Brain Structure Influence on Learning and Development of Language

Introduction

It is quite interesting to note that while on the surface there is apparently no inherent association between neuroscience and linguistics the fact is that there is actually a strong link between the two sciences based on the way in which the structure of the brain and its processes influence the way in which language is learned and developed.

For example, studies such as those by Snadhu (1993) state that by examining various aspects of the brain the structure of how linguistic knowledge and how it develops can be revealed (Snadhu, 1993).

On the other end of the spectrum it is noted by studies such as those by Hagiwara (1999) that the study of languages can actually be utilized as a means of assessing the way in which computation occurs in the brain due to evidence relating the evolutionary development of language with concurrent changes in the human brain as well (Hagiwara, 1999).

In fact based on the neurolinguistic approach which combines elements of neurobiology and linguistics it was seen that there were inherent methodological similarities between the two sciences in that both acknowledge the fact that certain parts of the brain are in fact responsible for the way in which speech develops.

As such, aspects related to theoretical linguistic research in which elemental concepts related to the “root” of particular languages or the combination of head and hand movements to particular linguistic expressions and methods of communication have in fact a biological measure from which they can be compared against.

Approaches Utilized

It must be noted though that in cases of neurolinguistic research it is often seen that data generated utilizing methods such as the EEG, MEG, PET or fMRI often shows that biological evidence (i.e. neuroscience) is often better in explaining particular tests and results as compared to linguistic theory and research (Caplan, 2009).

From another perspective it can be seen that methodological elements of neuroscience has indeed greatly progressed the study of linguistic due to various studies showing evidence of concurrent brain activation of certain areas of the mind during speech which are associated with particular linguistic domains.

This has resulted in considerable progress in determining what parts of the brain enable language development and how this particular method of development and acquisition grows as a person ages from infancy to adulthood (Caplan, 2009).

Structural Elements and Similarity

In relation to what has brought the biggest advancements in both fields is the identification of structural elements of the brain which coincide with the development of language in humans. What this entails is that all languages, ranging from English, German, Chinese to Filipino, all have an inherently similar structural make up in the way in which particular ideas, concepts and means of communication are expressed.

This underlying similarity had puzzled linguists for years until it was identified that it was the way in which the brain developed to think in a particular way that the methods of communication devised by humanity began to develop in this way as well.

Of particular interest is the way in which linguistics can help neuroscientists identify when particular divergences occurred in the way in which particular races, cultures and ethnicities started to interpret information differently as a direct result of their language development.

In fact it is seen in studies such as those by Abrams (2004) that there are actually minor differences in thinking that are apparent in particular individuals which come as a direct result of the language they utilize (Abrams, 2004).

In this particular case what is currently being investigated is whether language acquisition plays a part in the way in which the brain develops in a particular way or if through the acquisition of a language by previous generations an individual’s brain adapted to think in this particular fashion as a direct result of the influences of the language over a period of time and across generations.

Reference List

Abrams, F. (2004). Learning? It’s all in the mind. Times Educational Supplement, (4584), 8.

Caplan, D. N. (2009). Neurolinguistics: An introduction to spoken language processing and its disorders. Language, 85(3), 724.

Hagiwara, H. (1999). Neurolinguistic evidence for rule-based nominal suffixation. Language, 75(4), 739.

Sandhu, D. R. (1993). Cross-Cultural Counseling and Neurolinguistic Mirroring With Native American Adolescents. Journal Of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 21(2), 106.

Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) in Brain

The nature of declarative memory and the possibility of its use in parallel distributed processing (PDP) regarding formation affects the perception of this complex and potentially threatening scene in a number of ways. The following analysis will help in understanding the scenario whereby a person sees a barely visible human as he/she is approaching an isolated ranch house at twilight.

Declarative memory is often referred to as the conscious memory. It has two main components, namely the semantic and episodic memory (Goldstein, 2005). The episodic memory is concerned with those memories that an individual had once experienced in his/her lifetime.

Such events could be traumatizing in nature and at times leading to poor perception and memory loss, especially when someone is engaged in deep thinking for a long time. The mental stress associated with such deep thinking would lead to memory lapse and poor vision. Precisely, episodic memories are focused on specific events, place and time (Banich, 2004).

