Category: Breast Cancer

Breast Cancer is a disease that originates from breast tissue in the inner lining of milk ducts, which supply the ducts with milk. Breast Cancer cells move from their site and invade the bones of the patient, thus decreasing the chances of survival. Cancer is a terminal disease and the article tries to explain how it forms.

The article “Tracking breast cancer cells on the move” by Gomis is important since it explains how breast cancer cells invade bones. The article serves the purpose of examining the role of NOG, a gene that is essential in bone development and its role in breast cancer. The materials in the article help to show the role of NOG.

When cancer cells that cause brain tumors are on the move, they attack the human body leading to the development of tumors. NOG does this in two ways. Firstly,

The process of increasing the total number of osteoclasts does the escalation of bone degeneration. This provides enough space for the metastatic cells that cause cancer to reside. Secondly, the brain cancer causing cells are kept in a stem-cell-like state. This ensures that they propagate thus forming new tumors (Gomis 2012). The questions that arise are; why is it difficult to get a cure for cancer? Can breast cancer affect men? Is breast cancer heredity?

Works Cited

Gomis, Roger. “Tracking breast cancer cells on the move.” 2012. Biology News Net. Web.

Health is very important to all people because it determines how a person can best enjoy his or her life. God created man to take care of His creations but man’s activities and aggressiveness are posing a great threat to his health. This paper discusses the prevention of breast cancer and diabetes. These two illnesses are currently curable depending on the intensity of infection but scientists have established methods of managing them. First let’s have a look at the causes and treatment of breast cancer.

Breast Cancer

Breast cancer just as its name suggests affects the mammary glands. It affects both men and women, but women are more prone than men. The first indicator of breast cancer is the presence of a lump that feels like a swollen matter that is not tender like the rest of the breast tissues. The lump can develop for a longtime without being realized but it can be identified by in early stages by using a mammogram.

Other visible symptoms are deformity in the appearance of the breast due to swelling and also the nipple turns upside down. Discharge may also ooze from the infected breast and it may be accompanied by a sharp pain. The breast also looks reddish and pale in complexion coupled with mild temperatures.

The chances of contracting cancer are determined by age, sex, financial status, hormonal level, race and diet. A woman who suffered from cancer in the recent past is more prone to breast cancer. This argument is based on the history of an individual. In some instances breast cancer has been found to be hereditary. Medew (2010) argues that if one member of a given family was diagnosed with breast cancer, the women of that lineage are more prone to breast cancer than any other.

Breast cancer can be detected by screening the patients using x-ray technology and also injecting a needle into the breast tissue to collect the fluid for cross evaluation. Self breast evaluations are also highly recommended and they are done by stroking one’s breasts to help identify any abnormal internal protrusions.

Breast cancer is normally treated by dissecting the infected breast in order to remove the affected part. Chemotherapy is also efficient in treating breast cancer and it is administered for 3 to 6 months with the aim of destroying the DNA of the cancerous cells hence deterring their growth.

Radiation is usually the last option after surgery and it’s considered expensive hence most patients can not afford it. Radiation is applied after the growth has been literary excavated from the breast. The area adjacent to the abnormal growth is radiated to kill any cancerous cells that might have detached themselves from the growth.

There are several ways that help to reduce chances of contracting breast cancer. First people must adopt responsible drinking behavior because alcohol is the major inducer of many kinds of cancer. Smokers are also at risk of contracting cancer including people who are subjected to secondary smoke. Actually, most governments have banned smoking in public places. Regular exercising and a balanced diet are strongly recommended for keeping weight at bay.

Diabetes

Diabetes is a metabolical disorder whereby the body is unable to make its own sugar or rather insulin. Diabetes is divided into two, namely type 1 and type 2. Type 1 diabetes is caused by lack of insulin in the pancreas and is common among health conscious adults. Diabetes is also transmissible. Type 2 diabetes is caused by failure of insulin because the available quantity is not satisfactory for metabolic reaction in the body. Most people suffer from this kind of diabetes.

Smokers are more prone to diabetes. Bad eating habits increase chances of contracting diabetes because the fats in junk food are attached to blood veins therefore increasing blood pressure which can cause heart attack. Idling also promotes diabetes because the body does not burn excess carbohydrates hence contribute to accumulation of cholesterol in blood veins. Stress is also known to induce diabetes. This is because stress causes a person’s blood pressure to increase abruptly.

According to Rother (2002), the immediate indicators of diabetes include increased rate of urinating in a short period. The person may also feel thirsty and hungry in most cases. Other indicators include nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting and regular breathing problems.

The treatment of diabetes is impossible but it can be managed by creating a balance in blood sugar. Experts argue that diabetes can be controlled by eating appropriate foods that have low fat content and also routine exercises to burn existing body fat. Patients are encouraged to avoid situations that might increase their blood pressure such as drinking alcohol, arguments and anger. There are also appropriate medicines that are used to control blood sugar such as aspirin.

References

Rother, KI. (2007).”Diabetes treatment-bridging the divide.” The New England Journal of Medicine .356(15):1499-1501.

Medew, J. (2010).Study finds big risk of cancer in the family. Australia: Sydney Morning Hearld.

Overview of the program

This program is aimed at removing those barriers that prevent many women from undergoing mammography screening which is critical for proper treating of breast cancer. Additionally, it is necessary to develop methods of motivating women, who have reached the age of 50, to undergo mammography on a regular basis (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2002). In the course of this program, a set of interventions have been developed; in particular, healthcare professionals focused on the benefits that telephone counseling could bring. These interventions can benefit women, exposed to the risk of breast cancer, especially those ones who do not undergo screening regularly.

Evidence of success

There is an empirical study which can confirm the efficiency of this program. In particular, one can speak about the research carried out by Stoddard et al. (2002). According to this study, telephone counseling was slightly more effective than traditional written reminders (Stoddard et al. 2002). Therefore, this practice can be adopted by medical workers who should ensure that women aged above 50 regularly undergo mammography screening.

This is one of the aspects that can be identified. However, the researchers also note that some modifications should be made to telephone counseling in order to increase women’s motivation not to neglect breast cancer screening. This limitation should also be taken into account. One should note that this question attracts the attention of many researchers. For instance, Alfred Chang et al. (2007) note that telephone counseling is more efficient that written reminders. Thus, the benefits of this program are supported by empirical evidence. This is one of the key issues that should be considered.

Socio-behavioral model

The implementation of this program was based on the so-called Stages of Change Model (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2002). According to this model, the transformation of a person’s behavior includes such stages as pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance (Ogden, 2012, p. 44). This model implies that it is first necessary to change the attitudes of a person and convince him/her that a certain action should be performed on a regular basis. In their turn, medical workers should focus on those women who do not regularly undergo mammography screening.

They should clearly communicate why this behavior can be detrimental. The main problem is that the organizers of this problem do not clearly show Stages of Change Model was applied. In particular, they do not show how medical workers could prompt women to reach different stages of change. Additionally, they do not provide evidence which can prove that some women did move from one stage to another. This is one of the short-comings that can be singled out, and this particular model may not be fully appropriate in this context. In turn, one can say that Health Belief Model can also be relevant to this case. This model implies that health behavior of a person depends on his/her views about the severity of disease and the perceived benefits of undergoing mammography screening or any other medical procedure (Harari & Legge, 2001, p. 13).

This approach might have been more suitable for persuading women to undergo mammography regularly. It should be noted that during the telephone conversation, medical workers specifically focused on the risks of neglecting mammography testing (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2002). This is one of the approaches that are closely related to Health Belief Model according to which the perception of risk is an important motivational factor. Therefore, this model may be more relevant to this intervention.

Methodological approach

The organizers of this program do not clearly identify the methodological approach underlying this program. However, one can conjecture that the principles of social marketing have been used to carry out this intervention. This method is derived from the methods used by companies in effort to persuade customers to buy their products or services (Nyce, 2009, p. 125). This approach is based on several premises. At first, it is necessary to identify a target audience (Nyce, 2009, p. 125).

In this case, one should speak about women, aged above 50 since they are more vulnerable to the risks of breast cancer. Much attention should be paid to those patients who tend to overlook mammography screening. Furthermore, it is necessary to identify the target behavior. The goal of this behavior is to make sure that women do not forget about testing that can eventually protect them against the risks of a very dangerous disease.

Additionally, medical workers should demonstrate that the value of undergoing mammography screening justifies the costs of this activity. In this context, the word cost is reference to those problems that women can encounter. For example, one can speak about the feeling of anxiety or the need to find time for this medical procedure. Moreover, healthcare professionals should demonstrate why women should not turn a blind eye to the necessity of breast cancer screening. This is why the use of telephone counseling plays an important role in this program. Thus, one can argue that the use of social marketing can be quite applicable to this intervention and the way in which it was implemented by medical workers. These are the main points that can be made.

Evaluation

Overall, this information can be used for the evaluation of this program and its efficiency. One should mention that researchers pay close attention to the methods that can make people more motivated to undergo cancer screening (Chang et al. 2007). For instance, Alfred Chang et al. (2007) note that telephone calls can indeed increase the willingness of women to undergo breast cancer screening (p. 334).

Therefore, one can say that the proposed intervention can be regarded as a model practice that healthcare workers can adopt. Nevertheless, there are some limitations that should be taken into account. First, the organization that has implemented this program does not provide the information about the message that medical workers tried to community. Moreover, there is no clear explanation that can show how the behavior of women could be transformed. Still, despite these limitations, one can say that the use of telephone counseling can bring considerable benefits to medical workers and patients.

