm people and animals, they still believe that war is justifiable in certain cases to prevail justice.

Both of their beliefs and goals are so similar. They shared the concept of life that you should not act violently toward others.

Differences

The two related religions have some light differences:

Both of them are different only in the way they are presented or practiced.

Definite points are stressed in Buddhism, which are mentioned in the Hinduism but not emphasized by it. Also the teaching of the Buddhism neglects the other aspects of the Hindu teaching.

The comments below apply to the Buddha’s original teaching on the Theravada tradition of Buddhism. All the comments may not apply to the Mahayana and the Zen Buddhist traditions.

Both Hinduism and Buddhism have different range of extension. Hinduism had no real expansion over the years and basically remained stable where it originated despite the influence of Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. Hindus respected and were attracted by the stress on elaborate worship, which in turn turned others away from Hinduism. On the other hand Buddhist expansion was huge, making a noteworthy grip in India, hundreds of monasteries sprang up and from these centers, the message of the Buddha was spread “Buddhism increase speedily throughout the lands of its birth.

Gautama was a great “campaign manager” as he avoided the highly sublime ideals of the Upanishads. Many Hindus were changed easily. The acceptance by the great emperor in 3 B.C. helped to uphold growth and spread Buddhism into Ceylon and parts of Southeast Asia, also making headway in Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. By the sixth century, it spread to Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan. Buddhism one could say “sprouted” out of Hinduism. Hinduism stayed the same for a long time while Buddhism grew rapidly all over the world.

One difference between Hinduism and Buddhism is their social order system. The caste system divides the Hindu people into four major classes, Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra, and “untouchables,” or people outside of all the classes. Members of certain castes have certain duties. Class is determined by birth, allowing no social advancement, career choice, or individual freedom. There are high class and low class, the castes are socially ordered, forming an upper and lower social classes of people.

Hinduism against Buddhism from philosophical questions

Philosophical questions: The Buddha discouraged philosophical pursuits and questions regarding the nature of the Universe, the existence of God and the like. His position was that such pursuits do you no good at all. His message was simple. You are suffering today in this life – so walk the path to the end of suffering.

The Hindu scriptures however contained detailed descriptions of the Brahman or the experience of oneness with God. Hinduism also presents many philosophical arguments proving the existence of the Brahman.

Buddhism spread, Hinduism stayed in India.

The Buddhist faith has spread too many countries in North and East Asia and in recent years to the West.

Hinduism is not just a religion. It is a way of life, a culture that has several points making up the practice of Hinduism including language. It is a way of looking at life unusual to India and cannot be exported.

Hinduism in Canada

When the first group of Hindus arrived to Canada as part of the large immigration of South Asia in 1960, they have been positively received. At that time Canada suffered from a shortage of qualified professors in universities that needs professional masters because it expended rapidly. Also there were vacancies in areas such as teaching, engineering, and medicine. It’s observed that well qualified Hindus as they came to Canada filled the empty positions and therefore they greatly received into the Canadian life because of their contributions to Canada in lots of cultural fields.

There were many educated persons in this large group of Hindus, upper- middle class of them who spoke English fluently were be able to fit in the life and Canadian community. They indulged and interfere easily in the host country.They were appreciated by the Canadian culture. Bu later groups of Hindus immigrants didn’t receive such a good welcome or appreciation in Canada. About 100 years ago the first group of Hindus is consisted of Indian immigrants who began arriving in British Columbia.

The other group is contained Canadian changes to the different sects of Hinduism through the efforts of the Hare Krishna, the Gurus during the last 50 years, and other organizations. The second major group of Hindus immigrated from SriLanka, goes back to the 1940s, when a few hundred SriLankans migrated to Canada.

The 1983 public riots in Sri Lanka precipitated the mass exodus of Tamils and Sinhalese with over 500,000 finding refuge in countries such as Canada, UK, Australia, Germany, France and Switzerland from then SriLankans have been immigrating to Canada in particular around Toronto and Greater Toronto Area. On the one hand, a war is being waged for a divide Tamil homeland within the small island currently named Sri Lanka. On the other side, efforts are being made throughout the world to make Sri Lankan a better known culture better, and understood by non-Tamil peoples, toward the end of establishing cross-cultural and cross-national union.

It’s known that Hindus don’t have a united set of beliefs and practices which are shared by all believers of that religion. Also this religion “Hinduism” has no holy place or temple for its believers to practice there worship. Their worship is centered to be practiced at home individually. This was especially the case with regard to orthodox Hindu practice in India.

The 2001 Census of Canada showed that, there were 297,200 practitioners of Hinduism. However, the non-profit organization Association for Canadian Studies estimates the Hindu population grew to 372,500 by 2006, or just under 1.2% of the population of Canada. The huge majority of Hindus reside in Ontario (primarily in Toronto, Scarborough, Brampton, Hamilton, Windsor & Ottawa), Quebec (primarily around the Montreal area) & British Columbia, (primarily around the Vancouver area).

Have major populations. The many organizations representing and working on behalf of the Hindu community are such as the Hindu Sabha, a religious society linked to temples and the World Maha Hindu Organization, a cultural organization. Indian Hindus also play a part in a number of non-sectarian organizations and networks representing the welfare of the Indo-Canadian community across religious lines. Hindu Youth Network – Canada is at this time the largest Hindu Youth movement in Canada with over 5000 registered members.

The Hindu Conference of Canada is an organization which emphasizes the political action – it is helpful to the traditional Party of Canada and the Bharatiya Janata Party in India and significant of the Congress Party.

References

Aiken, C.F. (1910). Hinduism. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

Alisimo, A. (2007). Buddha From a Hindu Perspective.

Gangoli, N. (2007). Hinduism And Buddhism A Comparison.

Harold Coward (Professor of History Director, Centre for Studies in Religion & Society University of Victoria Victoria, BC) 2002 , Hindus in Canada.

Willard G. Oxtoby, ed., World Religions: Eastern Traditions. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2002.

The Burmese Harp, a story set in Burma, shows the war among Japanese troops and their enemies. The soldiers, who are participating in the war, die a useless death, which is not at all important to their compatriots or their enemies. When the Japanese troops are supposed to surrender and a soldier is sent to other Japanese troops to tell them to drop their guns, they deny the orders and continue to fight and thereby, continue to die too.

It is at this time, that the soldier realizes the unnecessary contribution that the soldiers make in the war by dying. No one benefits from it. But, still the other soldiers continue to fight and die without any retrospection. They don’t realize that their death would cause no grief for the country. It will just be another soldier dead and nothing more than that. But, they keep fighting for the sake of their beloved country.

The soldier who had been sent by the Japanese troops to the other co-troops, found all this senseless and unnecessary. He eventually refuses to return to the place where he came from and decides to pay homage and respect to the dead bodies by burying them, which were lying all over the war field.

His compatriots do try to call him back, but the soldier transforms himself into a monk. To rejoin his fellow soldiers, Shoji steals the robes of a Buddhist monk and begins to make his way across the countryside. He finally understands that there is no gain in violence and that it should be avoided at any cost. The moment he sees numerous corpses of the soldiers who died for no cause, compels him to change his perception of war. Although he was a soldier himself earlier, he still develops in himself, an aversion from the feelings of hostility and violence. He gets transformed completely and starts making his own way.

It is one of the most important teachings of Buddhism, which tells one to avoid non violence. So, a Buddhist Monk would never let himself get carried away by strong urges of committing violence. It totally depends on the situation that lies ahead of him. He might resort to a certain act of violence only if it is the only way to protect him from a danger. But, even though the world is predicated on war and violence, the moral values are still alive, and no form of violence can be successful in lessening the impact of these values on us, which have been instilled in us since our childhood. Unlike in the movie, Burmese Harp, where, a soldier turned into a monk, the transformation is still sensible.