On the other hand, semantic memory has little to do with specific events since its knowledge is not linked to any personal experience. Though, semantic memory concerns mainly the concepts, numbers, facts, and vocabulary, it can as well find its relevance in this case. It is the semantic memory that has scripts that enable an individual to visualize what happens in a given situation.

Semantic memory also shares a close link with the parallel distributed processing (PDS) in the brain. The PDS in the brain is a concept that is correlated with the semantic networks and motor neurons, which are photosensitive and can help in visualizing pictures (Antonio, 2005). Failure to enhance these parallel distributed activities would prevent someone from creating mental images and visualizing pictures.

It is through the help of parallel distributed processing in the brain that vision is enhanced via the spreading activation mechanism. This is facilitated through the PDP because image processing occurs along parallel lines. Consequently, the distribution of the processed images for visual output occurs in many units, which require a proper psychomotor coordination of the whole process (Dominowski & Dallob, 2005).

The parallel distributed processes (PDP) augment memory can aide natural memory in evaluating the potential risk in this and other potentially threatening situations in a number of ways as highlighted in the discussion that follows. The PDP in the brain is very essential in representing knowledge (Robert & Frank, 2001).

It is through the PDP system that individuals are able to make visual generalizations and create similar patterns that aide the visualization process. As an aide to the natural memory, the parallel distributed processing in the brain is capable of recognizing and visualizing similar images and patterns.

After having the knowledge of one image, the PDP system is capable of predicting how the consequent images and patterns would look like. The system has proved to be quite reliable and can help the natural memory since it is highly protected and cannot totally breakdown.

Single wreckage in the PDP system can only delete patterns whose units are affected. Often, such mental problems mainly occur among the patients who suffer brain lesions (Zimbardo, 1995).

Even though PDP has several advantages, it suffers some limitations as well. The parallel distributed processing (PDP) explains various elements about knowledge representation in an organized and elaborated fashion. However, it fails to provide some detailed explanations on complex processes such as rapid learning. And, it is through such weaknesses that PDP can at times fail to explain such threatening situations.

References

Antonio, R. D. (2005). Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. Oxford: Penguin Books.

Banich,M.T. (2004). Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuropsychology. New York, NY: Housthon Mifflin Company.

Dominowski, R. L. & Dallob, P. (2005). Insight and Problem Solving: In The Nature of Insight. USA: MIT Press.

Goldstein, E.B. (2005). Cogntive Psychology. Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

Robert, A. W. & Frank, C. K. (2001). The MIT Encyclopedia of Cognitive Sciences (MITECS). New York, NY: Bradford Book.

Zimbardo, P. G. (1995). Psychology and Life. Inc. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Studying Brain’s Inner Workings

Introduction

When it comes to studying the brain what must be understood is that though science has enabled us to study what parts of the brain are used for a particular action it is still relatively unknown how they function and the origins of the interconnections that are responsible for the rapid fire and almost instantaneous movements that people take for granted today (Armstrong, 2006).

For example, there mere act of typing on a keyboard involves the use of the action skill required for hand-eye coordination, the retrieval mechanisms responsible for coordinating what one needs to remember regarding the placement of the hands of the keyboard and finally the coordination of several systems involving working memory and long term memory in order to create the phenomenon known as thought which is responsible for the formation of the concepts and ideas that go into any written work (Armstrong, 2006).

It is due to this that numerous fields of study have come about specifically to answer such questions yet this creates a second challenge; namely the fact that each particular field of academic research (i.e. psychology, neurobiology, etc.) has their own leading and contending theories which all have various plausible arguments and counterarguments that attempt to explain how the brain works resulting in confusing state of affairs where researchers and students alike have had to shift through the sheer amount of theoretical underpinnings regarding the brain in order to find some semblance of what they believe is the most plausible explanation as to how the brain works (Nathan et al., 2011).

Which is the Biggest Obstacle?

As technology improves it can be expected that our understanding regarding the inner workings of the brain will improve as well. It is based on this that the greatest challenge posed for understanding the inner workings of the brain is not the limits imposed by present day technology (since it will improve over time) but rather the sheer amount of theoretical underpinnings in various academic fields that through one method or another attempt to highlight their processes as being the best way in understanding the intricacies found within the human brain (Pham et al., 2009).

