Category: Buddhism

The position accorded to women in all spheres of activity has been a subject of considerable interest in recent decades. Significant changes in the role played by women in social, economic, and even political life transcend the position accorded to women in many religious traditions of the world. The social freedom enjoyed by women and their equality of status in Buddhist societies had evoked many Western observers to distinguish them from those of the Middle East, the Far East, and Europe, where other religions of the world are practiced. In this perspective, it is imperative to consider the place accorded to women in Buddhism, though very few countries like Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, etc., are following Buddhist tenets of social practices, and analyzing its influence in these countries will be significant in the changing world social scenario.

With womens emancipation and increased pressure from feminist activists, the universal ideology of masculine superiority is being challenged everywhere. Segregation of sexes has been prevalent in varying degrees among major world religions, whether it is based on Confucian code, Strictures of Manu, or Words of the Prophet. In the international social set up the Confucian code lays down detailed rules on how men and women should behave in each others presence. The Hindu Religion adopts the Code of Law of Manu, most anti-feminist literature that forbade womens religious rights and spiritual life. In Islamic society, sexual segregation pervades all aspects of life. Whereas, social scientists observe that women in Buddhist society enjoyed freedom from its very inception, and the Buddhist principles will be more relevant today.

Indian society, around the 5th century B.C, in which Buddhism developed, did not differ from that in other places, and women were accorded inferior position. The primordial principle in the Vedic-Upanishadic philosophy, which was dominant in the Buddhas time, was the male-principle, and this provided justification for the exclusion of women generally from social and spiritual activity (Silva, 1994). Many other religions accord different positions to men than women, but the part played by women in the early history of Buddhism, notably during Buddhas own time, could be considered as an indicator of the place accorded to women in Buddhism. The attitude of Buddha to the role of women was an enlightened one, as the Buddhist teaching is referred to as the one that could lead all beings to liberation. What Buddha discovered was a universal law, which existed independently, where male or female can discover it by following the directions of the Buddha. The Buddhist doctrine of rebirth also asserts that gender can change over successive transmigrations, as the Dhamma for the most part ignores the sexual identity of persons. Thus, the spiritual ability of women to achieve Nirvana had been identified by Lord Buddha after considering womens spiritual and social status.

While reflecting on the issue related to the place accorded to women in Buddhism, it will be appropriate to consider Sanghamitta Day celebrated by Sri Lanka Buddhists. It marks the anniversary of the arrival of the Bhikkhuni (Nun) Sanghamitta, daughter of Emperor Asoka of ancient India, in Sri Lanka to establish the Buddhist Bhikkhuni Order. In the time of Lord, Buddha women had inferior status, yet he established the Bhikkhuni-Sangha, a female group, counterpart to the male Sangha. Though the Bhikkhuni order bought by Sanghamitta proved to be capable, it did not survive in Sri Lanka due to war-related disasters in the Indian subcontinent.

Along with the spiritual freedom of women, an inquiry into the social setup of Sri Lanka and the status of women will be helpful in understanding the influence of Buddhism on womens liberation. The comments made by many European observers, who had witnessed the plight of women in Europe and Hindu and Islamic societies of India during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, on the women of Sri Lanka show that women of Sri Lanka, predominantly Buddhist, enjoyed equal status than their counterparts hailing from another religious background. A better example of womens emancipation may be seen from the following accounts of Hugh Boyd, who came as an envoy to the Kandyan Court in 1782.

The Cingalese women exhibit a striking contrast to those of all other Oriental Nations in some of the most prominent and distinctive features of the character. Instead of that lazy apathy, insipid modesty, and sour austerity, which have characterized the sex throughout the Asiatic world, in every period of its history, in this island, they possess that active sensibility, winning bashfulness and amicable ease, for which the women of modern Europe are peculiarly famed. & The Cingalese neither keep their woman in confinement nor impose on them any humiliating restraints (Mrs. Dewaraja, 1981).

The social condition prevailing in the Sri Lankan island is obtained from the accounts of European navigators and colonizers. By linking circumstantial and historical evidence, we may construe that the liberal attitude towards women in Sri Lanka is a trend that has continued from the remote past. Thailand and Burma [Myanmar] also inherited similar social cultures, most probably with the Buddhist influence. According to Sir Charles Bell, British Political Representative in Tibet, Bhutan, and Sikkim, in 1928 women were not kept in seclusion, were accustomed to mix with the other sex throughout their lives, and the solid fact remains that in Buddhist countries women hold a remarkably good position. Burma, Ceylon and Tibet exhibit the same picture. (Mrs. Dewaraja, 1981).

It is also worth noting that unlike Christianity and Hinduism, marriage is not a sacrament in Buddhism. The Sigalovada Sutta by Buddha prescribes duties of husband and wife, and Sinhala laws are equally applicable and binding to both husband and wife. It is also worth noting that prior to European occupation, both sexes in Sri Lanka had equal facilities for divorce, and there was no religious barrier for remarriage of widows and divorcees. All early Buddhist literatures suggest that free mixing of the sexes, even between monks and nuns, and exchange of ideas was not prohibited. Perhaps, this free and liberal attitude certainly had its impact on the behaviour of both men and women in Buddhist societies.

In analysing the problem of male/female relationships and their consequent conflicts, it is found that biological difference, social value and conditions, and the spiritual and mental aspects are major contributors. As nature and social conditions are correlated, womens biological nature put them socially disadvantaged in every social activity. Because of the biological predestination, and they are easy targets of attack, it is more difficult for women than men to live a socially independent life. It may be seen that in most typically Buddhist countries, like Myanmar, Thailand, or Sri Lanka, social problems are far from being solved at present. However, we could conclude that the secular nature of the marriage contract, the facility of divorce, the right to remarry, the desegregation of the sexes, and above all, the right to inherit property have all contributed to the mitigation of women lot in Buddhist societies.

From the Buddhist point of view womens rights movement has to be looked from womens social and biological conditions realistically. If society is less violent womens status will be better and make their ascetic life easier. We still rely on dominance and aggression to solve problems, which ironically shows that humans have not made much progress in adopting virtuous means for pursuing their goals. Integrating the Buddhist value of not letting ourselves being dominated by emotions, and movement based on compassion for men should be crucial in womens rights movements to have a better life together.

References

Mrs. Dewaraja, L. S Dr. (1981).The Position of Women in Buddhism, Wheel Publication No. 280, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka. Web.

Silva, Swarna De. (1994).The Place of Women in Buddhism, DharmaWeb.org. Web.

Ekachai, Santisuda. (2001) Where women stand, Bhikku Prayudh Payutto. Bangkok Post: Thailand. Dharma Web.org. Web.

Introduction

Religion provides purpose and meaning, allowing its followers to navigate in a world full of uncertainty. This idea explains the seminal status of the worlds leading beliefs, as they possess well-established and documented descriptions of all key spheres of life. Among these aspects, the afterlife occupies a unique position due to the importance of the matter. Humanity has successfully addressed many fundamental questions through research and philosophy, but the afterlife remains a highly elusive subject. At the current stage of its development, society is unable to venture beyond the final points of life and acquire a complete understanding of what happens after death. Therefore, people rely on the descriptions of the afterlife documented in sacred texts and their historical interpretations. Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism are three inherently different religions that together amount to the vast majority of the global population. These frameworks of belief demonstrate varying presentation of the afterlife, and the differences comprise the very nature of existence beyond, as well as more minor details. The purpose of this paper is to compare the afterlife, as presented in Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism, through an examination of both primary and secondary sources.

Representation of Afterlife

Questions of the afterlife have also been with fascination by humanity on various levels. Naturally, spiritual studies devote a considerable degree of attention to the matter at hand. Throughout the history of mixed religion, the afterlife has been the central concept of interest for both leaders and followers. As a matter of fact, Georgiadou and Pnevmatikos write that even non-religious people favor the idea of continued existence beyond the physical understanding of life (159). Regardless of the specific religion, such beliefs help their followers find meaning and purpose by partially eliminating one of the most outstanding elements of uncertainty. In other words, afterlife representations highlight the primary role of religion as the beacon for people. Without concrete images of life after death, uncertainty would prevail, pushing many followers toward an existential crisis.