The difference between the mental levels of the soldier and his compatriots is known when he sends them a letter explaining his inability to return to Japan. He transforms into a monk and develops mentally; whereas, his compatriots are momentarily moved by his letter but the next moment, start thinking about their homes and families.

The Burmese Harp is a film which, even while dealing with war and all its senseless tragedy, refuses to cheapen life and maintains the importance of death.

One of the reviews of the film says that- “…antiwar film was widely hailed at the time of its release for its power and commitment; though by today’s standards it’s likely to appear uncomfortably didactic” (Kehr Dave, Chicago Reader).

Works Cited Page

Kehr Dave, Chicago Reader. Review from rotten tomatoes. Web.

Abstract

This analytical essay presents information about the Buddhist religion, it’s past and its present, the differences between its practice in the past and current times.

Introduction

Buddhism is said to have about three hundred and sixty-five million followers, which makes it about six percent of the entire population of the world being followers of Buddhism, which further makes it the fourth-most largest, most followed religion in the world. It is surpassed in statistics merely by Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism (Buddhism, based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, 2006). The founder of Buddhism and the first known Buddha was Siddhartha Gautama and it was found in Northern India. Siddhartha Gautama gained enlightenment in the sixth century BCE and took up the designation Lord Buddha, which means a person who has been awakened. Fundamentally, following Buddhist traditions, the principled and ethical main beliefs are presided over by probing whether a particular action, whether associated with the body or verbal communication is probable to be detrimental to a person himself or others and in this manner steering clear of any dealings have the tendency to be detrimental (What is Buddhism, 2000). In Buddhism, a talented and capable mind is what is needed the most. A competent mind, as is believed stays away from proceedings that are probable to root distress or repentance (Alexander and Thubten, 1999).

Analysis

In due time, Buddhism started to die out in India but had turned out to be pretty well conventional in Sri Lanka. It was from Sri Lanka that Buddhism gained recognition in Asia, developing into further quite a few forms. The first and the foremost form of Buddhism that has long been practiced is known as the Theravada Buddhism, which is also known as Southern Buddhism; sporadically spelled as Therevada has been the governing discipline of Buddhism in major parts of Southeast Asia ever since the thirteenth century, with the founding of the dominions in Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, and Laos.

Mahayana Buddhism, which is at times also known as Northern Buddhism is for the most part found in China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, and Mongolia. Another form of Buddhism goes by the name of Vajrayāna Buddhism which is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Mantrayana, Tantrayana, Esoteric Buddhism, or True Words Sect. Several people take this as a component of Mahayana Buddhism; while it is believed by others to be a third Buddhist pathway. Tibetan Buddhism came into being for the most part in segregation from Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism as a consequence of the inaccessibility of Tibet. Zen Buddhism came into being from inside the Chinese Mahayana School acknowledged as Chan. In current times Zen Buddhism is said to be getting more and more famous by the day in the West particularly.

Modern Buddhism has become known as a beyond doubt international movement. It began as an endeavor to bring into being a solitary figure of Buddhism, devoid of local accumulations, that could be taken up by all Buddhists. Buddhism is a course of life that is related to practice and spiritual development that further on leads to knowledge about the true nature of life. The religion that is known to us as Buddhism for the last 2,500 years, has been the most important encouragement following many triumphant civilizations, the foundation of great enlightening accomplishments, and long-lasting and evocative conduct to the very rationale of existence for millions of inhabitants of the world. In current times, a vast number of people belonging from different backgrounds and origins are followers of the Teachings of the Buddha (Buddhism, 2008).

These days, Buddhism carries on gaining ever wider recognition in a lot of lands that are far away from its original home. Across the world, people using their vigilant preference are taking up Buddhism’s passive, kindhearted and accountable ways. The teachings of Buddha are as yet being followed in the same manner all across the world (Buddhist Ethics, 2008). The teachings of Buddha related to the Law of Kamma presents our society with a just and morally upright groundwork and motivation for the observation of an honorable life. It is trouble-free to make out how a wider implementation of the Law of Kamma would show the way to any country in the direction of a stronger, even more, compassionate and righteous society.

The followers of the religion of Buddhism have a strong belief in rebirth. The Teaching of Rebirth tends to present this at hand petite life span of ours in an expansive standpoint, which provides us with more connotations to the very important proceedings of birth and death. The perceptive of Rebirth gets rid of so much of the catastrophe and heartache that goes about death and in turn, makes a person pay more attention to the superiority of natural life, more willingly than its meager length.

Since the very beginning of the religion known as Buddhism, the observance that is known to us as meditation has always played a very central role in the ways of the Buddhist religion. In the current times, meditation seems to be all the time more accepted as the confirmed reimbursement to mutually both the psychological and physical goodness have turned out to be known far more widely. At times when nervous tension has been taken to be such a main cause of human agony, the hushed performance of meditation takes control and for that reason, it is far more valued.

The world that we live in today is way too diminutive and susceptible to be in this world living fuming and single-handedly, as a result, the call for broadmindedness, love, and consideration is considered extremely imperative. These mentioned individuality of intellect, indispensable for cheerfulness is properly put up in Buddhist meditation, and in that way, they form a great part of the life and practice of the followers of the Buddhist religion. Exculpation and temperate open-mindedness, harmlessness, and serene empathy are distinguished trade names of Buddhism, they are provided without restraint and largely to all varieties of beings, inclusive of even animals as well as, most prominently, to the person himself. There is no room for abode in culpability or hatred of one’s owns self in Buddhism, with no place for even having feelings of guilt about being guilty!

Knowledge and practices such as these are the main sources of characteristics of moderate thoughtfulness and unbreakable peacefulness that are linked with the Buddhist belief for twenty-five centuries and greatly required in the current times. With its long history, it is evident that no war has ever been fought in the Buddhist religion or for it. It is because of this tranquility and this open-mindedness, stepping beyond an insightful nevertheless levelheaded way of life that has made Buddhism so fundamentally applicable to the current world (Religion & Ethics – Buddhism, 2008).

Conclusion

In the light of the above discussion, we can hereby culminate that the practice of the Buddhist religion has not changed much over time owing to its peaceful teachings.

Bibliography

Alexander, Berzin and Thubten, Chodron. (1999). The Appeal of Buddhism in the Modern World. The Berzin Archives. Pp.1.

Buddhism, (2008). Web.

Buddhism, based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. (2006). Religion and Ethics Weekly. Pp.1.

Buddhist Ethics. (2008). Web.

Religion & Ethics – Buddhism. (2008). BBC. Pp.1.

What is Buddhism? 2008. Web.

Buddhism

Buddhists believe in Buddha not in God as the creator or ruler of the world. They also believe in a life of compassion for all people, peace and wisdom. In spite of Hinduism believing in life after death Buddhists do not believe in an eternal soul but in the five aggregates of human existence, which are physical forms, feelings, ideations, mental dispositions and consciousness (Wangu and Palmer 22).

Buddhism’s founder was Siddhartha Gautama, born by Queen Maya after her dream, and it refers to pathway to spiritual discovery. According to religious beliefs of the Indians, there is rebirth of souls after death though adoption of new bodies which is a never ending cycle.

Siddhartha made an attempt to determine on how to get rid of the endless rebirth cycle and by means of meditation he recognized the final release pathway (Wangu and Palmer 25). Buddha realized that suffering is a result of human desire which could be eliminated by right thinking and acting.