As a student, wading through the sheer amount of literature and theory on the subject of the human brain has not been easy, I can only imagine the problems experienced by researchers and in fact it comes as no surprise that even more theoretical foundations are being built to this day since apparently an understanding of how the brain works is apparently based on the perceptions of the researcher rather than an all encompassing fact that is undeniable.

Positive/Negative Issues Regarding studies into the Inner Workings of the Brain

One of the more interesting applications for further study into the human brain is the possibility of actually recording human thoughts and memories. This could theoretically enable an individual to “backup” their memories from a particular point in time effectively enabling them to live forever within a digital environment since technically the mind is nothing more than an amalgamation of memories (Gordon, 2002).

On the other hand you have to take into consideration the possibility that just as this method enables an individual to potentially live forever this also creates the possibility of a profound torture that can lasts hundreds of years. F

or example, if a person wanted to die yet there were measures put in place in order to prevent “deletion” this person would continue existing throughout the years in a digital fortress where the possibility of death through old age or suicide is not possible.

Reference List

Armstrong, R. A. (2006). Methods of studying the planar distribution of objects in histological sections of brain tissue. Journal Of Microscopy, 221(3), 153-158.

Gordon, D. (2002). THE Matrix makers. Newsweek, 141(1), 81.

Nathan, P., Cobb, S., Lu, B., Bullmore, E., & Davies, C. (2011). Studying synaptic plasticity in the human brain and opportunities for drug discovery. Current Opinion In Pharmacology, 11(5), 540-548.

Pham, T. D., Eisenblätter, U., Baune, B. T., & Berger, K. (2009). Preprocessing film- copied MRI for studying morphological brain changes. Journal Of Neuroscience Methods, 180(2), 352-362.

Neurological Disorder: Effects of Schizophrenia on the Brain and Behavior

Introduction

Human beings have been faced with numerous psychological and neurological disorders for as long as they have existed. According to Robins and Regier, a number of these diseases and disorders do alter the normal functioning of the body system particularly the brain (1999). The manifestation of the diseases and disorders are usually through abnormal behavioral orientations and related mental symptoms.

Psychiatric disorders, as defined by Salters-Pedneault, refers to any behavioral or mental/cognitive symptoms that cause a person to be very distressed, the individual may be paralyzed in one way or another thus making him/her very much exposed to various disabilities, pain, and may sometimes cause death (2009). However, all these manifestations need to be experienced by an individual for a period not less than two weeks in order to be categorized as a psychiatric disorder.

It is important to note that temporary mental states such as grief resulting from the loss of a relative or a close friend may not be considered psychiatric in nature. The research paper discusses schizophrenia as a neurological disorder.

Behavioral Symptoms and Functional Deficits

Schizophrenia has been known as one of the most common neurological disorders especially in the United States. This disorder is highly chronic, harsh, and with the capability of paralyzing the victims brain and hence cognitive abilities. An individual suffering from the disorder usually develops improper perception of reality.

According to Salters-Pedneault (2009), it is normally associated with auditory delusions or hallucinations, distorted thinking as well as talking patterns, and a general dysfunction in the social and occupational dimensions of everyday life. Furthermore, a schizophrenic normally exhibits notable cognitive deficits like memory loss, asocial characteristics, and a general lack of concern.

For individuals prone to develop the disorder, the early stages of adulthood are usually associated with the commencement of schizophrenia. Most significantly, schizophrenia may only be detected by the use of personal experiences and observable behavior of the victim due to the fact that laboratory testing has not yet been developed.

Neurological Basis

A number of theories to explain schizophrenia as a disorder have been put forward. In general, according to research findings by Robins and Regier, an individual’s genetic composition as well as the environment that one is brought up in and related neurological factors has been associated with the onset of schizophrenia (1999).

A neurological basis of this disorder may be linked to a disproportion of the neurotransmitters (chemicals in the brain) and brain-structure distortion. Neurological researchers have found that too much neurotransmitter dopamine, glutamate, amino-butyric acid, serotonin, among others may be associated with schizophrenia disorder. Many research findings reveal that the actual causes of schizophrenic characteristics have not been established yet (Gattaz & Busatto, 2009).