It should be noted that this program is premised on the idea that the prevention of a disease is critical for minimizing its impact on the health of a person. This argument is particularly relevant if one speaks about breast cancer. In turn, the strategies developed during this program can make women more aware about the benefits of mammography screening as well as the risks of neglecting it. These are the main details that can be distinguished.

Reference List

Chang, A., Ganz, P., Hayes, D., Kinsella, T., & Pass, H. (2007). Oncology: An Evidence-Based Approach. New York, NY: Springer. Web.

Harari, P., Legge, K. (2001). Psychology and Health. New York, NY: Heinemann. Web.

Nyce, J. (2009). Social Sources of Disparities in Health and Health Care and Linkages to Policy, Population Concerns and Providers of Care. Boston, MA: Emerald Group Publishing. Web.

Ogden, J. (2012). Health Psychology: A Textbook: A textbook. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill International. Web.

Public Health Agency of Canada. (2002). Breast Cancer Screening Among Non-adherent Women. Web.

Stoddard, A., Fox, S., Costanza, M., Lane, D., & Andersen, M. (2002). Effectivenessof telephone counseling for mammography: results from five randomized trials. Preventive Medicine 34(1), 90-99. Web.

Scientific advancement has helped improve the diagnosis and promotion of health for many Americans but African American women. These belong to the minority ethnic group with little income and education and therefore lack full access to better and quality medical care like their counterparts of Caucasian origin.

Health professionals have discovered that breast cancer is one of the preventable cancers among women in the United States despite being one of the major killer types.

In order for the disease to be countered, there are objectives aimed at encouraging vast African American women population to take preventive measures. These objectives should be set in form is questions so that as the target group answer them, solutions can be found. First, why do most women, at risk, reluctant to seek breast cancer testing? What reasons do those who chose to be tested have? Early diagnosis of breast cancer increase treatment options thus reducing death rates. Mammography is the most effective and promising method for current detection of breast cancer (Icard, Bourjolly, & Siddiqui, 2003).

Talbert (2008) sees social marketing as a strategy where people are not persuaded to buy what the producer has produced, rather their goodwill is appealed to know what they prefer and why. Social marketing was conceived in 1970s when Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaitman realized that the same way products are marketed could be used to market and sell ideas, attitudes and behavior (Talbert, 2008).

In order to increase breast cancer screening the marketing strategy could involve getting an annual mammogram, setting a physician each year for a breast examination and performing monthly breast self examination.

There are reasons that motivate women to seek mammography for example the belief that early detection will enable them treat the cancer in early stages, and their trust for the safety of mammogram. Some reasons however discourage women from going for the test. Most cited include but not limited to; lack of physical referral, high cost and a myth that mammography is dangerous.

In social marketing, in order to sell out the encouraging factors, there is need to incorporate comprehensive approach to increase utilization rates. The social marketing strategy should be aimed at creating more awareness on the safety of mammography and demystifying the test as well as citing the benefits of early detection and regular checking. Better marketing strategies should be employed to improve access to health promotion interventions for high risk African Americans (Talbert, 2008).

Social marketing involving the perfection of the African American breast cancer survivors should be incorporated. This is because they remain largely affected by breast cancer than the Caucasians. Culturally-specific social marketing programs that promote breast cancer awareness among African Americans women should be crafted.

For the above goals to be attained, the objectives must first focus on the product. That involves not only tangible objects but also services, practices and ideas. Social Marketing strategy should therefore focus on how to influence the consumer to take possible positive steps (Talbert, 2008).

Another effort should assess what the consumer need in order to obtain the social marketing product. This could be monetary, time or effort. The African American women should be persuaded, through social education, to perceive benefit of early testing and mammogram as grater than the cost so as to try and adopt the product. The price should therefore be considerate of the consumer’s ability.

Finally the product should reach the consumer in an easy way and accessible and of high quality. Finally the producer must use persuasive methods that the target group can identify with. When proper social marketing strategies are employed with the perspectives of the African American cancer survivors in mind, this will be the first positive step towards reducing the berth that exist between African American women and their Caucasian women counterparts in breast cancer awareness.

References

Icard, L., Bourjolly, J., & Siddiqui, N. (2003). Designing social marketing strategies to increase African Americans’ access to health promotion programs. Health Social Work, 28(3), 214-23.

Talbert, P. (2008). Using social marketing to increase breast cancer screening among African American women: perspectives from African American breast cancer survivors. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 13(4), 347-362.

Introduction

This paper is a critique on an epidemiological study on cancer survival rates published by the Middle Eastern Journal of Cancer in 2011. The title of the report was, “Epidemiology and Survival Analysis of Jordanian Female Breast Cancer Patients Diagnosed from 1997 to 2002”. It used publicly available records from institutions carrying out breast cancer surveillance, and death records from government departments to determine the survival rate of female breast cancer patients diagnosed from 1997 to 2002. The sponsor of the study was the Non-communicable Disease Directorate, Ministry of Health in Amman, Jordan. The study originally sought to use the entire population of breast cancer patients in Jordan but had to exclude some potential participants because unavailability of records relating to some of the patients.

Research Question

The primary objective of the study was “to measure the observed five-year survival rate of female breast cancer patients diagnosed from 1997 to 2002 in Jordan” (Tarawneh, Arquob, & Sharkas, 2011, p. 81). In addition, the study sought “to investigate the impact of a wide range of factors on breast cancer survival” (Tarawneh, Arquob, & Sharkas, 2011, p. 81). This objective came from the realization that the best way to test the efficacy of breast cancer treatment and to uncover intervening factors influencing the efficacy of these treatments was to investigate the rates of survival of people diagnosed with it. Women carry a greater disease burden due to breast cancer compared to men (National Health Priority Action Council, 2006). Jordan had the records needed for the study hence the choice of the country.

There were no secondary objectives listed for the study. Rather, the researchers indentified the specific factors that contributed to the survival of cancer. The factors included, “age of patient at diagnosis, histopathology, laterality, grade, and stage of the tumor, and treatment modalities” (Tarawneh, Arquob, & Sharkas, 2011, p. 72). However, by looking at the results, it is possible to infer that undeclared objectives of the study included a comparison of the survival rates of breast cancer in women in other countries such as Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, and Oman (Tarawneh, Arquob, & Sharkas, 2011). This comparison also sufficed as a means of data validation. In addition, the study also aimed at comparing the rates with a similar study conducted earlier in Jordan to determine the changes in the mortality trends attributable to medical intervention and improvement in breast cancer therapy in the country.

Just like the secondary study, there was no clearly stated hypothesis for this study. The study sought to measure survivability of breast cancer. This is a mathematical measure and not a qualitative measure lending itself to the development of a hypothesis. The study simply wanted to measure how many survived and why.

Study Design

The study design used for the research project was observational study. An observational study does not include the intervention of the researcher in the same way as an experimental study. In other words, the researcher does not intervene or isolate the subjects in any way but simply studies their characteristics to decipher the patterns under investigation. All the subjects in this study pursued their own lines of therapy based in their personal physician advice. Secondly, the researchers used “historical cohort” study to collect the data needed to meet the objectives of the study (Tarawneh, Arquob, & Sharkas, 2011, p. 73). It is an application of the observational study method. Another name for historical method of data collection is longitudinal study.

At the macro level, the researchers had a choice between experimental and observational research methods. Experimental research tends to be expensive because of the need to maintain certain conditions for the duration of the experiment. However, since the research in this case wanted to establish a naturally occurring trend with several interventions, it was best to use observational study and deduce the efficacy of the treatments and associated breast cancer therapy at a later stage. Another important reason for this choice of design was that there it was not in the researchers place to decide who gets cancer, or to predetermine the treatment that the patients got, or to control its management in any way.

The main advantages of historical cohort study, as a study design option is that it is cost effective and yields information that is difficult to collect in any other way. The researcher does not have to spend time creating the required research conditions. The researcher simply defines the variables at play in a natural setting and studies the specific variables required by the research objectives (Corson, Heath, & Bryant, 2000). The major disadvantage of this design method is the relative difficulty of finding suitable research samples because of the degree of variance in the research environment. In this case, there were differences in the types of cancer such as laterality, and differences in the individual patients such as preexisting conditions and subsequent complications. This diversity of conditions complicates the design of cohort studies.

The selection of the subjects for the study was rather simple. The researchers chose to use the entire population of women cancer patients in Jordan because of the availability of information from the Jordan Cancer Registry (JCR) (Tarawneh, Arquob, & Sharkas, 2011). There only criteria required for inclusion in the study was a breast cancer diagnosis in any of the health centers in the country. By studying the entire population, it was not necessary for the researchers to find any other inclusion criteria. However, some subjects were not fit for study because of absence of records the researchers needed to determine the extent of the other variables studied.

The main factors influencing the choice of subjects included in the study were sex and a positive breast cancer diagnosis. The study only sought to identify women with a positive breast cancer diagnosis. The time factor that the researchers used to identify the suitable subjects in the study was by determining a diagnosis date and an exit date. The researchers wanted to study suitable subjects whose diagnosis came in between 1997 and 2002. Any diagnosis before or after this time frame did not qualify for inclusion in the study. The place factor was that the diagnosis took place in Jordan. It is unclear whether the research excluded non-Jordanian women residing in Jordan or whether it included women diagnosed in another country and then moved to Jordan.

The same factors that defined the source population also served as the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria required that the subject be a woman diagnosed with breast cancer between 1997 and 2002. Importantly, the subject also had to be in the JCR registry. The exclusion criteria included being male, suffering from any other type of cancer apart from breast cancer, and a diagnosis outside the 1997 to 2002 range. It was also important for the researchers to have access to the subject’s medical records to help determine the extent of the influence of the other variables. It is unclear whether the researchers included or excluded people with multiple cancers including breast cancer.