At the age of twenty nine he went for a ride into the city with his Charioteer and this was when he came across an old man, a man suffering from disease and a copse that mourners were surrounding. The charioteer explained to him that the grey-haired man with wrinkled face and feeble hands holding a walking stick was as a result of old age. He was shocked to realize that old age, disease and death are inevitable. This was followed by him renouncing his former life full of pleasure in the palace and went out of the city.

The eightfold pathway to end desire includes right opinion, good intentions, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindedness and concentration. Buddha had five ascetic disciples and travelled in northeastern India, preaching dharma as well as answering any questions. He retained some concepts of the religions in India such as samsara as well as Karma.

Sikhism

Sikhism followers are referred to as Sikhs which means a person who follows a leader’s teachings. It teaches about the Gurus; the Sikhs believe in God referred to as Waheguru that is wonderful Lord and the creator of all things. They believe that Sikhism is a comprehensive mode of life. Their belief is that God is the creator of everything and has provided guidance to assist people live excellent lives and hence a Sikh should accept God and carry out his Will (Mayled 13).

Sikhism teaches that all people are equal and aims to create a cohesive human society that lives in peace, equality and follows God’s teachings. To enable people to attain mukti such that they could avoid backsliding, Sikhism offers the believers liberty of thought. Mukti is achieved by showing God’s love and respect. Sikhs believe in serving other selflessly, that is sewa.

God revealed to the people about the Waheguru via the Gurus’ teachings with the first Guru being Guru Nanak Dev Ji. Guru refers to a person that assist people to move from obscurity into light and Dev Ji or Ji means ‘Honored Sir’ (Mayled 13).

They believe that anything happens because it is God’s will and that the soul returns to God and is released from the rebirth cycle after death. It believes in Karma that is consequences of action that decide if the soul is loosed from the cycle. Mukti is the freedom from the cycle and could be hindered by pride, lust, anger, greed and too much attachment to the world.

Guru Nanak Dev Ji the Sikhism founder was born in the year 1469 in a Hindu family but in his childhood rejected the Hindu rituals and traditions (Mayled 20). He taught about worshipping one God and equality but said the haughtiness, pride, envy, anger and voracity make us to be far from God. Guru Angad Dev wrote the Gurmukhi made up of sixty two hymns. At seventy-three years of age, Guru Armar Das organized the first ever pilgrimage for the Sikhs and Guru Ram das was the founder of the Sikhism’s holy city.

Guru Arjan Dev gathered the previous gurus’ hymns to come up with the Sikhism holy book and building of the Golden temple. Guru Gobind Singh, the last guru, was against oppression of the Sikhs by authorities of Muhgal or Hindu; he was the founder of Khalsa as well as Sikh baptism.

Baha’ism

The Baha’i believe in one God and that the leaders of all religions are his messengers. They also believe that the soul is eternal since it is released into the spirit world, returns to God, after a person’s death similar to what Muslims believe. Baha’i faith has its origin from Bab, a religious leader in Persia who said that God had made a revelation to him and that he had the truth therefore people started to follow him.

The Islamic religious leaders in Persia felt threatened by his teachings and organized his persecution along with his followers. Bahaullah, one of the followers of Bab, had a vision while in prison for taking part in the Babi movement (Hartz and Palmer 13). After Bab’s death, he organized some of his mates and adopted the name Baha’i. He escaped persecution and was exiled from Persia. Bahaullah’s teachings were passed on to other generations up to his son, grandson and great grandson.

Comparison

All the three religions have their origins from a single spiritual person and are influenced by the dominant religion in the area, Buddhism from Buddha, Sikhism from Guru Nanak Dev Ji and Baha’i from Bab. Both Buddhism and Sikhism came from a Hindu background but Baha’i had a Muslim background. Both the Sikhs and the Baha’is believe in life after death where the soul continues to live after a person’s death but Buddhists do not believe in continuity of life. Sikhs and the Baha’is believe in God but Buddhism do not.

Works Cited

Wangu, M. & Palmer, M. Budhism. New York: InfoBase Publishing. 2009. Print.

Mayled, J. Sikhism. New Hampshire: Heinemann. 2002. Print.

Hartz, P. & Palmer, M. (2009). Baha’i faith. New York: InfoBase publishing. 2009. Print.

Atman

In the Hindu religion, Atman is the concept of the soul eternal. It refers to the immortal part of every mortal form of creation. According to this concept, every mortal creation including man contains an immortal aspect that is hidden within it. In other words, this is the microcosm that represents the macrocosm within each creation and which imparts on us “the divine qualities and possibilities” from which we derive the reason for existence and earthly life’s experiencing pains and pleasures. This is the principle of sensation and life. It is the soul and the breath we take. Atman is the soul of the body. It is the self and the inner person.

According to this basic Hindu tenet, the human body and its physical appearance are not the real self. The real person is the atman which is the silent self within who calmly shares with the experiences that we go through. Atman cannot be described by words or thoughts. It is something that can only be experienced when the senses of the body are eliminated and when sense objects, thought movements, and tormenting desires, the fundamental causes of human suffering, are stilled (Jayaram).

On its part, (Harvey, p 97) defines Nirvana in the Theravada Buddhism faith as the third member of the Ennobling Truths. It is the quenching of the “fires of attachment, hatred and delusion.” These form the basis of dukha which is equitable to the kandhas that constitute a person and which lead to suffering and unsatisfactory. These are material forms, constructing activities, cognition, discriminative consciousness, and feelings. In life, attaining nirvana is the same as being able to live without the influence of attachments, hatred, and delusions. It is also deathless and goes beyond time and change and cannot be explained with human words or thoughts.

Nirvana and Atman, therefore, are two concepts that have similarities in that they are not definable within human words or thoughts. They are the real aspect of human existence that is free from the pressures and desires of the physical body. In addition, these two are timeless and beyond death and they are immortal. The only difference is that while nirvana is an aspect of the human body, Atman exists in all forms of mortal creation, not just the human being.

Upanishads

The Vedas are the scriptures of the Hindu religion. The Mantras which is the text of the Vedas are the personification of the Brahman and are divided into two forms which are the karma-Kanda and the Jnana-Kanda. The portion of the Vedas which is disseminates knowledge is called the Upanishad.

Originally there existed a hundred and fifty Upanishads but several of them got lost with time leaving only sixteen which were further studied and grouped by Shankaracharya to come up with 10 Upanishads’ principles. They include the Isha Upanishad, Prashna, Kath Upanishad, Kena, Chandogya, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Brihadaranyaka, Aitareya, and Taittriya Upanishad. Most of these Upanishads are written in prose with some aspects of poetry (Shah).

The Upanishad teachings stress mostly the relationship between Brahman, which is the Universal Soul, and the Jeevatman which is the individual soul. The latter is also referred to as Atman. According to the teachings, the two are identical only that Jeevatman is blocked by ignorance or avidya from comprehending the universal nature of Brahman. Other teachings within the Upanishad include the purpose and nature of existence, various methods of worship and meditation, a liberation which is also referred to as Moksha, and the soul transmigration. The Upanishads also concentrate on the highest truth revelation. This truth is separated from the body and mind.

They refer to the absolute consciousness as God, consciousness, Brahma, Atman, or self. We are this True Reality because we are divine in our true nature. We, therefore, fail to separate the absolute reality with the body-mind complex because of Maya or ignorance. Although the teachings purport that our essential nature is divine, it does not say that we are God only that we have a very close relationship. We are like the sparks from a hot rod, God being the rod while we are the sparks, therefore; we are Part of God (Shah).