Furthermore, as identified earlier, the neurological basis of the disorder may also involve abnormalities in the structure of the forebrain, the hindbrain and the limbic system.

According to Salters-Pedneault, a reduction in the density of gray matter in sections of the human brain may be another factor that helps in the development of symptoms of speech and cognitive distortion as well as abnormal behavior orientation among the schizophrenics (2009). Decreased memory capacity has been associated with a decrease in the level of activity of the brain particularly in the right parietal cortex and the hippocampus on the left side.

Abnormal emotional experiences among schizophrenics, according to research findings, have been attributed to reduced activity of the amygdale (Salters-Pedneault, 2009). Moreover, diminished activity in the inferior frontal cortex as well as the vetral pre-motor cortex have been associated with the general lack of motivation, expression, and affect characteristic of people with schizophrenia (Dominiguez & Lieb, 2010).

Biological and Environmental Factors

It is important to note that the root causes of schizophrenia are yet to be conclusively established although there is a sense of hope as far treatment of the disorder is concerned. it has emerged that the antipsychotic medications used currently serve to eradicate the associated symptoms which in turn allow the victim to regain normal life and interaction in the society.

A research conducted by Salters-Pedneault revealed that older drugs for treating schizophrenia are still in use although new ones like clozapine are comparatively effective in dealing acute symptoms of the disorder (2009). It has also been found that people who are genetically exposed to develop schizophrenia are at risk of enhanced rate of being schizophrenic if they use some of these medical drugs or even those meant for recreational purposes (Gattaz & Busatto, 2009).

Modern medications like clozapine, for instance, have been known to reduce the white blood cells count in the body resulting in increased risk of infections. There are a number of side effects associated with the use of antipsychotic medicine and may include skin rashes, improper sight, increased rate of heartbeat, and in some instances affect monthly periods among women.

It is evident that both biological/genetic and environmental factors are responsible in the onset of schizophrenia. According to research findings, individuals with family history of the disorder and who may develop a transitory neurosis are more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia with a year later (Gattaz & Busatto, 2009).

It may not be easy to draw estimates of the probability of inheriting schizophrenia due to the difficulty in distinguishing both the environmental and genetic factors. However, over 40% of identical twins of parents suffering from schizophrenia are usually affected by the disorder. From these facts, biological factors are significant in the development of schizophrenia.

On the other hand, a number of environmental factors have been identified with the development of schizophrenia among individuals. Some of these factors are the prenatal stressors, drug abuse, as well as the surrounding where one lives (Dominiguez & Lieb, 2010). However, schizophrenic tendencies have not been strongly associated with the nature of parental upbringing apart from a slight link between supportive/critical parenting and that probability of developing schizophrenia.

Use of drugs like cocaine, bhang, as well as excessive consumption of alcoholic drinks contributes to the development of schizophrenia. Cannabis has been known to be a direct cause of the disorder while other drugs are used by a victim only as an option of dealing with the associated depression, social seclusion, and general boredom and nervousness (Salters-Pedneault, 2009). This drug has been known to have a very high risk of causing psychotic disorders.

Research has also established that prenatal factors like infections, poor nutrition, and stress experienced by the mother during this stage of development of the fetus are most likely to cause schizophrenic tendencies at the later stages of life (Gattaz & Busatto, 2009). Winter and spring season in the northern hemisphere have been associated with increased chances of viral infection of the uterus and hence higher risk of those born during this time to develop schizophrenia.

The chances of developing schizophrenia have been found to increase twice with living in an urban setting either at childhood stage or even at adulthood. This is the case even after other factors such as ethnicity, drug abuse, as well as the size and nature of social associations have been taken into consideration (Pletson, 2004).

Furthermore, social segregation, immigration as a result of social calamity, discrimination on basis of race, family breakdown, debilitated living conditions, as well as lack of employment have been identified as major environmental factors that can significantly contribute to the development of schizophrenia.