The researchers did not sample the source population. They took the whole population of women suffering from breast cancer in Jordan for the entire period of the study. This decision came from the fact that the records were already available through the JCR. Therefore, it did not require the researchers to collect the data on their own or to establish data management methods for the research project. On the other hand, it gave them a platform to establish credible and influential results because their sample size reflected the total population of women diagnosed with cancer. They also used data from patients’ health records and the data from the Department of Civil Status.

By relying on government agencies and institutions dealing with health records, the researchers achieved a high rate of enrollment and retention. This case is special because the subjects may not have been aware that they were part of the breast cancer surveillance that constituted the project. It appears that the subjects had no say in appearing in the JCR, just as the hospitals they visited had to keep a record of the treatments offered. In addition, the Department of Civil Status also required no permission to keep records of deaths since it is a government agency hence high retention of subjects for the project.

Explanatory Variable

The main exposure variable in this study was the presence of breast cancer proved by a positive diagnosis at a medical facility. The measurement of the exposure variable did not matter much to the researchers because of their reliance on data from JCR. The cancer management program in Jordan requires all cancer patients to register with JCR. For this study, the registration with JCR served the purpose needed for the measurement of the exposure variable. Otherwise, it was the responsibility of medical doctors to diagnose the disease and send the information to JCR. It was in health centers that the measurement of the exposure variable took place. The researchers played no part in this stage.

The researchers used the conventional classification of cancer progression. The disease progression is in four stages, denoted Stage I, Stage II, Stage III, and Stage IV. There were no study specific classifications of the exposure variable. The need to identify these levels came from the fact that the subjects seek medical attention at various stages. These stages influence the survival chances of the subject hence the need to determine the stage at which the cancer was as at the time of the diagnosis. This information influenced the reporting of the findings further proving the importance of registering the classification as at the time of inclusion into the study. Other factors used by the researchers were laterality, morphological type, and tumor grade. These were the measures used to determine which patients had the highest chance of survival.

The accuracy of measurement of the exposure did not depend on the researchers hence it is not attributable to them. However, the systems used to collect this information are credible. The fact that medical doctors diagnosed the cancer patients is enough to assure the researchers and peer-reviewers that the data received from JCR is credible. In case of any doubts, it would have been easy for the researchers to account for it based on the recorded percentage of wrong cancer diagnosis. Moreover, the length of study gave sufficient time for correction of any diagnosis. In addition to these facts, the researchers used medical records to track the progress of the patients. It would have been easy for them to find inconsistencies and correct them.

Study Outcome

The health outcome studied by this research was the mortality rate of women diagnosed with breast cancer. The research followed the progress of the disease in the women over a period of five years from the day of diagnosis, and stopped the process exactly five years later. As such, the first lot of women admitted into the project in 1997 exited in 2002, while those admitted in 2002 exited in 2007. In this period, the researchers were able to measure various elements of breast cancer presentation and treatment that helped them to track the progress of the disease.

The definition of the cases was not complex. Using the exclusion and inclusion criteria, the researchers identified the subjects that they could use for the experiment. In this sense, the definition of the cases depended on the health progress of the subjects and their eventual mortality status. The main issue the researchers were looking for is the survivability of breast cancer. The researchers found variables to use to account for death by other causes. Since they used official death reports from the Department of Civil Status, determining the cause of death was straightforward.

Measures of Frequency and/or Association

Incidence is the rate of occurrence of the health issue while prevalence refers to the total population affected by it (Helme & Gibson, 2001). This study did not look at the incidence of breast cancer. It recruited women who already had breast cancer for the study hence it was not concerned with the rate of occurrence of breast cancer. However, the measure of deaths associated with the disease can offer some measure of incidence in the study. On the other hand, prevalence of deaths due to breast cancer was a core issue in the study. The study’s core objective was the determination of the deaths associated with breast cancer within five years of diagnosis.

The two commonly used measures of association are Relative Risk (RR) and Odds Ratio (OR) (Akhtar, 2008). Relative Risk is the ratio between the cumulative incidence of the disease in both a group exposed to a disease and one not exposed to the disease (Akhtar, 2008). Odds ratio on the other hand measures the correlation between exposures and occurrence of the disease (Akhtar, 2008). In this case, it is the measure between a positive cancer diagnosis and death. This study did not include these measures explicitly in its computations. The use of Cox regression analysis and univariate analysis seemed to suffice for the researchers (Tarawneh, Arquob, & Sharkas, 2011).

The interpretation of these results depends on the stated objectives. These results apply in as far as the measurement of the mortality rates of the women breast cancer patients.

Sources of Error

Selection bias in this study could have come from inclusion of women misdiagnosed as breast cancer patients while they have another type of disease. The possibility that this happened is rather low. Therefore, the risk of selection bias is very low for this particular study. In addition, the fact that the study relied on data from JCR made it easier for the researchers to avoid selection bias. Another potential source of selection bias was the risk that some of the cancer suffers in the population may not have been diagnosed as such.

The experiment had little chance of suffering from information bias because of the data collection methods. The actual data collection took place in health centres, and credible government agencies with little influence from the subjects. The main source of confounding bias was that there were other factors influencing the mortality rate of women suffering from breast cancer. Some women died from accidents or from other health complications. It is difficult in this sense to isolate the impact of other causes of death because of the large number of potential combinations of causes of death.

In order to determine the degree of generalization possible from the results of the study, it is important to look at the sampling techniques used (Ulmer, 2010). In this study, the entire population was also the sample space in use for the study. As such, the results apply to the entire population hence no further need to generalize. It may be possible to generalize the results to countries with similar social-economic characteristics and comparable health systems (Jacobs, Rapoport, & Jonsson, 2009). However, the chance of finding another country that fits well in this criterion is difficult. Therefore, it is more likely that the result can only offer a comparison but not a generalization of the trends in question.

Statistical Analysis

There main results from the study were as follows. The worst survival rates of breast cancer patients were in women under the age of 30. Their cumulative survival rate was 51.7%. The second worst survival rate was in the 70 years and over age group where the survival rate was 58%. Women in the 30-39 years age group had a survival rate of 61.0%, while the 40-49 years age group had the highest survival rate at 69.3%.

The 50-59% age group had a 64.9% survival rate and the 60-69 years age group had a 63.3% survival rate. The study also had results showing that under tumor morphology, the best survival rates were in women with Medullary carcinoma. Under tumor grade, the best survival rates were in women with well-differentiated tumors. They had a 73.8% survival rate. Finally, the worst survival rate was in women with bilateral tumors at 46.15%. Those with left and right tumors had survival rates of 64.08% and 65.01%.

There were several other statistical measures used in the study after the presentation of the results. The researchers used univariate analysis and Cox regression analysis to process the basic data. The univariate analysis revealed that the “stage, grade, and laterality of breast cancer influenced cancer survival rate” (Tarawneh, Arquob, & Sharkas, 2011, p. 77). Cox regression revealed that the, “stage, grade and age factors correlated with prognosis, while laterality showed no significant effect on survival” (Tarawneh, Arquob, & Sharkas, 2011, p. 72). The statistics appear credible because of their credible extraction.

Conclusion

The causality criteria in this study revolved around the determination of the relationship between the cancer diagnosis and mortality. In simple terms, the study looked at cancer as the cause of death among women with a positive diagnosis. The strength of association between these two issues is that the experimenters determined that 62% of cancer patients survived in the first five years after diagnosis. The researchers presented several other statistics such as the rate of mortality among specific age groups, the influence of laterality, tumor morphology and tumor grade, showing that they had an influence on the mortality rate.

As observed earlier, the researchers did not have an explicit hypothesis in regards to the results of this study. Since they were looking for a relationship not measured before by any other means, their study had a baseline role in order to establish the parameters needed to compute the mortality rates of breast cancer in women in Jordan.

The bottom line of the study was the determination of the survivability of breast cancer in women. From this study, it is clear that in Jordan, 62% of women survive breast cancer in the first five years after diagnosis. The long-term trend is that because of improving health standards in Jordan, the rate of breast cancer survival is on the increase.

References

Akhtar, S. (2008). Epidemiologic Measures of Association. Karachi: Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Aga Khan University.

Corson, D., Heath, R. L., & Bryant, J. (2000). Human Communication Theory and Research: Concepts, Context, and Challenges (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Helme, R. D., & Gibson, S. J. (2001). The Epidemiology of Pain in Elderly People. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine , 17 (3), 417-31.

Jacobs, P., Rapoport, J., & Jonsson, E. (2009). Cost Containment and Efficiency in National Health Systems: A Global Comparison. Weinheim: Wiley Verlag.

National Health Priority Action Council. (2006). National Chronic Disease Strategy. Canberra: Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing.

Tarawneh, M., Arquob, K., & Sharkas, G. (2011). Epidemiology and Survival Analysis of Jordanian Female Breast Cancer Patients Diagnosed from 1997 to 2002. Middle East Journal of Cancer , 71-80.

Ulmer, C. (2010). Future Directions for the National Healthcare Quality and Disparities Reports. Washington DC: National Academies Press.

Detailed Description of the Disorder

Breast cancer is a malevolent tumor that develops in cells of the breast. There are several types of breast cancer, which include ductal carcinoma in situ that does not proliferate and is easily treated. Invasive ductal carcinoma is the most common breast cancer, accounting for about 80 percent of all invasive cancers. The key symptom of breast cancer is the occurrence of a protuberance in the breast. In addition, the nipple becomes painful and releases a discharge. The breast also becomes engorged and has a reddish color around the nipple. A screening mammography, scrutiny of the patient’s family history and a breast examination help in the diagnosis of breast cancer (Breast Cancer Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, n.d.).