At the same time, the afterlife component of religion serves a distinct ethical function, as well. Most beliefs propose at least two possible types of life after death. The positive outcome is usually said to be attained by adhering to the moral framework of a corresponding religion (Cavallaro 2). Nevertheless, while the core principles of the next world may be common for most variations of faith, the worlds leading teachings demonstrate considerable difference on a more detailed level.

Christianity

As far as the matters of the afterlife are concerned, the Western cultural and academic spaces are dominated by the dogmas of Christianity. It appears important to note that several teachings exist within the framework of the Judeo-Christian faith. This paper focuses on the most popular interpretation based on the Catholic ideas of the afterlife. In this context, the next world in Christianity represents a classical dichotomy of the good and the harmful alternatives (Williamson 8). This division suggests that each person possesses an immortal soul that is sent to either realm of the afterlife upon death.

The positive outcome is represented by the Lords Paradise, in which faithful souls enjoy eternal peace and pleasure. This realm is described as the source of all life and holiness, and in Heaven, there will no longer be any curse; and the throne of God and of the Lamb will be in it (Rev. 22.1-3). The other option is represented by Hell, a place for the cowardly, the unbelieving, the vile, the murderers, the sexually immoral, those who practice magic arts, the idolaters and all liars who will be consigned to the fiery lake of burning sulfur (Rev. 21.8). The Scripture highlights this dichotomy as the central idea of the Christian afterlife. Then [sinners] will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life (Matt. 25.46). In other words, life on Earth puts a persons soul to an ultimate test, which will determine their fate after death. At the same time, the Christian afterlife primarily concerns abstract, philosophical entities of sin and rightfulness as the general mode of worship (Williamson 110). Thus, Christianity emphasizes the overall morality of a person rather than specific actions.

Buddhism

The concept of the afterlife retains its importance in Buddhist teachings while acquiring a different form of presentation. This religion is the source of the idea of karma, which is widely used across various settings today (Willard et al. 385). As Buddha said in Tripimaka, beings are owners of karmas, heirs of karmas, they have karmas as their progenitor, karmas as their kin, karmas as their homing-place (Majjhima Nikaya 135). Furthermore, the Pali Canon suggests that it is karmas that differentiate beings according to inferiority and superiority (Majjhima Nikaya 135). Karma represents a balance of the good and the bad, which is attained throughout a persons life.

Even the most minor actions can sway it, meaning that Buddhist teachings lay a strong emphasis on more minor details of human existence. Ultimately, as an individuals lifetime comes to an end, his or her karma decides the subsequent development. Buddhism relies on the idea of reincarnation, implying that being human is merely one step of the souls existence (Carr and Mahalingam 420). Accordingly, a positive balance of karma is associated with taking the form of a better, more sophisticated creature in the next life (Kachru 55). At the same time, as a soul continues its path along the cycle of lives and reincarnations, it may eventually reach the state of nirvana. At this point, a soul transcends the limits of existence and becomes one with the universe in eternal peaceful unity. This state is virtually unfathomable for the human mind, but it is presented as the ultimate living destination. In fact, the entire cycle of reincarnations serves to prepare a soul for reaching nirvana. Therefore, the Buddhist view of the afterlife is more practice-oriented, as it focuses on the combination of all actions during the lifetime, which determines the fate of a person.

Hinduism

The afterlife framework of Hinduism is highly reminiscent of the similar concepts exhibited by Buddhism. According to these teachings, each soul travels through the cycle of reincarnation called samsara (Frawley 127). The exact nature of reincarnation is debatable within the Hindu community. According to Frawley, some followers of this faith believe that rebirth occurs immediately upon the end of the previous life (128). At the same time, others speak in favor of the existence of other realms, in which a soul may pass some time before it is ready for the next life.

In addition, the concept of karma is equally central to the dogmas of Hinduism. As Buddhists do, the followers of Hinduism believe that the moral merit of a soul is built from the combination of either excellent or bad intentional actions. In fact, the component of intent is crucial in this context, as the change in karma requires an element of voluntary choice to act in a particular manner. You are what your deep, driving desire is. As your desire is, so is your will. As your will is, so is your deed. As your deed is, so is your destiny (Brihadaranyaka IV.4.5). Therefore, the ideas of Hinduism retain the emphasis on all practical decisions of a person.

Simultaneously, the cycle of rebirth and death in Hinduism is not eternal, either. While Buddhists eventually reach the state of nirvana, the followers of this religion attain moksha. At this stage, a soul becomes absorbed by Brahman, thus entering a new level of existence. In Hinduism, moksha is associated with infinity and the cosmos. It puts the cycle of rebirth to a complete end, symbolizing that a soul has been able to learn the sacred lessons of karma. Some interpretations suggest that the continuation of the reincarnation cycle resembles the Christian concept of Hell. Evidently, a new life eventually leads to a recent death, which is a painful experience feared even by Hindu gods (Frawley 130). Ultimately, accepting the values of the Hindu beliefs and following these moral principles leads to the eventual ascension.

Conclusion

Overall, the ideas surrounding the afterlife have been central to most religions of the world. They serve several important purposes, prompting the followers to adhere to specific moral principles while providing them with a higher purpose in life. Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism form the worlds most popular religions, which explains their interest in this context. Buddhism and Hinduism demonstrate similar perspectives on the matters of the afterlife, as they possess the concepts of a rebirth cycle leading to ultimate unity with the cosmos. However, Christianity takes a different approach, considering a persons life on Earth as the only one. Furthermore, Christian ideas of punishment and reward after death are more direct, as specific realms of Heaven and Hell represent them. Nevertheless, despite the variations in details, the underlying purpose of the afterlife philosophy remains similar for most religions.

References

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Translated by Swami Madhavananda. n. d. Web.

Carr, Brian and Indira Mahalingam. Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. Routledge, 1997.

Frawley, David. What Is Hinduism? A Guide for the Global Mind. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018.

Georgiadou, Triantafyllia and Dimitris Pnevmatikos. An Exploration of Afterlife Beliefs in Religiously- and Secularly-Oriented Adults. Journal of Beliefs & Values, vol. 40, no. 2, 2019, pp. 159-171.

Kachru, Sonam. Death and Afterlife: The View from South Asian Buddhism. The Journal of Religion, vol. 101, no. 1, 2021, pp. 48-76.

Majjhima-Nik
ya. 2013. Web.

New American Standard Bible. The Lockman Foundation, 2020.

Willard, Alyana K. et al. Rewarding the Good and Punishing the Bad: The Role of Karma and Afterlife Beliefs in Shaping Moral Norms. Evolution and Human Behavior, vol. 41, no. 5, 2020, pp. 385-396.

Williamson, Paul R. Death and the Afterlife: Biblical Perspectives on Ultimate Questions. InterVarsity Press, 2018.

Karma presumably is among the primary associations with Buddhism; a non-professional individual, who does not have a complete understanding of the notion, quite probably will possess a generalized view of its meaning. In one respect, this shows the necessity of such a concept in peoples worldviews, as many appeal to it, although it is not integral to the philosophy with which they identify themselves. On the contrary, using the term beyond its original sociocultural context distorts its meaning and favors misunderstanding that rests on false interpretations. The paper seeks to investigate the actual Buddhist idea of karma and illustrate how the stereotype-based views contradict the initial methodology.

The Mechanism of Karma

The primary point to mention is that karma is not equivalent to the Christian concept of sin, although some use it in such meaning in their everyday speech. Particular definitions and formulations of sin may differ from one denomination within Christianity to another, but the cornerstone of each is opposing the rules and laws the God established (Shantha and Rykova 2018). Those, as the adepts believe, underlie life and bring harmony to it; therefore, breaking them has destroying consequences for the individual. In simple terms, the Christian sin is a misdeed that is a reason for punishment, which scheme has a quite apparent linear structure.

The methodologies that do not involve monotheism, meanwhile, offer a more complex view of cause-and-effect relationships that excludes the will of a single upper creature as a universal explanation. Although similar to sin, karma has several canonic interpretations, none of them presuppose the existence of the only acceptable way to think and act (Study Buddhism n.d.). Rather, the point is an autonomous [&] law that connects an action to its inevitable result with a causal sequence, which does not include any external intervention (Olivelle n.d., para. 4). Therefore, it is possible to state that the structure of karma relies on logic, not on the will of a transcendent divine entity. This makes it a more effective system for interacting with the material world in comparison with sin.