These teachings carry a very great challenge on theism because it fails to take God as an independent omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent being. In the teachings, God ceases to be the creator of the Universe and becomes part of the Human body that is silent and who can be accessed only after suppressing all the bodily feelings like attachment, hatred, and delusion. This is challenging because all other religions because God is reduced into a small part of the human body. This fails to merge with other teachings which want to believe that God was there from the beginning and he created man. If God created man then he could not be taken to be part of man. He has to be a different entity.

Bhagavat-Gita

The Bhagavat Gita is regarded as one of the greatest Yoga literature. Made up of 700 stanzas, the Bhagavat Gita contains the philosophical views concerning ethical values within the Indian traditions. In its teachings, it advocates that for one to attain liberation, there are three spiritual paths. That he/she has to follow. The three are Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, and Bhakti Yoga. While Karma and Jnana are concerned with spiritual growth, Bhakti Yoga involves the path of devotion.

The path that is characterized by contemplation, knowledge, introspection, and wisdom is referred to as the Jnana Yoga. On its part, Karma involves being mindful and ready to do service to others. It involves putting into consideration the levels of our being in our efforts to fulfill the Karma in the world. Finally, Bhakti Yoga is the path concerned with emotion, compassion, love, and devotion to God. All actions in this Yoga are based on the remembering of the Divine (India Divine).

Gita posits that all these paths are important for the final destination but Bhakti Yoga is considered the most important of all the Yogas (India Divine). This is “the rendering of ultimate worship to God.” This, therefore, means that all other yogas end up in Bhakti yoga. Karma yoga is the beginning of the path. An increase in knowledge and renunciation by karma leads to Jnana yoga also referred to as the yoga of knowledge. One then reaches Astanga yoga when he advances on the meditation on the super soul.

This is when the body undergoes some physical processes and focuses on God. By surpassing Astanga yoga, one is now in a position to worship the supreme Godhead who is Krishna. This is the ultimate objective, Bhakti yoga. But to attain this process, one must understand the other stages comfortably. This point is brought out in the Chaitanya-caritamrita which states that: krishna-bhakti haya abhidheya-pradhana bhakti-mukha-niriksaka karma-yoga-jnana. This translates as:

Devotional service to Krishna is the chief function of the living entity. There are different methods for the liberation of the conditioned soul – karma, jnana, yoga and bhakti – but they are all dependent on bhakti (India Divine).

Works Cited

Harvey, B. Buddhism. London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2001.

India Divine. “Karma, Jnana and Bhakti: The Three Paths of the Vedas.” Web.

Jayaram, V. “Atman-The Soul Eternal.” Hindu Website. 2008. Web.

Shah, C. “Upanishads: An Introduction.” International Forum for Neovedantins. Web.

The use of symbols of worship is a common phenomenon in virtually all religions. Usually, the symbols are used of symbolize a certain concealed meaning. This is evidenced even in the world’s most popular religion, Christianity, which uses a variety of symbols to symbolize certain meanings. This paper is an in-depth exploration of the symbols used in Tibetan Buddhism and Christianity and their respective meanings.

Tibetan Buddhism symbols normally vary depending on the culture in which they are found. However, there are some common symbols that will be found in virtually every Buddhist temple. Some of the symbols of Tibetan Buddhism include the stupa, the wheel and the lotus. Reflecting on the aforementioned symbols is an integral part of the rituals performed by Tibetan Buddhists (Beer, 2003, p. 43).

Another common symbol is the bell whose primary function is driving out of evil spirits. It is normally harmonized with the dorje, a symbol that symbolizes the compassion associated with men.

The bell symbolizes the wisdom characteristic of women in this case. The dorje is also used as a symbol for Buddha hood invincibleness, and also as a meditation tool. Another important symbol in Buddhism in the incense that is burnt as an offering when making special requests to Buddha. Buddhism also uses a number of locations symbols. One such location is Mt. Kailash which is seen as a temple in the Buddism religion (Fainstein, 2008, p. 1).

The most common religion in the world, Christianity, also has its symbols. Although most Christian symbols are still in use today, they were mainly used during the early days when the Christian religion was being established. For instance, water has always been used as a symbol in Christianity. In most cases, it is used as a symbol for purity or cleansing.

This can be confirmed by the Christian ritual of Baptism in which Christians are baptized using water to signify cleansing of sins. Fire is also used in Christianity to represent light and the holy spirit. The ritual involving fire is performed by the use of candles.

Most of the Christian symbols are direct derivations from the bible (Gray, 2003, p. 1). Another symbol is that of a fish which in Greek is seen as an acronym for the name of Jesus Christ, worshipped by Christians. There is also the dove which is mainly used by Christians as a symbol of the Holy Spirit and a lamb which is taken as the sacrifice that God made in giving his son Jesus Christ to die for sins of Christians.

The crucifix and the cross have been used by Christians since ancient times for protection against evil spirits. The cross signifies the crucifixion of Jesus and thus with the cross, Christians believe that it has the power to protect them from evil spirits. Another common symbol is the number 666 which signifies the antichrist and the end of the world (Guy, 2000, p. 1).

As evidenced in the discussion above, symbols are an inseparable part of all religions. Believers of specific religion s give importance to certain events in the history of their religion and come up with a symbol that reminds them of such events. Thus symbols are used to signify major events and values of various religions.

This fact has been proven in the discussion of the symbols for Christianity. The symbols are mostly derived from the Bible, the book containing major events in the history of Christianity. In Tibetan Buddhism, the symbols also come from past events and beliefs of the Buddhists.

Reference List

Beer, R. (2003). The Handbook of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols. California. Wadsworth Publishing.

Fainstein, L. (2008). Buddhist Symbols. Web.

Gray, D. (2003). Christian Symbols. Web.

Guy, A. (2000). Christian Symbols. Web.

Is it possible for human beings to live a life that has no suffering? How can a human being keep away from the selfish desires of the human nature? These are some of the teachings from the Eastern philosophies. There are a number of Eastern philosophies like, Buddhism and Hinduism in India, Taoism, Confucianism and Ch’an Buddhism in china, Samurai tradition and Zen Buddhism in Japan. The philosophies have various teachings. They have been studied by many westerners and they have been seen to have profound knowledge and thus they are relevant today even though they were written by thinkers who lived centuries ago (Bruder, 2005).

Buddhism began in India. It was founded by a person called Siddhartha Gautama. He was later called Buddha “the Enlightened one” (Bruder, 2005). It arose so as to address suffering that was so rampant in human beings. Buddha sought to find out why suffering exits and to do this he had to abandon his family. After meditating for a long time he found enlightenment (Harvey, 2005, p 45). Taoism originated in China. This religion has shaped the Chinese way of life for centuries (Hartz, 2005).

The fundamental concept in Taoism and Buddhism is that they both believe in reincarnation. The reincarnation however is different in each philosophy. In Buddhism they believe that life has no end and many reincarnations occur in a human being’s life. They believe that one comes in a better life in the successive rebirths. And one will be reincarnated until free from suffering and pain. In Taoism they believe the soul goes to another life (Hartz, 2005).

In Taoism the aim is attain Tao while the Buddhists strive to reach the nirvana and adhere to the four noble truths (Harvey, 1990). They both belief that to reach nirvana or Tao; the human beings must banish all the worldly desires. The focus should be on achieving the goals, and this is only possible if they live properly. They both encourage the human beings to move from selfish desires and seek spirituality.