There are many treatment options for breast cancer depending on the type and level of progression of the condition. These treatment options include surgery to detach the tumor and surrounding cells, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone treatment, and gene (targeted) therapy (Batra & Jajoo, 2011). Several treatment options can be used to ensure complete elimination of the malignant tissues. The length of the recovery period depends on the therapy. For example, a lumpectomy requires one to two weeks while radiation therapy needs one to six weeks to heal. Chemotherapy, on the other hand, needs three to six months. Breast cancer survival rate decreases with the increase in the level of disease progression before the initial diagnosis. A five-year survival rate indicates that the survival chances are 88% for cancer diagnosed at stage I and 15% for stage IV cancer (Breast Cancer Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, n.d.).

Cognitive Functions

(+): Breast cancer does not significantly affect the concentration of my client, Mrs. Smith. Her memory state is the same as it was before the diagnosis. I do not expect breast cancer to compromise her concentration, memory or her problem solving ability unless it recurs and necessitates that she undergoes further treatment.

(-): She sometimes looks distracted and does not pay attention. A slight reduction in her attention span occurs with the increase in time as evidenced in a study by Hedayati et al. (2011).

Sensory Functions

(+): Mrs. Smith’s sensory functions are intact including the visual, auditory, olfactory, and gustatory functions since breast cancer does not affect the brain.

(-): She is tremendously sensitive to pain, which implies that her tactile senses are extremely sharp.

Motor Functions

(+): Mrs. Smith’s motor functions are fair especially the fine motor functions and balance. She can still do most of the little things she used to do before her cancer diagnosis and treatment.

(-): Her gross motor function suffers a lot because she complains of a sharp pain whenever she lifts a heavy object or moves her body vigorously. This affects her relationship with her children because she no longer participates in outdoor games with them.

Emotional/Behavioral Functions

(+): There is no likelihood of substance abuse by Mrs. Smith because she is extremely enthusiastic about being healthy again and does not do anything that jeopardizes her recovery process.

(-): Mrs. Smith displays some axis I clinical syndromes. She exhibits anxiety and adjustment disorders, which tend to affect her social life. There is a high likelihood of the development of depression due to the lumpectomy. This is because she feels that she has lost a vital section of her body.

Adaptive/Coping Functions:

(+): Mrs. Smith exhibits excellent adaptation to her situation and shows immense enthusiasm in her work. She has adapted well to her work environment, which is evident because she tries to recover the time she lost during treatment. Her money management skills are okay since she wants to ensure that she has enough savings in case of an emergency appointment with her oncologist. She is also dependable and maintains high levels of hygiene.

(-): Her social interaction is not as it was in the past. She does not like her colleagues to ask her questions concerning her illness and avoids those who attempt to do so.

Suitable Jobs for Cancer Patients

29-9092.00 – Genetic Counselors

Reading, speaking and writing are the key skills required for this job. In addition, the person needs to have social insight to comprehend why people react in certain ways. There are few rehabilitation services provided for people suffering from breast cancer. This is because the individuals in this occupation do not strain during working hours.

21-1012.00 – Educational, Guidance, School, and Vocational Counselors

The key skills required for this job are dynamic listening, speaking, reading, critical thinking, writing, and decision making. This is because the job mainly involves listening and solving other people’s problems (Educational, Guidance, School, and Vocational Counselors- 21-1012.00, n.d.). The context of the work entails numerous telephone and email communication, face-to-face deliberations, written mail, and memos. The work activities entail planning, organizing and decision making. In addition, the tools and technology used do not require a lot of effort. Therefore, there are no rehabilitation services to cater for cancer patients since the tasks are not physically draining (Educational, Guidance, School, and Vocational Counselors- 21-1012.00, n.d.).

References

Batra, R., & Jajoo, P. (2011). The role of rehabilitation in cancer patients. In Flanagan, S.R., Zaretsky, H.H., & Moroz, A. (Eds), Medical aspects of disability: A handbook for the rehabilitation professional (pp 103-118). New York: Springer Publishing.

Breast Cancer Symptoms, Causes, Treatment. (n.d.). Web.

Educational, Guidance, School, and Vocational Counselors – 21-1012.00. (n.d.). Web.

Hedayati. E., Schedin, A., Nyman, H., Alinaghizadeh, H. & Albertson, M. (2011). The effects of breast cancer diagnosis and surgery on cognitive functions. Acta Oncologica. 50(7):1027-36. Web.

Abstract

Being diagnosed with breast cancer is one of the most traumatizing experiences any person can undergo in life. The claim follows since such a diagnosis, for most people has a reverberating echo of ‘fatalism’ ringing in the background. The media and the health sector have tried to increase awareness of breast cancer, its symptoms, treatment procedures, and survival coefficient.

The result of these campaigns is that more people talk about it nowadays, and more women go for regular testing. However, a large portion of the society still cringes at the mention of this incurable condition, and they do so with good cause, because the time, costs, physical discomfort and psychological distress associated with having cancer are too expensive a price for most to pay.

Research has proved that most people are willing to talk openly about getting tests done to allay fears over identified suspicious symptoms, when it is friends or relatives suffering these signs. However, the same people are fast to decline such tests for themselves, preferring not to know about the condition of their health, in case they discover that they have it.

The paper gives a general review of the current standing of cancer and its effects on the society. This includes the causes, and possible preventive measures.

It then places particular focus on the testing and treatment of breast cancer, the effects and conditions associated with it, from a financial point of view, and the possible improvements worth making in service or treatment provision, to cater for the patients who cannot afford the expensive procedures necessary for managing cancer.

It also provides an evaluation scheme that can be instrumental in gauging the effectiveness of such reformed policies.

Introduction

Breast cancer is just one of the various types of cancer that a person can suffer from. It mostly affects women. However, recent studies have discovered that men too are vulnerable to this type of cancer, and that they are least likely to survive it because chances of early detection or any detection at all prove rare.

This stands out as one of the detrimental attitudes to the efforts made by health care professionals to increase the awareness of breast cancer normalizing its discussion in the society (Jemal,Thomas, Murray, & Thum, 2002, p. 37).

The other issue that needs management is the costs associated with prevention and treatment of cancer, and in particular, mammography. People have vetted mammography as the most accurate and proximate means of making early detections of cancerous cells, hence enabling one to get sufficient treatment, and increases his/her chances of survival.

Despite the margin of error associated with the devices, as in the case of false positives, which occur when the results are abnormal but no cancer present or false negatives, which show that no cancerous cells are present, yet they are present thus giving the person a false sense of security, these tests are very expensive.

They range from several hundreds of dollars to several thousands of dollars, yet women above 40 years are encouraged to take them at least once in every two years. The costs are likely to keep off most people, and ignorance is likely to keep off even more.

There is therefore a need to standardize the costs further spreading awareness in ways that are more effective. Interested people have coined various government policies with the sole purpose of increasing the affordability of mammography (Vilholm, Cold, Rasmussen, & Sindrup, 2008, p. 605).

These include measures by various entities such as Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program, the National Cancer Information Services and several legislative reforms with the same purpose.

Data

Breast cancer is not a new aspect, and neither is mammography. Breast cancer refers to the uncontrollable replication of cells in the breast at inappropriate times. This results in the blockage of lymph nodes, which ultimately disrupts the normal functioning of an organ, and the body at large. People have identified several risk factors having the capacity to make a person more susceptible to breast cancer.

Age is at the top of the list because ageing makes people susceptible to all sorts of illnesses and breast cancer is not exempted (Brownson, Baker, Leet, & Gillepsie, 2003, p. 67). Other factors include a personal history of breast cancer. A person diagnosed with it before can as well suffer from it again.

A family history of breast cancer, particularly a diagnosis among first-degree relatives (mother, father, sister, or daughter) or second-degree relatives (grandmother or aunt) have a high chance of suffering from breast cancer especially if they were diagnosed before they cloaked 50.

Deleterious (harmful) inherited or acquired genetic mutations of DNA traits also increase one’s chances of having breast cancer. The most common of these mutations affect BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, but other genes’ mutation may also cause the condition. These include ATM, CHEK2, TP53, PTEN, MLH1, STK11/LKB1, and MSH2 (Thompson, Easton, & The Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium, 2002, p. 1364).

Breast density is the other factor that increases the risk of having breast cancer. This is mostly because the denser the breasts the more difficult it is to identify the presence of cancerous cells early enough. Certain breast changes found on biopsy can also increase the chances of cancer development especially atypical hyperplasia, lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS), and ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS).

These conditions do not indicate presence of cancer but denote a risk for its development if not managed. A woman’s reproductive and menstrual history is also consequential when assessing susceptibility to cancer. If she had her menarche before the age of twelve, had her menopause after 55, or had her first child after 30, she is more likely to develop breast cancer.

Another factor is the extended use of menopausal hormone therapy, which normally entails the combined use of estrogen and progestin for over 5 years. Exposure to radiation therapy on the chest and breast area before 30, including during treatment of Hodgkin Lymphoma raise the probability of breast cancer occurrence throughout the life of an individual.

Consuming alcohol, inhaling tobacco, lack of physical exercises, and a poor diet or nutritional habits also increase a person’s chances of developing cancer.

Finally, women upon whom diethylstilbestrol was administered during pregnancy to prevent miscarriage have also been found to be more susceptible to breast cancer than their counterparts who were not treated thus. However, no study has proven whether the same applies to their daughters who were in the womb at the time.

Mammography, clinical breast exams and breast self-exam are the main testing procedures currently in use to detect the growth of cancerous cells. Of the three, mammography is most accurate and it includes both a screening (check for cancerous cells in the absence of symptoms) and diagnostic (check for extent of spread, and viability of ‘symptoms’) mammograms.