Cognitive and Pharmacological Therapies

Several therapies, both cognitive and pharmacological, have been advocated in the treatment of schizophrenia. Psychosocial therapies have proved effective in dealing with the disorder, at least by reducing its severity (Salters-Pedneault, 2009).

These may include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), training in life skills, family therapy, provision of economic assistance, providing employment opportunities, and use of psychosocial approaches in minimizing drug abuse and management of body weight. If a schizophrenic is taken a family therapy, the frequency of hospitalization and relapse rates is highly reduced (Pletson, 2004).

The employment of CBT as a method of dealing with schizophrenia is yet to yield reliable results as far as symptom reduction or relapse prevention is concerned. Researchers are still exploring the role of art and drama as alternative therapy measures for schizophrenia.

Owing to the gap left by cognitive therapies in handling schizophrenia, pharmacological alternatives exist to treat or prevent the severe impacts of the disorder. Pharmacology refers to the science of drugs in general ranging from their formulation, uses and their effects on the individuals.

Schizophrenia as a neurological disorder has been treated by the use of antipsychotic medications which deal with those symptoms that are not experienced by normal people expect the schizophrenics like distorted cognitive and speech patterns, among other hallucinations (Gattaz & Busatto, 2009).

However, the negative symptoms of schizophrenia respond poorly to medication due to their highly environmental nature. From the above discussion, it is evident that treatment of schizophrenia still presents a great challenge yet its prevalence remains high.

Prognosis for Schizophrenics

The consequences of schizophrenia as a disorder affecting a significant proportion of the population are enormous in terms of both human as well as economic costs (Salters-Pedneault, 2009). The defensive mechanisms that the schizophrenics resort to are significantly harmful resulting in the reduction of the average life expectancy among the victims.

Extreme levels of schizophrenia cause serious disability and high rates of relapses (Dominiguez & Lieb, 2010). Schizophrenics have also been associated with the tendency to commit suicide especially at the earlier stages of manifestation and hospitalization. However, some suicide attempts are usually unsuccessful.

Conclusion

The research paper has discussed schizophrenia as one of the most common neurological disorder affecting a significant proportion of the US population. It is a chronic disorder with the ability to adversely affect the general normal functioning of the human body.

The paper has discussed the behavioral symptoms and related functional deficits caused by schizophrenia, the neurological basis of the disorder, a focus on the various biological and environmental factors associated with schizophrenia, cognitive and pharmacological interventions to deal with the disorder, and the prognosis of this neurological disorder.

It can be concluded, therefore, that schizophrenia remains to be one of the most feared neurological disorders and a lot has to be done in order to bring it under full control.

References

Dominiguez, M. & Lieb, R. (2010). Neurological Disorders: Those at High Risk for Schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167:1084-1090

Gattaz, W. F. & Busatto, G. (eds.)(2009). Advances in Schizophrenia Research 2009.

Springer Pletson, J. E. (2004). Schizophrenia Research: A Progressive Report. Nova Publishers

Robins, L. N, Regier, D. A. (eds) (1999). Psychiatric Disorders in America: the Epidemiologic Perspective Area Study. New York: The Free Press.

Salters-Pedneault, K. (2009). Psychiatric Disorders. American Medical Journal, 7 (12), 9-67

The Mind Is Separate From the Brain: A Descartes’ Assumptions

Introduction

The assumption of Descartes that the mind is separate from the brain is indeed a very intriguing concept since to this day the origin of thought, which the mind consists of, has yet to be accurately pinpointed by science (Gamst, 2011). As scientists such as Tsien (2007) point out there have yet to be accurate studies which pinpoint exactly how thoughts manifest within the brain (Tsien, 2007).

While it may be true that it is now possible to know which area corresponds to which bodily function or which particular area is responsible for adaptation, pleasure or even general sensations it is still vague as to how neural firings come together to produce a thought (Fox, 2006).

For example, an individual can think of either a single word such as “appetite” or think of doing a particular action such as “going for a drive” yet such simplistic thoughts cannot be identified as originating from a particular location. In this particular instance philosophers turn towards the universal law of “something cannot originate from nothing”, taking this into consideration thoughts must then originate from somewhere.