Both philosophies support compassion and integrity. Human beings are urged to live as brothers and sisters. They philosophies emphasizes on practicing what we say, and having consideration for our fellow human beings (Quirk, 2008).

Taoism appears the most persuasive philosophy. This is because of the teachings from the great thinkers Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu. Lao Tzu understood the dangers of using force. He said that war should be last thing being it always comes with regret. Diplomacy should be tried with the warring parties. The wise ruler will change the mind of their enemies even without having to use violence. The rulers should be humble when dealing with their subjects. When they do so, they get victory with less effort (Bruder2005)

The wise ruler is able to govern well because he encourages broadmindedness which in turns helps people to tolerate one another. This philosophy is very relevant today when we have so many conflicts going on in the world. If the leaders of the said countries would try diplomacy we would have fewer wars. This would mean less people being killed in the war zones (Livia and Lafargue, 1978). Lao also noted that when we have too many laws they create confusion and this in turns leads to may people being at loggerhead with the law. Hence this rule will only have the necessary laws in place and his state will be in peace.

He advocated for life as suggested by Tao where there is tranquility, patience. That life should be left to take its natural course without interference by politicians. Chuang Tzu also believed that life must be left to take its course and this will ensure people live in freedom because they will be free form the chains of riches and power. In this way those who have a lot would give to those with too little. This would ensure that the greedy people who steal from the poor to add to their riches would stop this vice (Livia and Lafargue, 1978).

The world would become better if the teachings from these philosophies are revisited and put into practice. They seem to address modern day issues such as fear, worry and stress that bother people nowadays. One cannot know where there are going unless they know where they are coming from.

References

Bruder, M. (2005) 6^th ed. Philosophy: The Power of Ideas and other voices. Eastern Influences. California: MacGraw-Hill.

Hartz, P.R. (2005) Taoism world religions. New York: Facts on File Inc.

Harvey, Peter. (1990) “Introduction to Buddhism: teachings, history and practices”. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Livia, K, LaFargue (1978) Lao-tzu and the Tao-te-ching. Miami: Sunny Press Quirk, J. key Character Qualities in Buddhism and Taoism a Universal Perspectives on Core Eastern Values. Web.

Introduction

Morality forms part of Buddhist teachings and there is no division of Buddhism that falls short of underlining the significance of the moral life. The writings of Buddhism speak clearly of virtues frequently related to morality such as non-violence and compassion, and the Buddhist adaptation of the Golden Rule advices us not to do anything to others that we would like done unto us.

Even though newcomers to Buddhism are frequently amazed by the variety of Asian traditions, as different in form as Zen and Tibetan Buddhism, the various traditions are almost similar when it comes to their teachings on morality. There is a common core fundamental to all the different cultures, norms, and philosophical teachings of the diverse schools.

This core is made up of the principles, guidelines, and the virtues as stated by the Buddha in the 5^th century BCE (Rāhula, pp. 32). These teachings continue to guide and control the behavior of more than 300 million Buddhists found around the world.

The purpose of this paper is to expound on the concept of morality in Buddhism, and how the various Buddhist teachings, such as the Four Noble Truths, have enhanced my morality in me and in relating to other persons, Buddhists and non-Buddhists.

The Four Noble Truths and Morality

The Four Noble Truths were delivered by the Buddha in his first sermon. They are as following:

• Suffering is part of our life on earth (dukkha);
• Suffering is caused by a hunger for something (samudaya);
• Suffering can be brought to an end when the hunger or desire stops (nirhodha);
• The means to cassation of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path. (magga).

Although there have been differing interpretations, the concept of morality is evident in the truths, and even extending to the Eightfold Path (Allan, para. 4). The first section teaches followers to recognize suffering in all its forms. In Buddhism practice, suffering has a much wider meaning that that associated with the general usage of the word.

In its widest use, it informs followers of the reality of death in the end. The dukkha has influenced my daily responses to sufferings such as hunger, thirst, and sickness which are naturally painful conditions, or joblessness, economic hardships or family conflicts.

Dukkha informs that whenever suffering sets into our lives, we should realize that it is a part of life and should strive to end it through moral was.

For instance, when we encounter common sufferings such as joblessness or family conflicts, the first step should be to recognize the truth of suffering, and this opens the eyes to finding solutions to the source of suffering, rather than acting without deliberation, which frequently leads to immoral actions. The Buddha taught that before we comprehend life and all that relates to it, we must understand ourselves first.

The second noble truth mentions that the origin of suffering is a desire (tanha) for something. We continually look for happiness from external objects, frequently material things, however, regardless of how successful we are, we always search for more.

This is a major cause of suffering. We not peg our happiness to material things, but also on opinions and ideas about ourselves and the environment surrounding us. And when the world does not behave according to our expectations, it leads to us being frustrated and hence suffering. Buddha warned against this hunger and instead advised us to understand ourselves for it is the first step to ending suffering.

Samudaya teaches Buddhists to avoid unnecessary desires, which in itself is not moral, and that we should live a life full of value. In order to have a life full of value, we should understand ourselves, and our purpose on earth. Obviously, this practice will ultimately to us leading a moral life as we will have a deeper comprehension of ourselves, and hence can help us discern what really makes us happy.

The third noble truth is an expansion of the second truth; it informs us of the fact that suffering ends when the hunger or desire for objects ceases. The Buddha, in his sermons regarding the Four Noble Truths, asserted that through diligent practice, we can end the desire to have or possess certain objects or traits. After this satisfaction with oneself, a Buddhist becomes enlightened (Rachels and Rachels, pp. 78).

The last noble truth mentions that the Eightfold Path is the ultimately ends the ring of suffering and is a way of creating insight into realism and to wipe out greed, abhorrence, and delusion.

The Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path has traditionally been viewed as a set of principles for moral conduct among Buddhist adherents, and it is very easy to see why this is so. The eight items in the eightfold path and are normally grouped into three. These are “right view, right conduct, and right practice” (Rachels and Rachels, pp. 77).

This arrangement assists in remembering and comprehending the nature of each item in the list. These guidelines are not a chain of successive steps, rather, each item is a path in itself. The eightfold path, while initially aimed at enlightening us, serves also as behavioral guidelines and can successfully inspire moral conduct and promote social accord.

Right View (Prajna)

The first item in this category is right understanding. Recalling that the first step to suffering is ignorance, it is very plain why the Buddha mentioned it first. Having good understanding entails comprehending that life is temporary and that a person’s delusion of a separate and individual self leads to discontent in one’s life.

The second item is right thought and in this teaching, Buddha informs us that right thought involves shunning unhealthy states of mind that can lead to suffering, for example, greed, anger, and suffering. This item sets us on the right path to a moral life as it not only calls for avoidance, but also involves proactively cultivating compassionate thoughts and hopes for others.

Right Conduct

Under right speech, Buddha mentioned three items. These are “right speech, right action, and right livelihood” (Rachels and Rachels, pp. 77). Right conduct is considered as a leading principle towards having moral discipline, which ultimately leads to moral conduct and supports other items of the eightfold path (Allan, para. 6). The significance of speech under Buddhism is quite plain: words can break or save lives, result into foes or allies, and initiate a war or create peace. To lead a moral life, we must cultivate a compassionate speech.

Right action refers to the avoidance of actions prohibited by the five precepts: deceit, stealing, murder, using strong substances, and sexual misconduct. Rather, Buddha advised that we must act with revere, generosity, self-discipline, sincerity, and kindness.

All of these dos and don’ts have often led to a mutual co-existence between my neighbors and me. Right livelihood guidelines teach us that we must earn our livelihood in a righteous manner that is both legal and not oppressive of others. To me, right livelihood is one that meets my needs and improves other people’s well-being.