Nevertheless, the concepts of a good and a bad action exist in Buddhism, although the criteria for identifying certain behavior as such are quite different from those in Christianity. Specifically, the key nuance is whether the karma, which the action produces, is beneficial or not; the intention, furthermore, is not less important than the material manifestation is (Willard et al. 2020). Simply stated, the primary cause that leads to the effect is what the individual was willing to do, not solely what he or she actually did.

Another point that distinguishes karma from sin is the lack of any requirement for punishment. In the Christian paradigm, as mentioned, violating Gods laws calls for a penalty; those who have lived in such a system since birth may extrapolate it to Buddhism (Shantha and Rykova 2018). In fact, however, karma is no more than one action in response to the other; within this framework, one reaps what they have sown (Yew et al. 2021, 9). Buddhists consider this a fundamental law of nature, which works without any divine intervention and without serving as a sanction for disobedience.

For Whom Karma Is Produced

Considering the above, it is not quite reasonable to assume that karma can address only sinners. In fact, there is hardly any notion of this kind in Buddhism, as this philosophy does not presuppose any divine laws that would be possible to break (Shantha and Rykova 2018). Instead, its adepts regard a certain action as improper in case it is either unwholesome or unskillful (Lesley 2019, para. 1). The need for behaving exclusively in productive ways, in one respect, may be considered the norm that people violate. This makes Buddhism similar to the majority of religions since their main function is guidance, in other words, producing recommendations to follow (White et al. 2019; White and Norenzayan 2021). Along with this, the specialty of karma is its form of a non-agentic force that has no individual source; this is the reason for not mixing Buddhism with theistic religions.

The nuance that karma is not associated with anybodys personal will allows assuming that it works identically on everyone who acts. In fact, it is possible to regard this idea as a culture-specific interpretation of Newtons third law, which tells that every action causes a reaction (Subudhi 2021). The latter depends on particular circumstances, which complicates the paradigm, but the general principle that underlies it remains unchanged.

Another concept with which karma is comparable, although not identical to it, is the so-called golden rule of morality. Notwithstanding its quite subjective and subsequently paradoxical character, this fundamental ethical postulate also addresses everyone (Mahrik 2018). Avoiding treating other people the ways the given individual is unwilling to experience himself or herself actually is not the essence of karma; rather, the logical consequence of understanding how it works. In the simplest terms, counter-productive behavior can have destroying results, which determines the need for minimizing it. The main difference is that karma covers not solely interpersonal relations but any actions in any sphere where human beings perform.

Karma and Rebirth

The point where Buddhism and Christianity agree is that the action of a person affects not exclusively his or her current life on earth. The similarity is partial, however, because, as mentioned, Buddhism has no fully formed practice of punishing for sins. Instead, it operates the concept of samsara, which stands for the continuous cycle of reincarnations (Ivankovic 2020). Karma plays one of the most critical roles in this process; accumulated throughout the past lives, it determines the background with which a creature comes to the world. This burden, in turn, is the cause of the recurring problems, dissatisfaction, and non-freedom of which life consists (Wongsangkul et al. 2020, p. 38). Simply stated, the persons behavior not simply has consequences within one life but makes him or her captivated in the wheel of deaths and rebirths.

The only way to escape from the cycle, according to the adherents of Buddhism, is enlightenment. It helps to reach nirvana, the special state in which desire, hatred, and ignorance cease (Lopez n.d.). These three are considered the factors that determine negative intention, which, in turn, actually is the driving force of negative karma, as said above (Shantha and Rykova 2018). Consequently, overcoming those emotions enables leaving the samsara since the root cause of constant rebirthing disappears.

There are eight basic areas where a Buddhist has to reorganize his or her mind and life for enlightenment. The right intention, which means no desire to cause evil, is only one essential point; furthermore, apparently the primary step. The next are speech as well as action, none of which should ever hurt other people, and resisting all forms of evil (St Ivo Academy, n.d.). Along with respect towards life, control over the thoughts, meditation, and knowing the truth, this can help accumulate positive karma and subsequently end suffering, which, in Buddhism, accompanies living on earth by definition.

The above points, which make the so-called eightfold path, may seem to be quite similar to the biblical Ten Commandments; this presumably is among the reasons for misunderstanding Buddhism. Such a view is also false, however, as a non-theistic religion cannot dictate any will due to its different nature. Buddha, the founder, is not a ruler who instructs the adepts but simply an example to follow willingly (Shantha and Rykova 2018). Another essential difference is that responsibility for deciding which intentions, words, and actions are good lies on the adherents themselves, not on intermediaries like priests. This makes any extrapolations from Christianity to Buddhism even less relevant since the latter apparently has more respect towards free will.

To summarize, Western people, who grew up in Christian tradition, frequently misinterpret the basic concept of Buddhism, karma, trying to explain it in their usual terms of sin and punishment. In fact, meanwhile, karma is a universal law of life and nature, the force due to which every intention that determines action has its result. In case the actions are unwholesome, their consequences prevent the doer from enlightenment, making him or her reincarnate repeatedly and live further lives full of suffering; this is called samsara. Proper behavior that leads to enlightenment, on the contrary, enables breaking the chain.

References

Ivankovic, Milorad. 2020. Karma and Reincarnation. Authentic Unaltered Meanings of the Veda 6. ISSN (Online) 2683-5886. Web.

Lesley, Alison. 2019. Is There Sin in Buddhism? World Religion News, Web.

Lopez, Donald S. n.d. Nirvana. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web.

Mahrik, Tibor. 2018. The Golden Rule of Morality  An Ethical Paradox. Ethics & Bioethics 8(1): 5-13. Web.

Olivelle, Patrick. n.d. Karma. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web.

Shantha, Indunil Philip, and Svetlana Rykova. 2018. Karma and Sin: Foundation of Moral Philosophy in Therav
da Buddhism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research 89: 426-430. Web.

St Ivo Academy. n.d. Ethics: Term 3, Buddhism. Web.

Study Buddhism. n.d. The Mechanism of Karma. Web.

Subudhi, Satyabrata. 2021. Modification of Newtons Third Law: Every Action Has Time and Properties Dependent Reaction. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology 8(10): 77-78. Web.

White, Cindel J. M., John Michael Kelly, Azim F. Shariff, and Ara Norenzayan. 2019. Supernatural Norm Enforcement: Thinking about Karma and God Reduces Selfishness among Believers. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 84, 103797. Web.

White, Cindel J. M., and Ara Norenzayan. 2021. Karma and God: Convergent and Divergent Mental Representations of Supernatural Norm Enforcement. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality: advance online publication. Web.

Willard, Aiyana K., Adam Baimel, Hugh Turpin, Jonathan Jong, and Harvey Whitehouse. 2020. Rewarding the Good and Punishing the Bad: The Role of Karma and Afterlife Beliefs in Shaping Moral Norms. Evolution and Human Behavior 41(5): 385-396. Web.

Wongsangkul, Usa, Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, and Sanu Mahatthanadull. 2021. Rebirth in Therav
da Buddhism and Dr. Ian Stevensons Research Study. The Journal of International Buddhist Studies College 7(1): 37-53. ISSN: 2465-5546. Web.

Yew, Wong Chin, Abd Hair Awang, Sivapalan Selvadurai, Mansor Mohd Noor, and Peng Kee Chang. 2021. A Comparative Study of Islam and Buddhism: A Multicultural Society Perspective. Religions 12, 1098. Web.

Today, it is normal to see people choosing different religions and following specific beliefs as an integral part of their lives. There are usually no restrictions related to the decision on what religion to practice, but understanding the historical backgrounds, morals, and metaphysical views remains critical. This essay compares Hinduism and Buddhism and reveals what religion could be defined more as an ideology. Hinduism is one of the oldest and largest religions globally, but not much credible information on its foundation is available. Buddhism shares some common characteristics with Hinduism because it is one of its offshoots. Both religions were rooted in India, but compared to Buddhists who follow the teachings of Gautama Buddha, Hindus address the writings created during many centuries. Despite similar attitudes toward the cycle of birth, the concepts of karma and dharma, and the worth of meditation and yoga, Buddhism and Hinduism differ in their foundations, focuses, and other religious characteristics.