It is assumed that the firings of neurons within the brain are responsible for the concept of thought yet when examining the origin of neurons themselves it is strange to think that the concept of complex thought and behaviors originates from electrical synapses which don’t produce thoughts of their own (Koch, 2011).

It is based on this that various individuals do in fact agree with the assumption of Descartes that the mind must exist somewhere outside of the body and that it influences the actions of the body through some here-to-unknown method of control (Pinker, 2007).

On the other hand it has been stated by various psychological studies that such an assumption should not be considered 100% accurate. For example, Bensley (2003) states that “if the mind is separate from the brain then why is it that substances which affect or inebriate the brain causes changes in thought patterns which come from the mind?” (Bensley, 2003).

This particular viewpoint is expressed by studies such as those by Astin(2004) which examine the preponderance of drug usage among many artists, musicians, and even scientists to which they attribute a great deal of their moments of sudden clarity and imagination from which they derive their greatest work (Astin, 2004).

If the mind were truly separate from the brain then the concept of thought creation should remain constant instead of experiencing sudden shifts through artificial external influences.

Process of Thought Creation

It is still relatively unknown how thoughts are created yet what is known at the present is the way in which various substances can affect thought processes and how certain mental states can be achieved through the cornucopia of present day drugs or sudden accidents. For example, many people in the U.S. suffer from depression yet are able to overcome this particular mental state through the use of antidepressants.

Other examples include individuals that use illegal drugs, alcohol or even people that were involved in car accidents resulting in brain damage. All these individuals, in one way or another, showed evidence of altered mental states which goes completely against the assumption of Descartes.

Another way of looking at this particular situation is based on the views of Flanagan (1991) which examine the origin of knowledge and how people learn to think in precise ways (Flanagan, 1991). Flanagan (1991) explains that while various psychologists such as Freud have suggested that mental processes consist of id, ego, and superego most of them present the notion that the mind is located within the body (Flanagan, 1991).

In fact various modern day psychologists such as Levine (1997) explain that knowledge of the latest psychoactive drugs is a necessity in the field of psychology due to chemical based treatments showing a great deal of effectiveness in dealing with a large percentage of many of today’s abnormal psychological behaviors (Levine, 1997).

It must also be noted that thought should not be separated from behavior since behavior affects the formation of thoughts based on external stimuli which in turn affects the way in which a person perceives a particular situation. Since various psychoactive drugs can help to change the way in which a person behaves this in turn affects the way in which thoughts are created.

These chemicals work by altering chemical firings within the brain by enabling better connections and lowering or increasing neural firings. This shows that thoughts can in fact be altered based on artificial external stimuli from chemicals that affect the brain.

Taking into consideration the fact that the mind is basically made up of a collection of thoughts and memories this shows that the mind is not as separate from the body as Descartes may have us believe.

Creating Memories

When pursuing arguments in favor of the mind being situated within the brain it is important to explore the concept of memory and how this relates to the creation of thoughts.

Memories are basically stored experiences from which thoughts are based upon, as Murchland (2010) explains thoughts are basically the result of accumulated experiences from which memory plays an essential role and as such you cannot separate one from the other. Based on the experiments it was seen that memories are created and formed through the activation of thousands upon thousands of neurons within the brain.

In the experiments electrodes were attached directly into the subjects brain after which they were asked to watch a series of short films while the firing of their neurons were recorded. When asked to recall specific parts of a clip neurons that were recorded firing when that specific clip was being shown began to activate after which the patients explained what was in that specific segment.

It is based on this experiment that the process of memory creation and recall was shown and as such proves that the concept of “memory” exists within the brain. Further evidence of this lies in the fact that individuals that have experienced brain trauma in the past experienced prolonged lapses in memory.

Since thoughts are a result of accumulated memories and accumulated thoughts create the concept of the mind it can be stated that the mind is within the brain and not located outside of it.

On the other hand some defendants of Descartes state that the brain is merely a node from which the mind channels thoughts and as such problems with the brain would of course affect this process of communication (Alanen, 2004).

This does present a rather intriguing way of looking at the issue since if the brain can be considered nothing more than a transmitter instead of the origin of thoughts then this lends a significant amount of credence to the Descartes’’ assumptions.