Right Practice

Right practice entails “right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration” (Rachels and Rachels, pp. 76). Following Buddha’s teachings is not simple and one must put in a lot of effort. However, this does not mean that we should strain or struggle, rather, we should try to develop a deeper understanding and practice tirelessly. In addition, we should be conscious of our thoughts, feelings and actions so that they do not control us. Buddhists are required to have right concentration, or avoid distractions towards their pursuance of fruitful actions, i.e. total focus on positive thoughts and actions. The Buddha taught that this can be attained through various forms of meditation.

Conclusion

Buddhist teachings on morality are founded on cosmic law rather than laws handed down by a supernatural being. In leading a moral life, we attain the embodiment of Dharma, and anyone who lives according to the precepts and virtues can have good karmic outcomes, such as happiness, a good reincarnation in the next life, and finally the attainment of nirvana, characterized by the end of suffering and desires.

Works Cited

Allan, John. The Eightfold Path. 2008. Web.

Rachels, James and Rachels, Stuart. The Right Thing to Do: Basic Readings in Moral Philosophy, 5th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2009. Print.

Rāhula, Walpola. What the Buddha taught. London: Oneworld. 1997. Print.

Karma, a concept that is used by both Hinduism and Buddhism, may be described simply as action or doing, including any kind of intentional action either physical or oral. Basically, it involves all actions that are either right or wrong, as well as the moral and immoral choices; however, actions that are involuntary or those that are done unconsciously are not included in the description basically because they do not involve making choices or volition (Gyatso 3).

Karma is basically viewed in relation to the law of moral causation and forms an integral part in the doctrine of Buddhism, although this belief was commonly held in India earlier on even when Buddha had come into existence. However, the current practice has its source from the works of Buddha. The main philosophical argument involved in Kamma is the inequality that exists in the society in relation to sociological, physiological and psychological endowments (Gyatso 52). For instance, the society comprises people from different classes of wealth, different levels of intelligence and different levels of morality among other inequalities. In Buddhism, although genetic and environmental factors may have a hand in this inequality, Kamma also plays a significant role especially when the past and current actions are taken into perspective. Indeed, human beings should be held responsible for the miseries and issues that dog their lives based on their actions.

This is basically the same view held by Hinduism where it is taken that human beings create their own destiny such that , a person will reap what he sees in his li fe on this world. In other words, our actions, past and present will determine the future and Karma will obviously rebound whether in the current life or next births; it generally involves our thoughts, words, actions and influences according to Hinduism.

Upanishads Teachings

Basically, the Upanishads view a person’s nature (self) and as directly connected to knowledge in such a way that, through knowledge, one is able to attain self-realization and overcome all the miseries of life. Indeed, the teachings tend to create a balance between spirituality and ordinary human life in the sense that, by following the path of attaining knowledge and the quest to understand the oneself as human through the use of individual intelligence, wisdom and talent, a person is becomes more endowed with capability to define his own destiny (Gamay para 4-5). Thus the Hindu view human beings as endowed with faculties to define the kind of life they need to live and a fitting life can only be attained by following the teachings of Upanishad.

Buddhism Nobles on Human Beings

Buddha Shakyamuni provided his teachings based on the enlightenment acquired beneath the Bodhi Tree and identified Four Noble Truths which included “Truth of Suffering; the Origins of Suffering; the Cessation of Suffering; the Truth of the Path” (Simpkins and Simpkins 52). In suffering, people tend to experience both internal and external suffering whereby, internal suffering will involve lack of happiness, pervasive suffering, birth, sickness, aging and death, while external suffering will involve realms that tend to create mental suffering as one meditates upon them. Basically, Buddhism teaches that one’s suffering provides experiences that enable human beings to understand and believe the truth about various aspects. Moreover, human beings have the capacity to eliminate and end the sufferings through overcoming of delusional thinking which is the main cause of internal sufferings; thus defining the pleasure they require.

Buddhism Marks of Reality mainly comprises three characteristics that are evident as emerging from the Buddha’s dissertations, the major ones being devoted to each characteristic. Buddhists believe that there are three characteristics of life: “Humans suffer; humans and all things have no-self; and all things, including human beings, are impermanent” (Kolupahana 36-40).

Comparison between Hindu and Buddhism Views of the Human Beings

In Hinduism, there is not just one purpose of human life, but four which include Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha- enlightenment. Dharma generally means one’s “destiny or purpose in life as defined by one’s vocation or career, which is often defined by class and family” (Kalupahana 79). Artha mainly refers to prosperity or success in worldly endeavors despite the fact that the definitive goal of Hinduism is enlightenment. Moreover, wealth in the form of social order is an important aspect of human life. Kama is more concerned with pleasure, more so the romantic love and sexual pleasure and holds that human life is never complete without fulfillment of the desires for pleasure (Kalupahana 32). Lastly, Moksha, which is the ultimate goal of the Hindu or the main purpose of life, holds that, human beings will strive to attain enlightenment or self-actualization in life.

Both the Hindu and the Buddhism have a concept that defines the destiny of human beings purpose in life referred to as Dharma and dhamma respectively. However, the former posits that an individual has an obligation in the society and has to fulfill it before he gets acceptance from both self and the world at large, while the latter holds that a human being is well endowed to avoid worldly suffering. In addition, both Hindu and Buddhist believe in compassion and respect for all living beings including human beings and in particular, provide teachings that are aimed to benefit people as human beings; moreover, Both Hindus and Buddhists believe in the idea of karma (destiny of humankind), as well as the rebirth of human beings whereby following the death of a person, there is a new life that is more fulfilling than the current one.

Despite these similarities, there are differences that are evident in the two mainly in the area of social formation. Basically, Buddhism takes cognizance of the need for a balance between the individual freedom of spiritual nourishment and social wellbeing in the current life; however, Hindu omits such philosophy. Another difference is seen in the sense that Buddha taught his followers that life is equal to suffering, such that without suffering, one will never know what is true or not (Gyatso 36-39); conversely, Hindu’s teachings emphasize on pursuit of happiness as the ultimate goal although suffering will be inevitable in such an Endeavour. Moreover, although both seem to hold that meditation is the path to enlightenment, Hindu goes further to incorporate other ways such as compassion and doing good works as accompaniments to meditation.

Issues Affecting Christians, Muslims and Judaism Relation

Issue of State and Secularism

Basically, the three religions are torn apart by their belief in secularization whereby Muslims do not believe in the separation of ‘religion from state’ (secularism). However, both Christianity and Judaism do not mix the affairs of the church with the affairs of the government as the two are seen as separate entities with different ends. In Islamic oriented countries, although the functions of the government may be conducted by different individuals that are not aligned to religion, the religion tends to play a bigger role in defining the direction that politics will take. Moreover, there are strict restrictions and prohibitions concerning the religion making it not to attach a lot of importance to the external form of government as long as it is well-being of the society is taken care of and the Divine law (shariah) is applied. This means that all forms of rule are all valid in the Islamic community as long as they abide to the norms of the Islamic faith; the case of the middle east countries may be taken as an example of the connection that exists between the Islamic faith and the government, whereby, the government cannot make certain policies touching social norm without consulting religion.