If diagnosed with breast cancer, there is an elaborate follow-up procedure for radiologists and breast surgeon to follow, and this is contained in the Breast Imaging, Reporting, and Database System (BI-RADS) which enables them to measure and describe results, as well as to match them with the concurrent follow-up procedure, linked to a specific category of mammography results.

Other new methods of testing and diagnosing breast cancer include digital mammography which uses FFDMs, and is quite similar to the conventional film mammography, except that the images obtained are recorded and stored in a computer file and can be adjusted, retrieved, and analyzed using computer applications (Vilholm, Cold, Rasmussen, & Sindrup, 2008, p. 609).

The method is advantageous because it enables long distance file sharing between healthcare professionals for instance between radiologists and breast surgeons.

It makes it easier to identify minute differences between normal and abnormal tissues due to the high resolution capacity as well as ‘magnification’ option, it reduces the number of follow-up procedures necessary after a mammography, and it requires fewer repeat images, thus reducing exposure to radiation.

Another method is the Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), which uses gadolinium as a contrast fluid to produce images of breast tissue. Sonography or the use of ultrasounds (taking pictures using sound waves) is also an option and it is much cheaper than the other procedures.

Finally, new inventions are being made such as Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scanning or tomosynthesis, and scintimammography (molecular imaging) (Thompson, Easton, & The Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium, 2002, p. 1361).

Literature Review

There is extensive literature on breast cancer, treatment procedures, risk factors, and effects on society based on the many studies carried out in that field. However, on the issue of affordability of breast cancer procedures, no exclusive studies seem to exist. The resource base on that area occurs within the existing research as recommendations made by researcher on cost management.

Eadie and MacAskill (2008) suggest that more health care practitioners adopt the use of ultrasounds in checking for cancer, as this method is cheaper (p. 337). This will result in more affordable services to the patients seeking such examinations. Another study proved that patients could indeed be having money to pay for mammography and other expensive procedures.

Nevertheless, it is their attitudes that need to be worked on. People focus on the fatalism of cancer, and the inability of the medical field to come up with a cure for it. “Given the fears and limited readiness to change, great awareness and sensitivity is required when developing interventions which seek to engage people in the prevention of cancer” (Jemal, Thomas, Murray, & Thum, 2002, p. 33).

The inability to deal with risk and uncertainty results to people advising other to go for check-up while not daring to visit a medical practitioner for one’s own health review.

The fear leads to irrational responses. Sarkar (2009, p. 364) suggests the importance of normalizing discussions about breasts, promoting breast awareness, countering misconceptions about breast cancer and advocating for breast screening by promoting free screening campaigns.

Another study on the legislative policies that inform the cost of cancer prevention and treatment procedures came up with statutes such as the Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA), the Food and Drugs Administration Certification and Accreditation, and the Breast and Cervical cancer Prevention and Treatment Act (Jemal, Thomas, Murray, & Thum, 2002, p. 45).

Program Options / Alternate Solutions

Instead of continuing with the prevailing conventional mammography, health practitioners should consider adopting digital mammograms, also referred to full-field digital mammograms (FFDMs) which are easier to manipulate and interpret.

Consequently, they will stand a chance to analyze the information or results obtained from mammograms much faster, which will make them more efficient. Since these devices do not require as much effort or time as the conventional mammograms, the services rendered should also reduce in costs.

Moreover, in cases of transporting patients to other states for procedures such as breast surgeries, part of the increased costs resulted from the need to transport physically the films that had the results of the mammography. With the use of these digital mammograms, such unaccounted expenses, the services rendered will prove cheaper and more affordable to patients.

Digital mammograms also produce more accurate and detailed results whose manipulation reduces the need for repetitive exposure to radiations during more tests, as well as the need for more follow up procedures to certify or clarify the first results (Jemal, Thomas, Murray, & Thum, 2002, p. 39). This stands out as a double benefit in terms of reducing costs because patients necessarily need no further radiation.

The radiation, in itself is carcinogenic. Therefore, it can actually cause cancer. Secondly, a patient need not to pay for more procedures as ‘follow-up’, since the capturing of all the information required for the entire testing procedure, in terms of images, occurs at once. Another cost effective measure involves the use of Sonography, especially during follow up.

Sonography or using ultrasound is not very accurate as a screening procedure (Thompson, Easton, & The Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium, 2002, p. 1359). However, after a positive diagnosis, one can use it to measure the rate of spread of cancerous cells. This applies to the use of magnetic resonance imaging as well.

People ought to look into government policies, aimed at regulating and standardizing costs. The first in this category is the Breast and Cervical Cancer Prevention and Treatment Act (Bardach, 2000, p. 45). Currently, this act provides for Medicaid by catering for the expenses accrued during post-diagnosis procedures.

Whereas that is a noble move, the government can do more than that. It need to first spread awareness of breast cancer including testing and treatment procedures, available insurance policies, survival coefficient of those diagnosed with breast cancer, and the available medical measures for such patients.

Armed with this information, the society it then go ahead and introduce measures such as that which it has going with Medicaid. However, it should also increase the scope of its participation to incorporate other insurance organizations as well.

The current statistics of breast cancer diagnosis indicate that almost 300,000 remain diagnosed annually with 60,000 of these dying due to either late diagnosis or inability to afford treatment (Brownson, Baker, Leet, & Gillepsie, 2003, p. 78).

By government standards, in terms of expenses, providing funds to cater for this number of patients annually should not be too deep a dent in its pockets and the plan can fit well within its budget.

Another act that is related is the Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA). This act specifically provides for the safety and reliability of mammography in the country. The issue of affordability falls under the reliability provision.

It is the responsibility of policy makers to ensure that they make clear provisions highlighting on the importance of making mammography affordable to everybody in need of these services (Bardach, 2000, p. 98). Even with the current lack of provisions, 75% of the people diagnosed with cancer every year manage to afford these expensive procedures somehow.

This leaves out a meager 25% only who would require financial support. Surely, the government has economists who can make the necessary calculations to incorporate these people into its budget without going hungry!

The Food and Drug Administration is another authority in the matter of costs. It provides accreditation to mammography equipment, which is tested periodically, institutions with trained personnel who both administer and interpret tests and test results, and provides the system for following up on abnormal results. In short, it is a quality assurance body.

To manage the costs better, all this body needs to do is set up ‘expense’ as one of the various issues it checks to validate a health institution.

After the government has passed whatever policies that are necessary for medical practitioners to standardize costs, this would be the perfect body to execute those policies it imply need to deny certification to any organization that does not provide affordable health procedures, particularly those related to breast cancer and mammography.

Implementation

To produce quality of life results for patients diagnosed with breast cancer, the expenses related to treatment procedures need proper management. They need thorough standardization and regulation. The parties responsible for these processes include the government, medical practitioners, and insurance policymakers.

It is not possible to remove completely the costs of acquiring medical procedures but it is possible to alleviate some of it (Sarkar, 2009, p. 363). It would therefore prove wise to reduce insurance premiums so that more of the society can own medical insurance.

The spreading of awareness of breast cancer too seems crucial, as more people will understand the importance of regular testing and early detection in terms of increasing their chances of survival. Finally, it seems necessary to amend the existing acts that relate to the costs of breast cancer procedure to incorporate provisions that will make the services rendered more affordable and more reliable simultaneously

Evaluation

Such drastic changes require an evaluation scheme that will measure the effectiveness or the implementation of the new rules. Therefore, more bodies like the Food and Drug Administration need to be created, to give such a body authority and credibility, it would help to form it under provisions of acts or statutes passed in parliament (Bardach, 2000, p. 56).

The role of such a body would be to ensure that all related entities adhere to the provisions of its parent act. More specifically, that all the stakeholder, and in this case these are hospitals, ministries of health and finance, insurance organizations, mammogram suppliers, private medical practitioners, and the society in general.

All these publics should adhere to the cost regulation policies established for them to follow (Bernstein, 1994, p.18). Another regulation that will need evaluation is the public awareness campaign. The people responsible for this should work closely with healthcare professional to ensure that they are up to date on the information with which they are providing the community.

Results will come when the number of people reporting to healthcare institutions for testing and treatment services increases, which will in turn increase the number of diagnoses but reduce the rate of death.

The ultimate aim of all these practices is to yield quality of life for the entire society by preventing the development of breast cancer as well as providing treatment for those diagnosed with the same (Brownson, Baker, Leet, & Gillepsie, 2003, p. 76).

One can carry out evaluation through interviewing patients for the affordability and reliability of the services they are receiving as well as administering questionnaires within the community.

This helps to establish people’s attitudes and inclinations towards breast cancer, and conducting multiple researches on the general effectiveness of the various programs that have been put in place, both to spread awareness on cancer, and to standardize the costs of procedures, thereby making them more affordable.

Conclusion

The paper has provided a comprehensive study on breast cancer, the procedures associated with testing and treatment of the same as well as their reliability and affordability. It has listed various recommendations for future research, especially concerning matters of standardizing the costs of procedures and spreading awareness of breast cancer in particular.

Breast cancer is a condition that affects most people, either because they have it, are likely to develop it in future, or have close relation to people who have suffered from it. It is therefore necessary that everybody make an effort to build on their knowledge base concerning this disease, as well as taking the necessary precautions to avoid developing it.

Some preventive practices that medical professionals have proposed include increased intake of vitamins, reducing one’s dietary fat, engaging in regular physical exercise, breastfeeding for more than 36 months, having more than four children, conceiving before the age of 19, lowering alcohol and tobacco consumption, having an organic diet, and eating more soybean and soybean related content. In addition to this, it would help to have medical insurance in case of any eventualities.

References

Bardach, E. (2000). A Practical Guide For Policy Analysis. New York: Chatham House seven Bridges Press.