One of the main differences between Hinduism and Buddhism lies in their foundation processes. As one of the first world religions, Hinduism or Brahmanism history deserves attention and recognition. There is no particular date or year when this religion appeared, and it is impossible to say who was its founder or author of the major books Vedas. Most historians and scholars use the period between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C. for its development (qtd. in Kumar and Yao 23). Hindus rejected the necessity to identify dates or names because they believe that Hinduism is a timeless faith that has always existed. When the first Indo-Aryan people migrated to modern-day Pakistan (the Indus Valley), they had to share their language and culture with the local civilization (Kumar and Yao 23). Thus, it is hard to define Hinduism as a single religion but as a combination of thousands of religious groups whose traditions and beliefs were transcribed in the Vedas from 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. (Kumar and Yao 23). Old and new concepts, rituals, and lifestyles were defined in four Vedas, namely the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda.

Talking about the dates of the Buddhist foundation, the researchers give more specific dates and names. In the 6th century B.C., Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha, proposed a new doctrine turning into a meaningful religious movement by his followers after his death (Coomaraswamy 45). Gautama came from a wealthy family but gave up all his riches and chose poverty to liberate his soul from suffering. His reformation aimed not to introduce a new order but to restore the already known beliefs and achieve enlightenment.

Hinduism and Buddhism are similar in terms of their Indian origins and in understanding the concepts of samsara, karma, and dharma. For example, in both religions, the teachings should penetrate the Eternal Law or dharma and follow a universal truth that has been stored as the major morale for centuries (Coomaraswamy 45). Hindus and Buddhists were also ruled by the doctrines of samsara, which represented a continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation, and karma or the cause-effect law (Kumar and Yao 27). Being differently practiced, yoga and meditation were the preferred physical and mental disciplines and skills that worked for social order (Coomaraswamy 26). Rituals in Buddhism and Hinduism were based on mantras, but the latter used them to worship gods with sacrifices and chanting, while the former facilitated their concentration with no violence or obligation.

The differences between the religions can be traced in their readings. Hindus underlined the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice, proving the beliefs in God and the caste system (Rig Veda line 1). In Buddhism, vice versa, castes were forbidden, and no beliefs in gods were appreciated. Regarding the rules that require expiation or Pâkittiya, speaking disrespectfully is wrong, or being angry or displeased with another Bhikkhu is not allowed (Vinaya Texts 34). Not directly, but these regulations promote equality, compassion, wisdom, and awareness but remove any metaphysical views. There is no need for Buddhists to explain the origin of human existence but address the current experiences and cyclic processes. Hindus use absolute monism to support the connection with the Lord, their spiritual thirsting, and intense devotion (Kumar and Yao 26). Soul liberation is a strong belief in both religions, but its achievement depends on the chosen means, rituals, and practices.

Considering the offered findings, definitions, and comparisons of Buddhism and Hinduism, it is also important to understand the difference between an ideology and a religion. Religions usually refer to God or several gods, while ideologies are based on the chosen truths and realities. Thus, it is correct to say that Buddhism should be defined more as an ideology than religion because Buddhists reject the presence of any god in their lives. At the same time, any religion includes a particular source of authority, usually divine and powerful. In Hinduism, one God, Brahman, is recognized, while in Buddhism, no metaphysical values of existences are followed. Therefore, Hinduism is more a religion than an ideology, and I relate my spiritual and moral outlooks to this faith where God motivates, supports, and never directly interferes with human life.

The differences and similarities between Buddhism and Hinduism do not reveal their weaknesses or strengths but prove how diverse and critical human beliefs can be. These religions are old, and their origins are not always easy to trace, but their impact remains significant for modern people, ideologies, and theological studies. Rituals, morals, and metaphysical views may vary, but the essence of life, death, and reincarnation unites Hindus and Buddhists and make them physically and spiritually strong.

Works Cited

Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. Hinduism and Buddhism. Independent Publishing, 2019.

Kumar, Rajeev Ranjan, and Hefang Yao. Hinduism and Decline in Brahman Population in India: A Review. Journal of Indian Research, vol. 7, no. 3, 2019, pp. 22-39.

Vinaya Texts. Translated by T. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 1990.

Rig Veda. Translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith, 1896. Sacred Texts, Web.

Buddhism is an Indian-originated religion with complex beliefs and teachings taught by Buddha after wandering around searching for understanding. Buddha spent time learning the basic teachings of the Four Noble Truths, dealing with human suffering, which he had fully understood. Buddha spent the remaining bit of his life teaching elementary doctrines of Buddhism, which led to the worldly spread of the religion.

The first Noble Truth is suffering. There are many forms of suffering encountered by human beings in physical form or mental nature. Human beings are subject to unlimited desires and goals in life, but the satisfaction is temporary; sickness, death, aging, unfulfilled wants are also considered suffering. The second Noble Truth is the origin of suffering. The root of suffering is desire and craving for certain things, such as material goods, delight, and pleasure. The urge to cease the pain brings suffering as any satisfaction is temporary in nature.

The third Noble Truth is the cessation of suffering. Buddha taught about the end of suffering in human lives on earth and spiritual life by achieving nirvana. Nirvana is a supernatural condition unbound out of suffering and patterns concerning birth, rebirth, and reaching enlightenment. The Fourth Noble Truth is the path to the end of suffering. Avoiding sensual pleasure and self-mortification leads to the end of suffering. Additionally, following the sequence and practicing principles of the Noble Eight Fold Path guides to the cessation of suffering. The principles include wisdom, ethical conduct, and meditation, which altogether may lead a devotee to enlightenment.

The desire to achieve specific goals gives a person the sense of direction in life and commitment to daily routines that may lead to long-term achievements. Additionally, desires motivate towards attaining a particular purpose which would lead to the feeling of fulfillment. Desires also help in minimization of procrastination of daily activities and speed up the attainment of long-term goals (Steel et al., 2018). Desire gives strong drive, therefore, helping in dealing with everyday setbacks in the journey to achieving the long-term goal.

Living a life where one does not have to make decisions based on personal desires would be better because of the elimination of many challenges. For example, failing to make the right decision on specific desires leads to frustrations, especially when there are any attachments. Some decisions may create anxiety and stressful situations when the outcome is unknown, causing suffering. Making decisions that work towards particular desires establishes a sense of responsibility and entitlement, leading to suffering as there is no free will.

Deciding to follow desires that are unending wants creates an unsatisfied living leading to suffering. When I was in high school, I desired to become a pilot. I worked towards achieving high grades. I was disappointed because my parents had chosen a different career path for me, and I did not have an option. Before the year began, I had set a goal to travel to other parts of the world, but with COVID-19 restrictions, I did not manage to visit all the places I had planned. I had anticipated happiness and fulfillment after achieving the set goal, which caused me to suffer due to frustration and disappointment.

Reference

Steel, P., Svartdal, F., Thundiyil, T., & Brothen, T. (2018). Examining procrastination across multiple goal stages: A longitudinal study of temporal motivation theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(9), 327. Web.

Buddhism Essay Introduction

Buddhism is believed to have been in existence, way before Siddhartha existed (United Press International, 2007, p. 1). Most scholars observe that the roots of Buddhism are very deep, and though Siddhartha contributed a lot to the development of the religion, many Buddhists believe that he was just one of the people awakened to attain buddahood (United Press International, 2007, p. 1).

Many Buddhists followers therefore believe that there will be many more Buddha to come and one of the recently identified Buddha is Maitreya (United Press International, 2007, p. 1). Buddhism does not have an unrealistic connotation, as most people would like to believe (because of the worship of gods) since it is largely an accessible way of life as evidenced by most Buddha teachings (United Press International, 2007, p. 1).

Buddhas are classified as exceptional individuals who cut a mark above the rest in developing positive values that would normally elevate him or her to be a mentor to a number of followers. The accessibility of being a Buddha is not unrealistic as previously noted. In fact, United Press International (2007) affirms that:

Anyone, by knowing the reality of life, through self-control, restraint and discipline, and by following the Middle Way, can get through the journey of life. By continuously doing good acts, he develops virtues, escapes the bond of sorrows, and attains the stage of being a Buddha (p. 4).