In Christianity, the position is that the church is supposed to be governed by the divine scriptures (basically the biblical teachings) while the state should be governed by laws that are made separately by man; in other words, the issue of secularization should be upheld to separate the state from religion and where there seems to be religious doctrines that conflict with the function of the state, secular laws should be made to take precedence. Basically, this is an issue that rubbed some nations the wrong way based on the tension created on the position of kadhi courts in the state. The main issue of contention is that while Muslims view kadhi courts as part of their pre-requisite, Christians view it as away promoting one religion practices and beliefs; therefore the relation between them continues to be one characterized by tension.

Issues of Western Civilization and Moral Conduct

One issue or practice that differentiates the three religions is the issue of culture whereby, while Muslims and Jews do denounce the consumption of swine flesh (pork), Christians have the freedom to consume it. In addition, Islamic faith completely forbids alcohol consumption and/or intoxication; indeed, in most Muslim countries, beer brewing and selling is a taboo and is punishable under the Islamic laws; however, though alcohol intoxication is forbidden in the Christian faith, its consumption is normally not exclusively forbidden in various Christian faiths, for instance, in the catholic faith, one is not denied the privilege of taking alcohol so long as it does not amount to intoxication. Another area of contention between the religions touches on the free-mixing of sexes, whereby in Muslim community it is discouraged based on the highly emphasized aspect of purity and decency whereas to Christians, mixing of the sexes is never an issue to lose sleep about.

Therefore, such beliefs and practices among the three religions intensely prompt and heighten tension among them, more so in the event of inter-religion misunderstanding. In relation to evangelism, unlike Christians and Jews who can influence people to convert to their religion, Muslims use different approach that does not create any pressure on a person to convert though may be persuaded to do so. Indeed, the teachings of the Qur’an clearly illustrate that conveyance of the message of God is the primary objective; thus any convert will do so from the understanding of the message. However in Christianity, though preaching the word of God is primary, the work of Missionary tends to be very influential and to some extent has resulted into conflict between them and other religions especially when the Christian missionaries try to penetrate and introduce Christianity in the Muslim community.

Efforts Made To Overcome the Existing Tensions

Acceptance of the other and Respect for Differences

Availability of correct information about the various biblical faiths will show all Christians that their beliefs are destined to a common goal. For example, all the Christian faiths believe in one God who is deemed to be supernatural, believe in resurrection of Jesus, the Messiah and aim at providing spiritual nourishment to the faithful among other similarities. Generally, it can not be denied that religion play a very big role in the society and therefore it is important that all the faiths take cognizance of the strength that the society will have were they to unite in their efforts to endeavor their theological/spiritual, moral and cultural agenda to the society. The Catholic Church has been in the forefront in trying to unite all the faiths of the world claiming that it is through communion that the world will be peaceful. For instance, the recent Vatican declarations have been on communion, the message being that all human beings are creatures of God and it is important to view others with dignity and respect regardless of their faith. Moreover, respect for each other should follow through the inter-faith co-operation and mutual acceptance and in the resulting respect, made more insightfully by love and reconciliation of the human society.

Actual Engagement in Dialogue

When all the faiths understand one another and strive to uphold acceptance and uncompromised respect for each other, they create a formidable platform for engaging in constructive dialogue. One case to note is the Vatican declarations of communion among the church and other religions stating that “religions are invited to meet, engage in dialogue and act to bring people together, especially in times of crisis and wars” (Synod of Bishops Para. 76); more so in relation to the political conflict between Palestine and Israel. This was emphasized by Pope Benedict XVI during his lecture at Regensburg where he stated that there is “the need for the convergence of, and to invite a dialogue on, faith and reason and on religion and violence” (Heredia Para. 1). He specifically pointed out that there is need for peaceful coexistence between the Jews and the Christians, emphasizing that the both should live in peace in “their homeland, with secure internationally recognized borders and in peace with their neighbors” (Synod of Bishops Para 78). In addition, interfaith cooperation in matters touching on the welfare of the society such as assistance for refugees or victims of disasters play a big role in smoothing out the inherent differences that are the subject of conflict.

Works Cited

Gamay, Atam. “Teachings of Upanishads.” Akhandjyoti Magazine. 2004. Web.

Gyatso, Geshe K. Introduction to Buddhism: An Explanation of the Buddhist Way of Life. London, Tharpa Publications UK. 2001.

Heredia, Rudolf C. Papal Reflections: Benedict XVI’s Lecture at Regensburg. New Delhi. Indian Social Institute. 2006. Web.

Kolupahana, David. Buddhist philosophy: A historical analysis. Honolulu Hawaii, University of Hawaii Press. 1976.

Simpkins, Alexander and Simpkins, Annellen M. Simple Buddhism: A Guide to Enlightened Living. North Clarendon, Tuttle Publishing. 2000.

Synod of Bishops. “The Catholic Church In The Middle East: Communion And Witness.” Special Assembly For The Middle East. Vatican City. 2009. Web.

Abstract

Death is one of the natural processes in life. It involves the cessation of life, where all living things enter into a lifeless form. It is shrouded with many mysteries and taboos.

Even though no one really knows what death is, several attempts have been made to explain its nature. One thing is certain though: death is definite. Many cultures in the world have a described philosophy and norms about death. Among them are the Buddhist communities. Buddhism distinguishes life and death. Life is permanent but death is the transition of a human soul to either one of the six Buddhist realms.

The realm that one is reborn depends on ones Karma. If one had such a negative karma, they are reborn into a lower realm. The highest realm is nirvana, a world of total happiness. This world is attainable to any person, while living or dead. In life, for a person to reach nirvana they must live a life devoid of materialism, while treating other humans with utmost goodwill. Absolute nirvana is only attainable by the holiest of Buddhists, after they die.

Buddhists death cultures vary from community to community, but have several common features, the most common being prayers offered to the dead and their families by the monks. Even though some modern Buddhists mourn expressively, traditional Buddhism does not allow for mourning. It asks its adherents to accept death as it is not the end of life. Even though Buddhism popularity is spreading to the western cultures, it still does not answer the question of what death is.

Introduction

Death is one of the most mysteriously occurring phenomena in the entire world. It is revered, feared celebrated and even hated. All world communities have a way of marking death either through pompous ceremonies or with a lot of sobriety and mourning. There are many taboos surrounding death.

These taboos describe cultural practices that accompany this period. Some communities have even described the type of food to be eaten and the type of cloths to be worn by the bereaved. The nature of death still eludes even the most knowledgeable minds. This is because man has never been able to define life. The biggest question is what happens to living things when they die. Death is a phenomena surrounded by numerous question that do not have clear-cut answers.

For example, if a person brain ceases to function, but other body parts do, is that person dead? If death is the ceasation of life, what is life? Is there a boundary between life and death? Is there a difference between life and consciousness or death and unconsciousness? If a person is unconscious, can they be referred to as dead? Even though there are no answers to this question, what is known is that death is an irreversible phenomenon. Once a person dies, they cannot come back to life.

According to scientists, death may be regarded as more of a cessation of life so that the various biological functions of the body no longer work. However, it is still difficult to determine what death is. While different world communities have similar views of death, Buddhists have one of the most peculiar philosophies, which elaborate the definiteness of death and the impermanence of life. The purpose of this paper is to explain the concept of death from the Buddhist point of view.

Buddhism Views on Death

Scholars report that Buddhism is both a religion and philosophy, with diverse customs, beliefs and practices, as taught by Gautama Buddha. Gautama Buddha lived and taught his philosophy in 5 BC India. These teachings revolve around the issues of life and death. Its doctrine teach that all human beings are subject to suffering through rebirths, but can escape their despair and suffering and achieve the state of nirvana, an absolute world of total bliss.

Buddhism teaches its followers that even though human beings hold life so dearly living is not a permanent occurrence. Death is part of the natural process. Once a living thing has been born, it will eventually live to old age and die.