Bernstein, L. (1994). Physical exercise and reduced risk of breast cancer in young women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute ,1(1), p.18.

Brownson, R., Baker, E., Leet, T., & Gillepsie, K. (2003). Evidence Based Public Health. New York: Oxfor University Press.

Eadie, D., & MacAskill, S. (2008). Symptom awareness and cancer prevention: exploratory findings from an at-risk population. Douglas Eadie and Susan MacAskill , 3 (2), pp.332-345.

Jemal, A.,Thomas, A., Murray, T., & Thum, M. (2002). Cancer statistics 2002. Cancer Journal for Clinicians , 10 (5), pp. 23-47.

Sarkar, S. (2009). POPs in breast milk: women’s breast cancer risk. Nutrition & Food Science, 5 (3), pp. 360-369.

Thompson, D., Easton, D., & The Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium. (2002). Cancer incidence in BRCA1 mutation carriers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 1 (1), pp. 1358-1365.

Vilholm, O., Cold, S., Rasmussen, L., & Sindrup, S. (2008). The postmastectomy pain syndrome: An epidemiological study on the prevalence of chronic pain after surgery for breast cancer. British Journal of Cancer, 4 (4), pp. 604-610

Introduction

Communication and information have recently been applauded for their role in assisting patients to cope with cancer in most parts of the world. Unlike other diseases, cancer diagnosis can trigger a wide range of reactions including but not limited to stress, uncertainty and fear, whose impact can be regulated by use of information.

It has been found out that most cancer patients are usually eager to access information about their illness (Longo et al., 2009). However, this eagerness varies widely and its degree may fluctuate during different stages of cancer development.

This assessment paper discusses the concept of seeking health information and breast cancer diagnosis. To achieve this task, the paper will adopt a theory critique and extension format by reviewing contemporary research on theories related to communication technologies. It further draws a comparison between face-to-face and online methods of seeking cancer information.

Emotional support theory

There is no doubt that being diagnosed with breast cancer has a significant impact regardless of whether it is at an early stage or advanced. However, recent research indicates that emotional support given to breast cancer women has become a successful tool in adding value and hope to the lives of individuals.

Emotional support compliments breast cancer treatment, giving patients the ability to overcome depression and attain a stable mental health after cancer diagnosis (Carstensen, 1992). Importantly, every cancer patient requires emotional support since emotional trauma is regarded to be more fatal than breast cancer itself.

Patients who suffer emotional imbalance usually find it hard to cope with the reality of the illness and may develop other health complications. This implies that a healing environment plays a significant role in helping patients to recover and maintain a stable mental status (Ecoggins, 2011).

Under normal circumstances, a woman will always experience tremendous fear when she is diagnosed to have breast cancer. Many doctors affirm this feeling of fear is common even in cases where the disease is in its initial stages. As a result, the impact of the fear depends on the response of those people around, forming her environment (Carstensen, 1992).

In other cases, women diagnosed with cancer may feel like social misfits in the society, depending on how the society and people around view the illness. If viewed from a negative perspective that is discriminative, breast cancer patients feel isolated and doomed.

Consequently, these patients have a tendency of experiencing high level of anxiety, depression and hopelessness in cases where caregivers are insensitive to their emotional needs. Even though medical treatment of cancer is essential, a complimentary healing approach and a supportive environment are necessary for positive recovery effects (Kim et al., 2010).

Like in any other health complication, breast cancer patients require emotional fitness from the time they learn that they are suffering from the disease. When handled carelessly, breast cancer diagnosis may breed terror in the heart of a patient, a condition which may increase stress level among patients.

It is therefore recommended that depression reduction techniques should be employed immediately after diagnosis to minimize cases of emotional disturbance (Carstensen, 1992). By maintaining a relaxed mind, cancer patients can experience good body conditions and processes that are usually missing when the situation is dominated by stress.

To prove that emotional support is paramount, several researchers have found out that breast cancer patients who receive emotional support are likely to live longer compared to those are neglected by the society (Leydon et al., 2000).

The greatest challenge is therefore with caregivers and close family members who spend a lot of time with breast cancer patients. Their reaction towards cancer diagnosis can either help the patient or worsen the situation, when they become a major source of emotional disturbance.

As mentioned above, emotional support is important immediately after diagnosis to allow the patient to have a positive attitude towards life and keep stress-related complications at bay. Emotional support is also concerned with the kind of information given to patients and how the information is conveyed.

Proper use of communication techniques is therefore compulsory for medical practitioners immediately after breast cancer diagnosis (Leydon et al., 2000). This is crucial in determining the patient’s response towards the situation and her ability to respond to medication appropriately.

Diagnostic information can also affect family members in the manner in which they perceive the patient and the ability to see her as a normal member of the society.

Emotional support also allows cancer patients to seek medication and health information from correct sources that are well recognized early enough before the disease advances to severe levels. During that time, such information can be helpful or detrimental depending on its authenticity and accuracy (Leydon et al., 2000).

Like other patients suffering from different illnesses, breast cancer patients need information about correct dieting, medication, exercise and emotional stability. Availability of this information is therefore important in ensuring that the patient does what has been recommended by the doctor in order to manage the situation without serious complications associated with delivery of wrong information to patients.

Uncertainty management

William B. Gudykunst is credited for having designed the uncertainty management theory, as he struggled to define the key elements of effective communication. Although the theory is highly associated with him, it is important to mention that existing work at the moment significantly helped Gudykunst in developing his work, which has become highly recognized around the globe.

For instance, Berger’s research of 1974 played a major role in laying the foundation for Gudykunst’s discoveries and advancements. Nevertheless, the theory has undergone a series of transformations in order to incorporate new ideas in an ever-changing world (Hovden, 2004).

In the understanding of this theory and how it relates to seeking of breast cancer information, it is worth noting that the theory mainly focuses on experiences between cultural in-groups and a strange person or a group of people. The main intention of Gudykunst was to apply it in cases where existing differences among people triggered fears and doubts.

Additionally, Gudykunst assumed that an intercultural encounter will always expose at least one person to being a stranger (Griffin, n.d.). As a result, strangers are at the risk of experiencing anxiety and uncertainty, a condition, which makes them to feel insecure and may not know how to behave.

Despite the fact that in-group members and strangers may experience a certain degree of uncertainty and anxiety in an interpersonal environment, when this encounter takes place among people from diverse cultures, strangers are always aware of the existing differences in culture. Since strangers are more sensitive, they can predict the effect of cultural identity on the general behavior of people within the society.

Effective communication

According to Gudykunst, effective communication can be described as the process through which people minimize misunderstandings. Furthermore, effective communication can only be achieved if the person interpreting the information being passed across is able to attach a meaning to the message that is similar to what was intended by the person conveying the message (Longo et al., 2009).

On the other hand, experts define effective communication in terms of accuracy, mutual understanding and fidelity.

It therefore implies that effective communication between two people would not necessarily require them to be in close proximity, share attitudes or even speak fluently, even though these attributes are highly welcome. The most important thing is to accurately predict and explain each other’s behavior in order to tie the actions into the discussion (Kim et al., 2010).

Information seeking online and face-to-face

Physicians have been considered as the main source of reliable information about cancer in terms of diagnosis and treatment. However, due to the fact that some of the patients get overwhelmed by diagnosis, doctors believe that patients can have an alternative source of cancer information.

Additionally, this has been necessitated by the desire among most breast cancer patients and the general public to know more about this scourge (Fogel et al., 2002). As a result, the use of the internet as a source of cancer information has become common in recent years. Through this technology, patients can search relevant information about diagnosis, treatment, drugs and causes of the disease at the click of the mouse.

According to some, the internet provides detailed information that gives them a collaborative role with their doctors when managing the disease. While this approach is taking root in the society, it is important to compare the two ways of sourcing information with regard to their benefits and challenges (Fogel et al., 2002).

Face-to-face approach is a traditional and widely acceptable way of sourcing information about cancer. Unlike any other method, it allows one-on-one interaction between physicians and patients or those seeking information. This interaction has a wide range of advantages compared to the online approach. First, patients develop a relationship with their respective doctors (Fogel et al., 2002).

This linkage allows free sharing of information for the doctor to have an exact understanding of the situation. It implies that physicians are able to offer assistance depending on individual cases, unlike online sources, which are inclined towards general cases of breast cancer. Concerns from patients are also attended to instantly through sessions of questions and answers.

With regard to emotional needs, face-to-face method of seeking breast cancer information allows patients to be prepared for diagnosis and the implication of the outcome. Through counseling and sharing of information, doubts among patients are cleared, giving them a clear conscience about the disease (Gustafson, 2001).

This preparedness allows them to deal with fear, anxiety and uncertainty, which immensely overwhelm online patients. This is crucial since emotional stability is essential in the management of breast cancer among women. Due to lack of enough emotional support from online sources, those who visit online sites may end up being stressed and overwhelmed with anxiety (Balka, 2010).

The flip side of face-to-face method is that it is costly. Patients have to meet consultation fees for doctors. Accessibility to health centers may also be a challenge, forcing patients to travel long distances. Lastly, it eliminates privacy of the patient, as consultation involves physical interaction (Gustafson, 2001).

Proponents of online seeking of information argue that it is cheap and convenient for most people. With the wide spread use of the internet, patients can access this information anytime on their PCs, laptops or web-enabled mobile phones. Similarly, information can be accessed anytime, day or night, unlike physicians who have specific consultation days and hours. It is also cheap (Gustafson, 2001).

The only charge attached to find relevant information is the internet connectivity fee, which is much cheaper compared to consultation fee for physicians. Since everything is online, it promotes privacy of patients. It also offers varied sources, including private doctors, clinics and National Cancer Institute. As a result, patients are able to compare information and make informed decisions.