With the above understanding of who a Buddha is, we can evidently analyze Siddhartha Gautama who is one of the most celebrated Buddha in the Buddhist faith. He lived a rather conventional life with many of his years on earth spent on being a teacher (a platform he used to influence other noticeable Buddhist personalities like King Harishchandra and Lord Rama) (Duiker, 2006).

Siddharthas time on earth was not as smooth as most people believe because he was born at a time when there were significant political and social instabilities (Duiker, 2006). Many people were constantly being subjected to atrocious acts and a good number were also being exploited in one way or the other.

Religion which was also expected to be peoples sole savior was also never free from controversy, with many people perceiving it as serving private interests (Duiker, 2006). It is at this time that Siddhartha excelled as a Buddha. During his time, he was able to instill some of the rarest human attributes of his time. They included sympathy and love. These values were generally summed up as Ahimsa (Duiker, 2006).

Though Siddharthas early life was largely luxurious and blind to human suffering, during his life as an adult, Siddhartha dedicated much of his life eliminating human suffering.

This is the reason why he left his home to travel far and wide to help his people. Siddhartha largely preached his own personal view of life and human relationships. This infamously gave him the influence he now commands in Buddhism (with many of his philosophies assumed to constitute Buddhism itself) (Hooker, 1996, p. 4).

However, the degree to which Buddhist principles reflect his philosophies is in contention (because Siddharthas death happened a long time ago and there may be lacking materials to bridge his philosophies and currently practiced Buddhist doctrines) (Hooker, 1996).

These factors withstanding, this study seeks to identify Siddharthas teachings and how he influenced Buddhism as a religion, but more importantly, this study establishes that Siddhartha had a lot of influence on current Buddhist philosophies and Indias socio-political processes evidenced today.

The Teaching of Four Noble Truths

Siddhartha had previously been raised in a life of luxury and much wealth because his parents did not want to subject their son to human suffering.

However, after Siddhartha saw how sickness, death and suffering affected humanity, he decided to abandon his family (including his wife and children) to pursue his own course of seeking ways to alleviate human suffering (Hooker, 1996, p. 6).

In this quest, Siddhartha subjected himself to a lot of human suffering, thereby causing his life to take an absolute turn from luxury to poverty. However, little did he know that this turn would be the background to one of his most powerful teachings in the Buddhist religion (The Teaching of Four Noble Truths).

It is observed that at one point of his life in misery, he heard a musician playing a musical instrument made with strings (Hooker, 1996, p. 6).

On one hand, he observed that when the strings were tight enough, he could not hear the harmonious tone of the music, but on the other hand, if the musical instrument was played with loose strings, he could not hear the music at all (Hooker, 1996, p. 6). This realization was the apparent root of his four noble truth philosophy.

In other words, he observed that extremes in life were not the best. The best fit in life was therefore a compromise between both extremes, where people were not supposed to deny themselves worldly pleasures (in entirety) but at the same time, they were not supposed to get lost in worldly ways all the same. Through this assertion, Siddhartha came up with the theory that life was supposed to be lived in middle way.

He further observed that the only way people could alleviate their human suffering was through concentration, and there was no way concentration could be achieved when there was an environment of extremes.

He illustrated this by noting that concentration was basically centered in the mind and the mind was connected to the body. If the body was therefore deprived, there was no way concentration could be achieved; in the same manner, if a person overindulged in bodily satisfaction, concentration could not be achieved.

Siddhartha later went out to preach this philosophy to the people. He started in Benares where he packaged his teachings in form of yogic mediation, after which his preaching spread far and wide (Hooker, 1996, p. 6). It is said that through his teachings, Siddhartha was able to make sense of his past and present life, and in an interesting twist of events; he assured himself that through his new realizations, he could easily break the cycle of infinite sorrow.

It is also important to note that it is at this point in life that Siddhartha was referred to as a Buddha (Hooker, 1996, p. 8). Among his principles of four noble thoughts, Siddhartha taught that all human life was characterized by suffering (this was his first noble thought).

Secondly, he explained that all human suffering emanated from the misguided belief that temporary things could be permanent. He blamed this feeling to mans wild desires. Thirdly, he explained that not all human suffering could be solved by simply eliminating human desire.

Fourthly, he concluded by preaching that desire could be eternally halted; but the procedure to do so is best explained through the Eighthfold Noble path which is summarized by Hooker (1996) as encompassing right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration (p. 9).

These teachings have been proved to form part of the framework through which Buddhism thrives on. Siddharthas teachings have also been classified by many researchers as a sort of therapy to the notion of human suffering and the purpose of the soul and body in human relationships (Hooker, 1996, p. 8).

In fact, some scholars note that Siddharthas philosophies cannot be easily conceptualized in western philosophies, or in a religious text, because evidently, he was not interested in the theological aspects of his teachings, but rather on devising a way for human beings to alleviate suffering (Hooker, 1996, p. 8).

Nonetheless, his teachings slowly turned into a religious movement. From Siddharthas teachings, we can easily see the link between his philosophies and Buddhism because Buddhism is among one of the most liberal religions in the word where followers are not forced to believe in something, unless they want to (Hooker, 1996, p. 8).

In other words, Buddhism is more a way of life than a religion. The relationship between Siddharthas teachings and Buddhism can be evidenced from the fact that Siddharthas philosophies were not based on theological doctrines but rather on basic life principles.

Spread of Buddhism and Upheaval of Democracy

During the peak of Siddharthas life, Buddhism saw one of the greatest growths of its time. In fact, it is said that at Siddharthas peak, his philosophies reached some of the highest points of spiritual, moral and religious peaks (Bhikku, 1996).

It is even established that during his time, a lot of change was evidenced in social India. Such sentiments are shared by Bhikku (1996) who notes that: Buddhism flourished, affecting millions of Indians and becoming the basis for the lives of many around the world. It touched the heights of the spiritual world in his lifetime. The simple and practical teachings of Buddha saved man (p. 46).

Repeated calls for equality and peoples overwhelming response to it also propelled the wheels of change in India but one of Siddharthas least recognized contributions to social and political development could be seen from his call for democracy.

This does not however mean that democracy was absent in India before his death (because it was); rather, it implied that he called for the strengthening of democratic principles to uphold the good of the general public. In this regard, Siddhartha is accredited for his call for democracy as a phenomenal contribution of his time because, at the time, India was going through a lot of political and social unrests (Bhikku, 1996).

Some of his most vibrant philosophies like according women respect, cooperation among individuals, upholding the advice of elders and protecting dharma are some of the most closely protected beliefs in the Buddhist religion. These kinds of philosophies are known to bear a lot of significance to India today, as it did in the past.

Dependent Origination

Siddhartha greatly contributed to the field of Buddhist metaphysics in the sense that he objected to the metaphysics theory that events are usually predetermined, or occur at random (Bhikku, 1996, p. 45). His philosophy greatly underpins the Buddhist objections to the theory of direct causation as underlined by the metaphysics approach. In place of such a theory, he notes that things often happen in the presence of certain conditions.

He further went on to explain that issues are often dependent on a number of preceding factors. For instance, the craving to do something is often a result of certain emotions or feelings, and our emotions and feelings are often a reflection of our surroundings.

In this manner, Siddhartha explains that some of the most notable fixtures in life, such as death, decay or suffering are normally caused by a chain reaction of events and processes instigated by human craving.

Siddharthas teachings were reiterated by another Buddha by the name Nagarjuna who proposed that the occurrence of an independent causation is a matter that develops from the emptiness human beings feel inside (Bhikku, 1996, p. 46).

Siddhartha explains that through dependent origination, human beings are normally faced with much emptiness and suffering that forces them to keep on chasing elusive happiness (which is often temporary). In affirmation of this statement, Bodhi (1999) points out that:

Sometimes this dissatisfaction manifests in the form of grief, despair and disappointment, but usually it hovers at the edge of our awareness as a vague unlocalized sense that things are never quite perfect, never fully adequate to our expectations of what they should be (p. 6).