For example, if the process of the interaction between the mind and the brain can be simplified into two people talking over walkie-talkies within a finite distance then interference in the way of weather phenomena or distance will result in miscommunication.

Taking this into consideration drugs, accidents or a variety of other factors that affect the brain can thus be thought of as a form of “interference” that normally affects the process of communication. It must be questioned though, if the mind is not within the brain then where does the mind exist?

It cannot be denied that the concept of “the mind” does indeed exist since it is an accumulation of thoughts which are undeniably real yet there has yet to be an undeniably proven area where the mind exists outside the body.

Experienced Stimuli and Imaginary Stimuli

One of the current ongoing justifications behind the separation of the mind from the body is the concept of substance dualism which states that the mind and matter are essentially fundamentally different types of substances that interact in some unknown fashion.

This particular assertion is part of Descartes’’ Cartesian dualism in which he suggests that the mental actually does not have an extension in space and material objects cannot essentially “think”. From a certain perspective this does have basis on a certain degree of truth, the way in which the mind transmits information is basically through a series of chemical and electrical signal within the brain.

Neither electricity nor chemicals can actually “think” and as such it cannot really be said that by combining the two the concept of thought will suddenly emerge. It must also be noted that the human body is essentially made up of water and carbon which on their own don’t have the capacity for thought and even when combined wouldn’t have the capacity to create thought as well.

Taking this into consideration it is assumed by the defendant of Descartes’ that the concept of the mind must thus exist in some other plane of existence (similar to the concept of the soul) and it is through the brain that the mind interacts with the body. The inherent problem with this particular observation is the assumption that the concept of thought is actually a substance.

For example, experienced stimuli in the form of eating an apple, going on a date or kissing someone you love are recorded and can be brought to the forefront of an individual’s thoughts merely by trying to recall a particular event.

Imagined stimuli on the other hand can take the form of day dreaming about kissing the person you love, imagining that you won the lottery or even eating something that you have never once eaten before. What must be understood is that while both methods of stimuli exist within the thoughts of the mind they cannot be considered as being equivalent to actual substances.

While it may be true that the universal concept of something cannot come from nothing prevails even in the realm of psychology and philosophy what must be understood is that the imagination can be considered a realm that both exists and doesn’t exist in the first place and that it is wholly dependent on experienced stimuli.

Everything that a person imagines is based upon some form of experienced stimuli that they encountered in one form or the other. This is the inherent origin of imagined stimuli, furthermore imagined stimuli is considered by researchers such as Condillac & Aarsleff ( 2001) as being fleeting and cannot be “fixed” so to speak (Condillac & Aarsleff, 2001).

Thus if something is not fixed and cannot be touched, held, smelt or tasted then such a type of stimuli can be considered as being “inferior” to experienced stimuli.

For example, a person can experience two different ways of eating a chocolate sundae with hot fudge, whipped cream, nuts and chocolate sprinkles: they can either experience this within the mind through imagined stimuli or they can actually do so through experience stimuli.

Only in experienced stimuli can an individual feel the full gamut of flavors, textures, scent and taste of eating a chocolate ice cream sundae while in the case of imagined stimuli it is limited to a vague visual representation. While this doesn’t prove that the “space” that Descartes’ refers to doesn’t exist it does show the fundamental difference in experiences between the physical and the imaginary (Devlin, 1996).

If the objects in the physical realm cannot “think” in the words of Descartes then why is it that experiences within the physical realm are more vivid and enticing as compared to the imaginary world?

When trying to examine whether the mind is part of the brain it is important to examine the effect of visual and verbal stimuli and how this affects comprehension. Visual stimuli can come in a variety of forms whether it is an image, a video or a piece of scenery (Gollwitzer, 1990).

All individuals in one way or another are exposed to various aspects of visual stimuli whether they want to or not which can take the form of sights and scenes that they see on a daily basis (Gollwitzer, 1990).

Speaking on the other hand is a less permanent method of stimulation due to its spontaneous nature wherein the act of talking between two or more individuals produces varying views, thoughts and concepts that are produced at a faster rate compared to objects, people and scenes that are aspects of visual stimulation.