Even though the use of the internet is becoming a common method of seeking breast cancer information, it has a host of disadvantages. First, online information lacks monitoring. This means that patients are likely to feed on unreliable information with anonymous authors, which can be detrimental if it is misleading (Gustafson, 2001).

Additionally, the presence of various sources may cause confusion among patients, since some of the information could be contradictory. Due to generalization of online information, patients do not have access to customized services (Balka, 2010).

In relation to the emotional and uncertainty management theory, the use of internet as a source of information for cancer exposes patients to an array of disadvantages. Online communication eliminates physical interaction with the doctor. As a result, customized cancer information cannot easily be sourced (Fogel et al., 2002). Additionally, patients lack mental preparedness since this technology delinks patients from doctors.

The main challenge posed by this is the fact that patients may get overwhelmed with stress and anxiety caused by insufficient information (Balka, 2010). This comparison exposes the weaknesses and strengths of each method employed by patients in seeking information. In applying the emotional theory face-to-face approach is more favorable compared to online sourcing of cancer information (Smith-Mclallen et al., 2011).

Theory critique

The two theories above, emotional support theory and uncertainty management theory are quite essential in addressing the issue of breast cancer in the world today. No one can deny that emotional stability, which emanates from emotional support, is paramount in managing cancer and other related illnesses (Rutten et al., 2005).

When one is diagnosed with breast cancer, family members, caregivers, doctors and the entire society is usually called upon to offer relevant assistance. Many patients who receive emotional support from these groups of people demonstrate high capability of managing the disease as compared to those abandoned by family members and close friends.

Though emotional support, it is important in minimizing stress, fear and other forms of emotional imbalance. It is equally significant to underscore the role of information in handling breast cancer patients immediately after diagnosis (Hovden, 2004).

Information allows the patient to draw a line between fact and fiction, by engaging qualified doctors and caregivers. In this case, the power of valid information would go a long way in benefiting a patient even when there is nobody to offer emotional support.

Similarly, effective communication ensures that the patient makes informed decisions, supported by medical authority as long as the message was communicated effectively. In such a case, errors emanating from wrong information from society members would be minimized (Hovden, 2004). Though emotional support is healthy, it may lose meaning especially in cases where it is overdone.

Patients who find themselves in these situations may have very stable emotional health but low recovery and response to medication. The implication of this is that the emotional support theory model denies patients to make informed decisions based on proper medical information. As a result, they become dependent on people around them without exploring independent and informed decisions (Smith-Mclallen et al., 2011).

Extension of theories

Although every disease has its risks and impact on patients and the general public, cancer presents unique scenarios based on medication challenges and the ability of patients to respond to medication.

As a result, when one is diagnosed to be suffering from breast cancer, the information can ruin the rest of an individual’s life (Carstensen, 1992) Nevertheless, this is based on the how the information is communicated and the emotional support given by society, including family members, caregivers and specialized doctors.

Based on the new page of life that a cancer patient is likely to open, most of them encounter the need for specialized information in order to handle the situation. In general, most patients look for information concerning the disease and treatment (Fogel et al., 2002).

Another important fact to note in addressing the issue of seeking cancer-related information is that medical professionals are given the highest priority as trusted sources of information about breast cancer.

However, other sources of information may be considered from family members, friends and cancer patients. The disadvantage of sourcing information from other people is that the validity of what they consider to be facts about breast cancer might not be verified (Griffin, n.d.).

Conclusion

From the above assessment, it is evident that correct information is a very important tool when handling breast cancer. However, the method employed in disseminating or sourcing this information is equally important (Rutten et al., 2005).

Face-to-face method and the use of the internet are common even though internet usage is gaining popularity due to advancement in technology. Importantly, face-to-face method promotes emotional stability due to physical and customized interaction between patients and physicians.

References

Balka, E. (2010). Situating Internet Use: Information-Seeking Among Young Women with Breast Cancer. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 15 (3), 389–411.

Ecoggins. (2011). Anxiety Uncertainty Management Theory and the Problem of Cross-cultural Communications in Global Organizations. HubPages. Web.

Fogel et al. (2002).Use of the Internet by Women with Breast Cancer. J Med Internet, 4 (2), 9.

Griffin, E. (n.d.). Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory of William Gudykunst. McGraw-Hill. Web.

Gustafson, D. (2001). Effect of Computer Support on Younger Women with Breast Cancer. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16 (7), 435–445.

Hovden, J. (2004). Risk and Uncertainty Management Strategies. Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Web.

Kim et al. (2010). The Roles of Social Support and Coping Strategies in Predicting Breast Cancer Patients’ Emotional Well-being Testing Mediation and Moderation Models. J Health Psychology, 15 (4), 543–552.

Leydon et al. (2000). Cancer patients’ information needs and information seeking behavior: in depth interview study. British Medical Journal, 320, 1-3.

Longo et al. (2009). Understanding breast-cancer patients’ perceptions: Health information-seeking behavior and passive information receipt. Journal of Communication in Healthcare, 2 (2), 184-206.

Carstensen, L. (1992). Social and Emotional Patterns in Adulthood: Support for Socioemotional Selectivity Theory. Psychology and Ageing, 7 (3), 331-338.

Rutten et al. (2005). Information needs and sources of information among cancer patients: a systematic review of research (1980–2003). Patient Education and Counseling, 57, 250–261.

Smith-Mclallen et al. (2011). Psychosocial Determinants of Cancer-Related Information Seeking among Cancer Patients. J Health Psychology, 16 (2), 212–225.

Article Summary

The article “Complementary Exercise and Quality of Life in Patients with Breast Cancer” examines the role of complementary exercises towards improving the lives of women with breast cancer. The author uses “a systematic literature review” (Sawyer 18). Complementary exercises are usually aimed at supporting different breast-cancer treatments methods. The author focuses on the psychological, physical, social, and functional wellbeing of every patient.

According to the study, complementary exercises can improve the lives of many patients. The findings “showed improved quality of life to statistical significance” (Sawyer 18). However, such complementary exercises did not improve the functional wellbeing of the targeted cancer patients. The article shows clearly that complementary exercises can be useful whenever managing different chronic diseases. The improvements “on the patients’ quality of life were statistically significant in two-thirds of the findings” (Sawyer 22). The author encourages future researchers to undertake more studies in order to produce new evidences.

Article Critique

The author has used a powerful approach to conduct the study. The systematic review of literature highlights the major issues associated with breast cancer. The inclusion of life-changing behaviors such as exercises can produce the best outcomes. The author uses five themes to complete the study. Several studies have been analyzed in order to understand the role of complementary exercises in cancer management. The approach makes it easier for the author to come up with meaningful results. The researcher has also identified the benefits of complementary exercises towards improving the lives of many patients with cancer.

The author also identified the major weaknesses associated with the study. He encourages future researchers to undertake more studies in order to come up with better findings (Sawyer 22). The statistical approach used in the study supports the presented results. The contents of the article are also arranged in a systematic manner. The author uses the most appropriate background to support the targeted discussions. The author presents powerful recommendations to different scholars, patients, and researchers.

Personal Reflections

This article is relevant because it fulfills the needs of many professionals and patients. Medical practitioners can use this article to improve the quality of care delivered to cancer patients. Caregivers can use the concepts presented in the article to support the needs of their patients. The research approach makes the article admirable. The presented literature review supports the use of different wellness programs.

Complementary exercises have the potential to improve the health outcomes of many patients with chronic diseases (Sawyer 20). The important goal is supporting the wellbeing of every patient. The author uses appropriate words to deliver the intended message to the reader. Nursing homes can also use this information to support the health needs of different patients. The elderly are widely affected by chronic diseases such as diabetes, asthma, and breast cancer. The information contained in the article can transform the lives of many people.

The statistical approach used by the author supports the targeted discussions. The four categories highlighted in the article supports the unique needs of many patients. People should replicate these ideas in order to have quality lives. Healthy people will also protect themselves from various chronic diseases (Sawyer 19). I am therefore encouraging every person to read this article. Abigail Sawyer offers powerful guidelines that can support the needs of many cancer patients. Every individual will benefit significantly from the ideas, arguments, and recommendations presented in the article.

Works Cited

Sawyer, Abigail. “Complementary Exercise and Quality of Life in Patients with Breast Cancer.” British Journal of Nursing 23.16 (2014): 18-23. Print.

Introduction

Breast cancer is a disease that originates from the breast tissue and the curative time of the patient is dependent on the level of spread and to what organs it has spread to. In the advent of new technology, computer models have been programmed and developed to help in the staging process and determine how long a person is going to live.

With best treatments available, most of the breast cancer patients can survive up to ten years with a 98% to 10% disease free body within this period. On the other hand, it has been discovered that breast cancer is the most common type of cancer especially with women with the total percentage of 10% of all the kinds of cancer.

This does not mean that it does not attack men but the probability is higher in women. If the diagnosis is fast and early, then the spread rate can be stemmed or even eliminated altogether.

This requires the use of trained oncologists with the right equipments to be able to remove it from the stem altogether or if a cure is impossible then the patient’s life can be significantly prolonged with the aid of a cancer drugs.

This is so because huge amounts of resources have been used in the research and the development of the breast cancer drugs that in effect help the body to combat the cancer by providing additional immune to boost the fighting power of the body.

Additionally in the process of research, new methods that are effective the fight against drugs have been experimented and proven to be effective in the fight against the breast cancer. However, breast cancer remains a killer disease and more research needs to be conducted to ensure that its prevalence level is reduced (Hart, 2007).