This sort of situation can be perceived as a trajectory whereby human actions are facilitated by dreams and desires which are often abandoned at the point of ones death.

Interestingly, it was affirmed by Siddhartha that the pursuit for happiness did not ultimately end at death since there was life after death (in a different form; but it is not yet known how this eventually plays out) (Bhikku, 1996, p. 45). This philosophy is engraved in the Buddhism philosophy of faith as samsara and rebirth.

The samsara is not essentially described as a physical location where human beings reside, but rather a process that humans eventually undertake, in pursuit of happiness and pleasure.

Again, Siddharthas main motivation was not to develop religious principles (which were meant to guide human beings through their journey in life) but rather to solve the problem of human suffering, brought about by the pursuit of unsatisfactory passions and pleasures.

Siddharthas analogy has been hailed by many religious and Western scholars such as Pali Canon who equated him to a skilled doctor who correctly diagnosed a problem, established the root cause of the problem and provided an ultimate remedy to the problem (Bhikku, 1999, p. 2).

Such an analogy (like Pali Canon proposes) can be seen from Siddharthas identification of Dukka (the spiritual problem) and how it is essentially sustained in human life (through the four Noble truths) and eventually, he proposes a way through which the problem of Dukka can be solved (through the third noble truth).

Siddhartha does not only stop there, he goes ahead to establish the path that his followers can use to reach such heights of success, and from this platform, he establishes the noble eightfold path. This kind of analysis follows Pali canon medical-like analysis.

When comprehensively analyzed, the dependent origination teaching is a detailed exposition of the second noble truth which essentially notes that spiritual deficiency happens for a reason. We can also deduce the fact that due to the ignorance of human beings to the cause of Dukka, many human beings go round and round trying to look for happiness which in the words of Siddhartha is temporary and unsatisfactory (Bhikku, 1999, p. 2).

Siddhartha equates this situation to roaming in Samsara. He further says that adopting factors which are in contrary to the principles that sustain Dukka; one can be able to alleviate human suffering (Bhikku, 1996, p. 45).

Many religious and secular scholars have established that Siddharthas teachings, with regards to dependent origination, have contributed a great part to the development of Buddhist metaphysics (Bhikku, 1996, p. 45).

However, this point of view has been isolated, in the sense that, it has no relation to Buddhist principles of origin of the earth, absolute and relativistic philosophies which also contributed a great part to the formation of Buddhists block of philosophy.

Buddhism Essay Conclusion

Siddhartha has greatly contributed to the philosophies of Buddhism through his life teachings. He has been able to do so through the teachings of the four noble truths which have been able to dissect the problem of human suffering and propose remedies to alleviate the problem. In the same manner, he has been able to contribute to Buddhist metaphysics through his teachings on dependent origination.

This study however proposes that Siddhartha has been able not only to contribute to Buddhist philosophies but also to the socio-political process of India, as can be demonstrated through his contribution to Indias democratic processes. Comprehensively, these factors define Siddharthas contribution to Buddhism and the socio-political process of India.

References

Bhikku, T. (1999). Beyond Coping. Los Angeles, CA: Metta Forest Monastery.

Bhikku, T. (1996). Wings to Awakening: Part I. Valley Center, CA: Metta Forest Monastery.

Bodhi, B. (1999). The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.

Duiker, W. J. (2006). The Essential World History. London: Cengage Learning.

Hooker, R. (1996). Siddhartha Gautama.

United Press International. (2007). The Contributions Of The Buddha And Buddhism. 

Introduction

Unfortunately, not many representatives of different religions can participate in interreligious dialogue because their theological assumptions may be utterly different. A conversation between religious people calls for a high degree of tolerance and acceptance of the other participants faith and opposite views. To be a part of a mission as a Christian means to avoid the so-called Christocentric perception of the world and yet remain a true believer. Meanwhile, there are nontheistic religions in which adherents do not believe in God. In this case, it is sure to be hard to gain mutual understanding. Thus, it is of utmost importance to learn more about Buddhism as a major nontheistic religion of the world to find an opportunity for interaction between Christians and Buddhists while missions.

The Reasons why Buddhism is Classified as a Religion

Indeed, Buddhism is considered to be a religion for a good reason. One may suppose that belief in God or a multitude of divinities is the central part of any religion, but it is a wrong idea. There is a difference between a religion and a philosophical study. It would be better to familiarize oneself with the criteria according to which any religion is identified. According to King, there are eight characteristics of religion: traditionalism, myth and symbol, ideas of salvation, sacred objects and places, sacred actions, sacred writings, sacred community, and sacred experience (as cited in King, 1987, p. 284). In fact, all these attributes may be clearly observed as far as Buddhism is concerned. Buddhism serves as an interesting case of religion unusual enough to stir the imagination and provoke questions about its nature.

Admittedly, religious people believe in the sacristy of the original creative act and the words of the founder. It refers to traditionalism because the community of the believers is sure to strictly follow traditions that originate from their founders philosophy of life. As far as Buddhism is concerned, Siddhartha gained an insight sitting under the Bodhi Tree and started teaching people the concept of ending suffering (duhkha) by resisting ones desires, guilty pleasures, and ambitions. People have been loyally followed his steps performing meditations and different rituals to commemorate their idol. They believe in reincarnation and the fact that Buddha knows about their sorrows.

Furthermore, there is a sacred story about or myth about Buddhas life that cannot be historically confirmed, but millions of people believe in it, not questioning its credibility. One may remember that Christians believe in Jesus existence the same way with no proper proves. The peculiarity of myth is its power to convince people in various details that can hardly be proved at all, even if the existence of the sacred founder is documented. It generally concerns a persons sayings and actions. For instance, Buddhists believe that Siddhartha asked them to have a critical approach to his teaching, but there is no 100% guarantee that it was he, not one of his adherents.

Also, there are sacred places and writings that are bound to sustain the myth about Buddhas life. For example, Lumbini is famous as a pilgrimage site because Siddhartha is believed to be born there. The same concerns many places connected with his life. People come there to feel strength and enlightenment emanating from the sacred objects on display. Surprisingly, Buddhists have their own canonical texts or sutras and shastras bearing Buddhas words. Therefore, for literate societies, sacred writings are usually the words of holy people, such as the founder of the religious traditions, prophets, or saints (Farhadian, 2010). If Christians read the Gospels, Buddhists can read sutras and shastras to get closer to their ultimate reality.

Besides, no philosophers are given monuments for people to pray to them. It is a well-known fact that there are thousands of Buddha sculptures around the world. Some of them are enormous in size to underline this idols timeless glory. Although there may be an argument objection that there were thousands of Lenin statues in the USSR back in time that does not make Leninism a religion, the Buddhist approach to statues slightly differs. One should not forget that Buddhists not only pray their beloved golden Siddharthas but also perform rituals around them and read mantras.

Nevertheless, the main argument why Buddhism is a religion is likely to be the idea of salvation. Usually, there is a Gods representative on the Earth who liberates humanity from something terrible. It is generally recognized that Buddha wanted to save people from lures that prevent them from Nirvana or infinite serenity. To do this, he suggested different principles of living. Among them, meditation ranks highly and is widely used by Buddhists as a daily ritual. The Buddhist community is to be given special attention in the following paragraph.

The Social System of Buddhism

Buddhism is widely recognized for its sangha  a brilliant community that is considered to be one of the jewels of this religion together with Buddhas teachings and Buddha himself. In the beginning, sangha could be referred only to the community of monks, but with time it started to be the right term for the whole community of Buddhists, including all adherents. Its structure has become stable and well-organized because it was no longer the group of wandering hermits but a heterogeneous whole. Such a large group of believers needed places of pilgrimage or stupas. Different festivals and other events took place there for many years to attract visitors and probably convert more people to Buddhism.

As time passed, various monasteries have been built in South Asia. No surprise, the monastery gradually became the center of religion and its primary institution. Meanwhile, Buddhism was initially considered to be adverse for the social institution in general because its members were free from social duties like fighting in a war. Somehow the situation has been resolved by Buddhist contribution in society by performing rituals, spiritual guidance, and earning particular merits. As society became literate enough to read sutras, religion became especially important for peoples hearts.