Even though a person eventually dies, Buddha reports that it is not the absolute end of life but just a transition of the soul from the current body into another realm. The human spirit continues to live, will eventually seek to be reborn, and attached to a new body. What determines the nature of the new rebirth is one’s past actions; both positive and negative. The causes and effects of one’s past actions are called Karma. Before an individual’s Karma emerges, he/she needs to b e reborn first in one of the six realms.

They include human beings, heaven, hell, hungry ghost, animal, and Asura. Existence in any of these Karmas is not definite, as one simply transits from one realm to another depending on the effects of ones Karma. Therefore it means one can remain in a certain realm if they do not improve their conduct of living (Tang, paras 2, 3).

The process of living is supposed to lead one to a state of nirvana, a world of true happiness, joy and satisfaction. Buddha realized that this state is achievable by any one if they commit their lives to avoiding the desire for worldly pleasures and ill will. Nirvana is an immortal phenomenon, beyond nature and cannot be understood easily.

It can only be experienced, not expressed in words. It is the unbinding of a person from the three sins, namely: lobha (greed), dvesha (hate) and moha (Ignorance). It is a world beyond the common sorrows and afflictions that accompany the existence of normal mortals. Liberation from these afflictions occurs only when one enters into the realm of nirvana (O’Brien para 2, 3).

It is the final destination of all human beings. However, it is not a place outside this world, where people go after they die but a realm that can be realized in this world. It is a world within a world, a realization of life in absolute happiness, goodwill and pure enlightenment on good virtues (BDEA paras 2, 3, 4, 6). However, different Buddhist communities believe that nirvana is either attainable in life or in death (O’Brien para 4).

In life, it is the ability to overcome the craving of the joys and pleasures of this world. A person experiences a “world of real ecstasy” and all the person Karmic debts are paid when a person reaches this state in life. Reaching this state as earlier mentioned requires one to live a life of absolute goodwill. In death, only very few monks experience nirvana, a state called absolute or total nirvana (Buddhist temples para 1, 2)

The fear of death, according to Buddha comes from the fact that human beings can foretell their death. They have the knowledge that life is definite and it will eventually end at some point. Death is seen in the changes that happen in the nature surrounding us. These changes culminate in the end off a person’s youth hood that ushers in old age. The eventual destination towards a persons the realization that youth hood is just a fleeting moment in ones life (Tang para 4).

Halifax explains that the most intimate relationships people can have in this life is with a dying person. Grieving is the result of this relationship. It leads the person mourning to ask several hard questions about death. However, Buddhism explains that grieving can occur before or after death.

People can anticipated the death of a close friend or relative and grieve with them before they die. Halifax calls it anticipated grief. It may also occur after the news of the death of a person. Those mourning experience a deep sense of loss and thus enter into a world of mourning (1).

A person can however choose how to mourn the dead. Even though modern Buddhism sees grief as a weakness, Buddhists can still choose how to express the sorrows of death. A good modern Buddhist has the option of mourning the dead through the expression of sadness, anger, anguish and crying.

However, traditional Buddhist explains that grieving may not bring a person back to life and therefore not useful. Instead, they proscribe that the best way to grief is to accept death peacefully and not to let the dead be disturbed by the mourning of the living. Letting go of the dead is a humbling experience that makes the dead to be our ancestors and thus part of us (Halifax 3).

The Buddhist believes one of Gautama Buddha’s experiences informs this acceptance of death. A woman had lost her young daughter at an early age and thus experiences an unimaginable sense of loss. She grieved so much as she wanted her daughter back to life. She could not accept death.

However, Buddha had about her suffering and anguish and summoned her. The woman wanted Gautama Buddha to bring her daughter back to life. Gautama reportedly agreed on condition that the woman would first bring to the Buddha, a seedling from a family that had not experienced death. The woman realized that death is a universal inexperience, as she could not find such a family. She thus accepted her daughters death (Tang para 8).

The Buddhists have quite an elaborate ceremony to mark death. Tang explains that a dead person is allowed up to eight hour after dying before anyone touches them, as they believe that they spirit of a dead person lingers for a while and that it is important to give it time to be transited to the next realm.

A dead body is treated with a lot of care so as not to anger the dead person’s spirit (para 20). Religionfacts explains that the first ceremony is called “offering the cloths on behalf of the dead” and it involves monks assembling at the home of the deceased. They then offer the “Five Precepts” followed by the recitation of this well-known stanza:

“Impermanent alas are formations, subject to rise and fall.
Having arisen, they cease; their subsiding is bliss.” (para 10)

Next the monks are offered “pamsukula,” a new white cloth, which is torn and stitched back into a robe for the monks (para 11). The relatives of the dead sit together in a circle in reverently, pouring water in a mug placed at the centre while the monks intone this ritualistic offering chant:

“Just as the water fallen on high ground flows to a lower level,
Even so what is given from here accrues to the departed.
Just as the full flowing rivers fill the ocean,
Even so what is given from here accrues to the departed.” (para 12)

Three days after the funeral or cremation, mataka-bana, a burial right that involves preaching by the monks in the house of the deceased is conducted. The monks gather at the homestead of the dead person and offer a preaching from the Buddhist creed concurrent with the occasion. After this preaching, the relatives of the dead recite the necessary quotations on death. Later on refreshments are served to the bereaved and the monks are offered gifts (para 13).

Sanghika dana, the Buddhist ceremony to give alms, is held three months after the death to remember the dead (para 14). The time when this prayer is held varies from society to society. Some Buddhist communities may pray for up to seven years after death of a person. This duration of prayer is concurrent with the period of time the particular community believes life will take to reincarnate in the next realm (Tang para 21).

Buddhism is such a liberal culture that it allows for both burial and cremation of the dead (Nye para 12). This however, must be conducted within acceptable Buddhist norms and according to the wishes of the deceased. Cremation is the most acceptable form of disposing a dead body in many Buddhist cultures.

Some communities cremate the dead together with their valuables, arguing that these possessions will be useful in the next realm (para 14). However, Buddha did not proscribe the preferred ways of disposing ashes after cremation. He wanted people to understand that the body is just a physical form, void of any spiritual existence. After a person dies, the body would just return to the physical realms of nature. Thus most Buddhist either scatter the ashes to the sea or enshrine them in buildings (para 15).

In conclusion, Buddhism teaches people to accept death as part if nature. It consoles its adherents with the belief death is only the end of the physical body, that the spirit lives beyond death. Based on this precept, Buddhism therefore does not allow for grieving of the dead.

This belief supports the idea of reincarnation into a different form depending on ones action when alive. These actions determine what realm a person transits to after they die. The absolute wish for all Buddhist is to be reincarnated in nirvana, a world devoid of any physical suffering. This is usually the final destination for all people. However further studies should be conducted to establish several whether nirvana is achievable or not. It should also be established how a person’s Karma liberates one from hell, the lowest realm.

Works Cited

BDEA. The Third Nobel Truth. Buddhanet. Web.

Buddhist Temples Nirvana Buddhism. 2011. Web.

Halifax, Joan. A Buddhist Perspective of Death.” Upay Zen Centre. 2011. Web.

Nye. Buddhist Belief in Funerals. Buddhism Inte. 2007. Web.

O’Brien, Barbara. Nirvana. About.com Guide. 2011. Web.

Religionfacts. Buddhist Life Cycle Rituals. 2011. Web.

Tang, Nguyen. Buddhist View on Death and Rebirth. Urban Dharma. 1999. Web.