Age

Age is very instrumental in determining the risk a woman has in getting breast cancer and the risk to get the breast cancer increases significantly as the woman ages. For instance it has been found that a woman living up to the age of 90 years has a risk factor of up to 14% to contact the cancer compared to a middle aged woman. The manner in which cancer attacks the two age’s differences is quite different.

In older women, the cancer spreads slowly and is not as severe but in younger woman it attacks more vigorously and is difficult to control. In addition, it has also been out that in most cases of breast cancer in older people, a higher depression rate among the patients was noted, and this contributes to the faster death as compared to the younger people.

This is because young people have the necessary hope to fight on due to the life before them but the older people have lost hope in life and when they are diagnosed most tends to seclude themselves or live in denial.

This means that in the research for breast cancer apart from trying to develop cures and ways to eliminate the cancer, lots of research should also be done on the psychological support programs to help stem this tide (Hart, 2007).

Gender

Men have a lower risk of getting breast cancer compared to women but the risk is appearing to be on the increase in men too. This has been noted especially in the men with prostate cancer and in the case a man is affected the prognosis even in the first stage is very aggressive and worse than in women.

The treatment for the cancer in men is the same as the treatment for an older woman and is a combination of surgery radiation and chemotherapy.

Genetics

Change or mutations of genes in our bodies can also increase the probability of having cancerous cells in the breasts. This is supported by studies that explicitly show that up to 10% of all breast cancers are hereditary.

This is supported by the fact that women with both hereditary genes of breast cancer gene 1 and breast cancer gene2 have a higher risk of developing breast cancer with women having breast cancer gene 1 accounting for over 5% of all the cancers that occur.

Human epidermal growth receptor 2(HER2) is another gene that is found on the surface on the human skin and can increase the chance or probability of acquiring breast cancer. This is caused by the over production of the HER2 cells when the gene is altered.

If this happens, then aggressive tumor cells develop which account to about 25-30% of all the cancer patients. If the p53 gene undergoes mutation then the risk is even more. This is confirmed by the studies that have shown that women with this mutated gene have a poorer breast cancer outcome than those that do not posses this gene (Ellmann, 2009).

Family history

The family history deeply increases the risk of having breast cancer especially if a close member had the cancer. To the victims whose mother or father had the cancer then the risk doubles. The following people have a risk of having the cancer depending on the background and according to the genetics. These conditions can increase breast cancer

• Having relatives with breast cancer
• Having relatives with two different kinds of cancer
• Having a male relative with case or cases of breast cancer
• .If the same family is of Ashkenazi Jewish heritage then the odds are even more
• A family history that includes history of diseases such as hereditary breast cancer and diseases such as Li-Fraumeni or even Cowdens Syndromes

Diet

It has been shown that there are higher rates and incidence of the breast cancer in areas that have high fat yield content in their diet like in the USA compared with the low fat yield places like Japan. However, the link between the two is not straight and is dependent on the type of fats that a woman has.

Monounsaturated fats are linked to low breast cancer risk compared with polyunsaturated fats that have a slightly higher prevalence. A study was conducted in the USA that showed that despite the link between the diet and the cancer, the reduction of fats in the diet does not automatically mean or lead to a reduction in the risk of having the breast cancer.

However, it was found out that there is a 9% reduction rate in the postmenopausal women if they followed a strict low fat diet. In the end, it was decided that the cutting of fats in the diet can cause a reduced rate of risk in some women but they did not have the necessary solid evidence to make conclusions.

Hormone replacement therapy

Recent studies have indicated the use of this kind of therapy can add to the risk of breast cancer. In the year 2002 a study was carried out by the group Women heath initiative and it was found out that in they were eight cases of invasive breast cancer in about 10000 women. This represented an increase of about 26% compared to those who did not have the hormone replacement therapy.

On the same note, it was found out that between the years 2002 and 2003 there was an increase in the prevalence rate of the breast cancer. Although the tests and the results are not conclusive or even solid, this little link has alarmed experts who believe that women seeking hormone replacement therapy should consult an expert on the matter to ensure that they are well informed (Foster, 2008).

Tobacco

It had not been discovered that tobacco smoking could cause an increase of breast cancer until the beginning of the mid 1990’s when a number of studies were conducted on the same topic. The study had disturbing results that predicted a higher risk rate for both active and passive smokers. Based on the epidemiological studies and the mammary carcinogens, the rate had reached 70% by 2005.

In the year 2006, another study was done which pegged the risk rate at a higher rate due to the risk of non-smokers who are passive smokers. This is especially rife in young women who can suffer from an increased risk rate of up to 70% if they are in their primary pre-menopausal stage because at this stage, the breast tissue is sensitive to the carcinogens; they are still young, and not fully developed

Staging of breast cancer

This process is used to determine the level in which the cancer has attacked the body making a diagnosis. Knowing the stage of the cancer is very important since the doctor gets to know the best way on which to offer treatment and how to determine the prognosis of the cancer (Foster, 2008). The staging is done in stages that are:

1. Stage 0: This is called the pre-cancerous state because the cancer cells are located in the milk duct and have not yet spread to the breast tissue or have not invaded the nodes or distant sites. Such cancers like lobular carcinoma can be classified as stage 0 cancer.
2. Stage 1: The cancer has started spreading to the other parts of the breast and the tumor is less than 2cm long however the cancer cells have not spread to the lymph nodes or even the distant cells.
3. Stage II: This stage is divided into two categories namely stageIIA and stageIIB. In stage II, the tumor will be located and restricted to the breast with no further spreading. Finally, the tumor can be more than 2cm but less than 5cm and has not yet spread to the auxiliary nodes or the distant sites.
4. StageIIB can involve cancer cells that have a tumor larger the 2cm but being less than 5cm. At this stage, the cancer cells will have spread to auxiliary nodes but the distant cells will be safe. In addition, during the later stages of the stage, the tumor is more than 5cm long but the spread to the chest walls will not have started. This stage also has the cells localized and have not spread to the distant sites
5. Stage III has three sub categories that are categorized according to the level of spreading the cancer has undergone. In stageIIIA, the tumor is less than 5cm in diameter and the cells have spread to 4-9 auxiliary nodes but not to the distant sites. The tumor can be larger than 5cm in diameter and the cells having spread to the mammary nodes but the distant sites will still be healthy. In stageIIIB,the tumor can take up any size and the spread will have encroached the chest walls. The spreading of the cancer can be to the auxiliary nodes in the breast themselves or the lymph nodes that are near the breastbones. Finally in stageIIIC the tumor can be of any size and the cancer cells having spread to 10 0r more of the auxiliary cells or even to 1 or more of the regional lymph nodes or even to the internal mammary glands
6. StageIV: At this stage, the tumor can take up any size depending on the attack and the cancerous cells might have spread to the lymph nodes that are nearby. In most cases, the cells will have spread to the distant cells (Foster, 2008).

Treatment of cancer

Treatment of breast cancer is dependent on the stage the cancer is and the whether the cells are sensitive to hormones. Personal preferences also come into effect with many people preferring one method of treatment to another because of their own reasons. Overall, these methods are all-effective and are all instrumental in ensuring that all the cells are ejected from the body.

Treatment methods

The most common method is surgery. In surgery, there are many forms all depending on the level of spread and the staging. A lumpectomy is an effective way ot breast cancer treatment because the removes the entire tumor plus some surrounding cell tissues that are healthy. This method is however reserved for the smaller tumors. The entire breast can also be removed (mastectomy).In this method the doctor usually removes all the breast tissue and all the parts that border or are integral with the breast.

The surgery can also be performed by removing one lymph node, this is because the cancer will have spread to that lymph alone and if removed the chance of finding cancer in other cells is very low to the point that the surgeon leaves all the other parts intact. On the other hand, several lymph nodes can also be removed depending on the level of spread (Ellmann, 2009).

Radiation therapy

“This kind of therapy involves the use of high-powered beams of energy to kill the cancer cell” (Ellmann, 2009, p. 49). It is done using a big machine that emits the rays to ensure that all the cancerous cells are killed. In most cases, some doctors will recommend this therapy instead of mastectomy to be able to save the entire breast tissue.

Chemotherapy

“This process involves the use of drugs to destroy the cancer cells” (Connolly, 2008, p. 52). Some doctors can recommend chemotherapy after surgery to avoid the cells forming again and it can be used before surgery to allow the tumor to shrink to a level where it can be safely removed. It is used in women whose breast cancer has spread to the other organs present in the body

Hormone therapy

“This is another of treatment to treat breast cancers especially is the cells are sensitive to hormones” (Backus, 2005, p. 379). It can be used after a surgery to make sure that the cancer does not rejuvenate or it can be used to reduce the size of the tumor before any surgery can be done.

The drugs also prevent the hormones from attaching themselves to the cancer cells or they help to eliminate the production of estrogen especially in menopausal women . One disadvantage of these drugs is that they are only used for postmenopausal women.

Herceptin breast cancer metastatic treatment

Due to the increased level of research and dedication, new methods have been developed to curb the spread of breast cancer. One of this is by the use of herceptin breast cancer metastatic treatment.

This kind of therapy is injected in the body by the use of a needle and can be used together with the other types of breast cancer drugs .It is new and still not in use especially in the developing world but its use is catching on.

References

Backus, M. (2005). Is there a role for iodine in breast. The Breast, 10 (5), 379–382.

Connolly, T. (2008). Robbins Basic Pathology. Philadelphia: Saunders.

Ellmann, R. (2009). Breast carcinoma in men: a population-based study. Cancer, 101 (1), 51–58.

Foster, J. (2008). Metalloestrogens: an emerging class of inorganic xenoestrogens with potential to add to the oestrogenic burden of the human breast. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 26 (3), 191–198.

Hart, C. (2007). Breast Cancer. London: Faber & Faber.