Later on, the adherents of Buddhism learned that the religion could be beneficial for them in practical ways. As an illustration, the so-called bodhisattvas proclaimed themselves peoples saviors and used them to rescue them from spiritual degradation and catastrophes as well. Another issue concerns daily routine and ways to overcome it successfully. There was an opportunity to come to sacred places and ask Buddha for luck in marriage or perform a ritual to get good marks at the university. Such a trivial approach to faith remains these days and is advocated by many religious communities. There is no sense in searching for differences between an American student praying the God to give them an honors degree in engineering and a Chinese student asking Buddha for the best grades in mathematics and claiming that there is no God.

By and large, the functions of medieval Christian and Buddhist monasteries were also quite the same. Among them are determining dates for weddings, providing political shelter, sponsoring festivals, holding festivals, collecting donations, supplying travelers with food, and so on. The monks did their best to help underprivileged members of society like the homeless and older people. It was usual for them to participate in city beautification projects and solve conflicts between mighty citizens. Although there was no real church, Buddhists coped with the role of the great eminence behind the people vested with political power.

It is of great interest that being an open religion, Buddhism was influenced by many other religions during an encounter with neighboring countries. However, no conflicts between Buddhism and indigenous faiths were ever observed. Buddhism turned out to be was a great success in China, where the Daoists and Confucians took Buddhist structures as the role model for their own institutions. Nowadays, there is a diversity of Buddhist monasteries around the world. They can be supported by small neighborhoods and even large countries. Apparently, the list of their services remains the same, covering routine with holy vibes. People tend to gather to celebrate with others in monastic places consisting of buildings, statues, and ritual spaces as the social centers of any community.

Interreligious Dialogue between Christians and Buddhists

In fact, one may easily think that mission is a religious trip that is organized to convert new people to a certain religion. As far as medieval missions are concerned, it seems to be true. However, modern missions serve as a source of intercultural and interreligious dialogue between the representatives of different nations. Ott et al. (2010) ask in their book whether there is an opportunity to make this communication be not only successful but also remain a conversation between equals. It turns out that people belonging to different religions are not always ready to be open-minded enough to sit in front of people, not sharing their views and believes due to profound traditionalism. Evidently, dialogue may turn into a conflict or desperate attempts to convince others in ones viewpoint.

In this case, it seems to be sensible to strive for balance by not disapproving others convictions and, at the same time, not abandoning ones own ideas on religion. Tennent (2002) draws the same conclusion in his book devoted to the theology of mission. According to the author, excessive tolerance may even lead to misunderstanding (Tennent, 2002). The beauty of interreligious dialogue should not lie in the attempt to find similarities between different religions. It would be better to strive for an open conversation, including polite disputes. By trying to avoid cultural peculiarities, one is sure to fail and lose mutual understanding.

Apparently, there should be rules on how to lead the interreligious dialogue. As far as nontheistic religions such as Buddhism are concerned, there should be special attention paid to the question of whether the existence of divines is to be discussed. According to recent studies, the first requirement is that a person involved in interreligious dialogue must have no ulterior motives (Muck, 2011). To carry on a discussion in order to convert people to ones religion serves as an illustration of an ulterior motive. In this case, there is no room for conversation between equals. It would be better for a Christian to get rid of Christocentric views not to turn the dialogue into a monologue.

The same concerns earnest Buddhists ready to stand up for their perception of the Western world as chaotic and full of lures. Moreover, there is no use in drawing parallels between the doctrines and practices of both religions for the sake of evangelizing Buddhists. It may drastically undermine the integrity of Christian and Buddhist traditions. Finally, an efficient missioner is expected to be polite and tolerant towards others. This is the key principle of how a Christian and a Buddhist should better cooperate on a mission. Still, it never means to tolerate rudeness and attempts to belittle the value of Christianity or Buddhism. Offenders or abrupt speakers may disgrace the noble motives of any mission. If a missioner possesses a flying temper, they can easily hold it by use of mantras or daily prayers.

Conclusion

In conclusion, one should possess mountain knowledge of religion before taking up a role of a missioner. Buddhism usually sparks disputes among people because it resembles a philosophical doctrine at first sight. Meanwhile, it is definitely a religion, to be more precise, a nontheistic one. Therefore, it deserves respect as any other religion. One should never forget that there are many similar points between Christianity and Buddhism, but the differences are likely to outweigh them. Consequently, an intercultural and interreligious dialogue between Christians and Buddhists is a peculiar area for missions. That is why specific rules of communication should be developed and strictly followed. Among them, politeness ranks highly because there is no dialogue between equals without respect.

References

Farhadian, C. E. (2015). Introducing world religions: A Christian engagement. Baker Academic.

Muck, T. C. (2011). Interreligious dialogue: Conversations that enable Christian witness. International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 35 (4), 187-192. Web.

Ott, C., Strauss, S. J., & Tennent, T. C. (2010). Encountering theology of mission (encountering mission): Biblical foundations, historical developments, and contemporary issues. Baker Books.

Tennent, T. C. (2002). Christianity at the religious roundtable: Evangelicalism in conversation with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Baker Academic.

Hinduism

Hinduism is a significant religion with rich history, a considerable amount of followers, and the Bhagavad Gita as one of the most important sacred texts. Hinduism originated from Hindu, which is one of the most ancient religions mainly spread among South Asia. Today there are approximately 800 million adherents to Hinduism, with 80% of them living in India (Farhadian, 2021). Hinduism may not be a religion in a way as the term is understood. It represents a set of life concepts, values, and traditions, and it may not always be linked to religious life. Hinduism does not have a particular founder and represents a combination of a wide variety of Indian religious beliefs and cultural traditions. It may not provide a concrete theological trajectory, and hence it may be complicated to study Hinduism as a religion.

The earliest recordings of Hinduism are related to the Indus River Valle and are estimated to be almost five thousand years old. These recordings are not represented by written sources but by Hinduism-related cities such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. A wide variety of archeological findings is used to study the history of Hinduism. However, the historical evidence may not play such a significant role in exploring Hinduism concepts as they do in researching Christianity or Buddhism. Therefore, sacred scriptures are an essential part of studying Hinduism, and some of them date back to approximately 1500 years BCE (Farhadian, 2021). These scriptures are called the Vedas and provide valuable knowledge in terms of both Hinduism and the history of South Asia. Hinduism did not propose a particular God or Gods before the first millennium CE when Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva were introduced. Conclusively, Hinduism does not provide a specific set of beliefs or doctrines, and hence it may be described as a combination of South Asian spiritual traditions.

Buddhism

Buddhism is another widely spread religious movement that originated in South Asia centuries ago. It started as a shamanic movement, which means its concepts are primarily spread by monks and nuns called shamans. Buddhism is believed to be approximately twenty-five centuries old, with first recordings dating back to the sixth century BCE (Farhadian, 2021). The fundamental concepts of Buddhism include meditation, insight, and rigorous asceticism. Buddhism consists of two major directions, which are Theravada and Mahayana (Farhadian, 2021). These two branches differ in their distribution areas, views on Buddha, script languages, and religious paths. Moreover, numerous subdivisions derive from Theravada and Mahayana. However, Lord Buddha is the central character that unites the variety of religious beliefs and concepts in Buddhism. Buddha is believed to be the founder of Buddhism covered in mystery and associated with controversial historical and theological theories. Through learning, meditation, and spirituous training, Prince Siddhartha became Buddha and achieved the Final Nirvana.

Buddhism is closely linked with rethinking suffering and understanding its nature. One of the fundamental concepts of Buddhism is represented by the Four Noble Truths. These principles state that suffering is an inseparable part of life, which is caused by desire, and it may be prevented by following the Eightfold Path (Farhadian, 2021). As already mentioned, there are two main divisions in Buddhism. Theravada is believed to be one of the most ancient branches, which dates back to Lord Buddha. Mahayana is the most widespread branch with a wide variety of concepts and a large number of followers. Nonetheless, there are also other significant branches, including Zen, Tibetan, Tendai, and Nichiren Buddhism (Farhadian, 2021). Conclusively, Buddhism is one of the major South Asian religions, which has significant global influence.

Reference

Farhadian, C. E. (2021). Introducing world religions: a Christian engagement. Baker Academic.

Introduction

In many cases people face difficulties trying to differentiate between Hinduism and Buddhism religions. The two share many similarities though they are not identical but only have Indian origin. Besides, each religion teaches its followers to separate doctrines and values. According to Romero (n.d.), Buddhism is one of the oldest faiths in the world with a greater influence on many Asian cultures. It is currently gaining membership across the U.S. and other westerns nations. Further, both Hindus and Buddha believed in rebirth and karma (Romero, n.d.). Therefore, this paper will address the comparisons between the concepts of Karma and rebirth.

Karma and Rebirth

Rebirth is a concept derived from a Latin word that means to take on the flesh again. Besides, both rebirth and Karma in the Buddhist and Hinduism religions connect believers with an emotional and intellectual description of suffering and evil unlike in other religions (Stclair, n.d.). The ultimate goal of these two faiths is to reach Nirvana. Thus, Nirvana is the endpoint of the reincarnation cycle and how one arrives there depends on their deeds or Karma.

Karma and Rebirth in Hinduism Religion

In the Hindu religious beliefs, rebirth or reincarnation is the soul after the natural death. It comes back again in the form of an animal or an even spirit depending on an individuals previous deeds. On the other hand, Karma is understood as actions having consequences (Petkova, 2018). In other words, Karma means to do and that every action has specific results. Hindus believe that Karma controls the cycle of rebirth and death or samsara (Petkova, 2018). A person can have either good or bad Karma, and those acts will be used to determine the afterlife of a person. Because of ignorance or Karma, one is prevented from reaching Nirvana and is stuck in samsara or death.

If a person reincarnates many times while attempting to look for greatness, it can lead to dissatisfaction. Hence, they will not have to reincarnate again while looking for pleasure but will receive moksha or liberation at the end (Petkova, 2018). The desire for Hinduists is to attain moksha status where there are no more suffering harsh realities. It teaches that the Upanishads state is where one can avoid ego and selfishness but embrace a clean heart.

Rebirth and Karma in Buddhism

The concepts of Karma and rebirth are also rooted in Buddhism beliefs. Unlike Hinduism, where they believe an individuals soul or spirit is born again, Buddhism has a deeper recognition of the stream of consciousness that connects one life to another (Barker, 2017). Consequently, the only difference is that Buddhists disagree that people do not have souls and that habits and traits continue in rebirth (Barker, 2017). They use the term Anatman to mean that there is no self or soul.

Moreover, Buddhists believe that when a follower practices good Karma and still leads the ways of the noble, it will result in Nirvana or inner peace. Nirvana is a state where all life suffering is eliminated (Barker, 2017). The final goal of every Buddhist is to attain inner peace and happiness. The eight noble folds comprise the right intention, action, effort, work, understanding, the right speech, contemplation, and the right meditation.

Similarities and Differences

Both religions believe in the principles of rebirth and Karma but differ in many ways. Equally, both believe that Karma is responsible for suffering and rebirth. The last resolve to Karma is attaining moksha and liberation in Hinduism and Nirvana for Buddhism (Barker, 2017). Karma is seen as having concealed consequences without material basis by both religions. To deter followers from Karma outcomes, they must address their causes, either good or bad.

When dealing with Karma and rebirth, there are several differences between Buddhism and Hinduism. Hinduism relates Karma to mortal beings that generate consequences. They have to agonize over them, and Karma does not bound the gods because they are immortal. However, in Buddhism, the gods are mortal, and they cannot escape Karmas consequences (Barker, 2017). Buddhism believes that only verbal, mental, and bodily Karmas can be resolved by practicing the eightfold. Thus, the Buddhas worship of gods and divinities will not prevent one from all the consequences of Karma.

Conclusion

Hinduism and Buddhism have many similarities and differences of the same concepts. The principles of Karma and rebirth provide an emotional and intellectual account of suffering and evils in both religions. They see Karma as responsible for suffering and reincarnation, and the final goal is to achieve liberation. All the suffering is associated with evil deeds that occurred earlier in life. Because of Karma, there is no bad act that will go unpunished.

Finally, I learned that both religions teach that bad consequences and vice versa must accompany a bad action. On the other hand, Buddhists consider the intention behind an action while Hindus consider actions alone. For instance, if a person assists a homeless individual with food, they will receive good Karma. If one gave food intending to look better in the Buddhist faith, it would end with bad Karma.

References

Barker, S. (2017). Narrating karma and rebirth: Buddhist and jain multi-life Ssories, by Naomi Appleton. Buddhist Studies Review ISSN.

Petkova, D. (2018). Death, after-life and rebirth: Cultural transfusion of ideas. Journal of Narratives and Social Sciences, 2, 8-20. Web.

Romero, J. (n.d.). The Differences between Buddhism and Hunduism. The Buddha Garden.

Stclair, A. (n.d.). Buddhism vs. Hinduism. The Creativity.

Introduction

Buddha, meaning the enlightened one, started Buddhism as a religion. He was born Prince Siddhartha Gautama around the fifth century BCE and died at the age of 80 around 400 BCE after a long time of traveling and preaching (Kleiner 447). After his death, his followers collected, organized, and presented the teachings in an orderly manner indicating his ideas about following a definite path to put an end to suffering and details of the cycle in life. Buddha is represented in the human form as a robed monk and as a hand gesture or repertoire of mudras. This essay will analyze the reasons behind Buddhas teachings, the reforms he caused, events and ideas which shaped the views during his time, and the relevance of Buddhism presently.

Buddhas Arguments for Buddhism

In his teachings, Buddha explained that happiness can be achieved through living in ethical ways by avoiding stealing, killing, lying, intoxication, and sexual misconduct. Moreover, he proposed practical solutions for the difficulties human beings face in everyday living. He set moral precepts guiding people on how to stay with the family and in convents (Kleiner 447). For people with busy lives and minds to live well, Buddha taught meditation practices, which help develop an understanding concerning the importance of ethics. Through sitting quietly and reflecting, the mind is becoming calm, and individuals can comprehend what Buddha meant in his teachings. Furthermore, he explained that attachment to others, notions, and objects can cause anguish and individuals need to overcome them to end the cycle of life.

Changes and Reforms Made by Buddha

Throughout his lifetime, Buddha is believed to have given thousands of teachings, which cover broadly every aspect of life as they are the answers to real-life situations. In the Wheel of Law, he detailed the four truths, which consist of suffering as part of life, desire as causing pain, the ability to overcome, and quenching longing. Moreover, desire can be overwhelmed through following the Eightfold ways he provided (Kleiner 447). As a result, the path of Buddha leads to nirvana, which gives a way for the endless agony in the cycle of life to stop.

Events that Shaped Buddhas Views

During Buddhas time, many changes happened, such as in trade and administrative borders with persons migrating from rural areas to towns. He made assumptions and sought to understand the world and the people living in it. Thus, his teachings center on the idea that everyone experiences the life cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, and nothing is permanent. Additionally, Buddha left the palace and his family at the age of 29 in search of knowledge and understanding about everything and tried different religious methods to do that (Kleiner 447). Besides, he encountered death, sickness, and old age, which caused him pain. In response, he abandoned his opulent life and dedicated himself to meditation. After six years of reflection under a tree in his quest for truth, he attained full knowledge of Buddhahood at Bodh Gaya in India.

The Relevance of the Teachings Today

The teachings of Buddha remain influential and are applicable in many ways in the modern era. Buddhism is practiced today as a religion by many who adhere to its practices and rituals, while others refer to it as philosophy. Meditation is used as a therapy for treating stress-related illnesses and for recreational purposes, as well as in other religions. Buddhist leaders and followers have been involved in unlawful and unethical activities, including wars. It can be attributed to the tensions which arise from varying understandings of Buddhas path. Thus, the teachings are relevant in different circumstances and inspire people of all ages worldwide.

Conclusion

Buddha, as a founder of Buddhism, played a significant role in establishing the laws which govern the religion through his numerous teachings. The four truths and Eightfold ways enable people to gain knowledge and understanding of suffering in life, overcome pain, and achieve happiness. Moreover, desire and attachment to people and objects elevate the sorrows individuals face. These lessons are still relevant today and can be applied in everyday life.

Work Cited

Kleiner, Fred S. Gardners Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Vol. 1, Cengage Learning, 2020.