It is actually due to this that ideas conveyed during the act of speaking are at times forgotten or not conveyed in the way the communicator intended due to the way in which people interpret information differently through the act of talking.

Furthermore, due to the presence of other communicators the result is a less controlled environment for stimulation wherein each individual gives out their own thoughts and ideas without there being a specific order to their introduction in the conversation (Spivey, 2007).

What must be understood is that conveying emotion through vocal tones, facial expressions and gestures is one of the most important aspects of speaking due to the fact that these are the methods by which other communicators derive the intent of the speaker.

For example, the phrase “get here now” can be said with little emotion and no facial expression and the communicator would be unable to determine the importance of “going there now”. On the other hand when phrase “Get Here Now!” utilizes a strong forceful voice and an angry facial expression the other communicator realizes the urgency of the situation and “goes there” immediately.

Studies such as those by Fields (2005) show that when it comes to processing particular types of information people are more adept at memorizing and recalling visual stimuli as compared to speech stimuli (Fields, 2005).

Fields (2005) explains that this is due to the fact that remembering various aspect of speech stimuli involves not only having to recall specific words and phrases but individual responses as well whereas visual stimulus involves nothing more than what can be seen through the eyes (Fields, 2005).

This is particularly important to take note of since when it comes to forming thoughts and imagery in the way that Descartes perceives most do so through imagery rather than through words. Since speech and visual imagery are basically processes of external stimulation why is it that people are more predisposed towards visual imagery when it comes to thought processes rather than speech?

The reason behind this is actually connected to the study of Yuperlik (2009) which explains that the brain is more adept at processing images than speech and as such there are inherent limitations to what can be memorized and imagined (Yuperlik, 2009). In fact studies such as those by Spivey (2007) explain that humans are more evolutionary adept at visual stimulation than all other senses (Spivey, 2007).

Since the brain has an inherent evolutionary predisposition towards a particular way of operating then if the mind were truly separated from the brain then it wouldn’t experience the same limitations as the brain however it does and as such this is indicative of the fact that the mind is within brain. If it weren’t it wouldn’t be subject to the same inherent predisposition towards visual imagery.

Resolving the Issue

In order to resolve this issue it is best to subject the assumption of the mind being outside of the brain to Occam’s razor in order to determine the overall validity of the assumption. The basis of Occam’s razor is “the simplest explanation for a problem is usually the right one”. This is based off the principle of parsimony which states that “it is pointless to do more with something when it can be done with less”.

Taking this into consideration, it can be stated that since thoughts can be affected by drugs, alcohol and injuries to the brain, and since all of these occurrences are dependent on some external force affecting the brain, this means that thoughts are within the brain and thus the mind exists within the brain and not outside of it.

What must be understood is that since there is no current concrete evidence in support of Descartes’ assumptions it cannot be supported under Occam’s razor and thus it should not be considered as something which is 100% valid.

It can only be considered as such when there is sufficient corroborating evidence however till such a time occurs it can be considered nothing more than philosophical conjecture without sufficient facts backing it up.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of this paper it can be stated that the mind is an inherent function of a developed human brain and as such cannot be considered a separate aspect of it placed in some sort of space outside of human understanding. If something affects the brain it affects the mind as well and as such Descartes reasoning is inherently flawed.

On the other hand it must be noted that at the time when he created his assumption regarding the separation of the mind from the brain the science of understanding the brain’s neurologic functions was barely in its infancy and as such it can be stated that Descartes may have made such an assumption due to an inherent lack of knowledge.

Reference List

Alanen, L. (2004). Descarte’s concept of mind. Times Higher Education Supplement, (1624), 11.

Astin, J. (2004). Psychosocial Determinants of Health and Illness: Integrating Mind, Body, and Spirit. Advances In Mind-Body Medicine, 20(4), 14.

Bensley, D. (2003). Can Minds Leave Bodies?. Skeptical Inquirer, 27(4), 34.

Condillac, E., & Aarsleff, H. (2001). Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge. Cambridge University Press.

Devlin, K. (1996). Good-bye Descartes?. Mathematics Magazine, 69(5), 344.

Fields, R. (2005). Making Memories Stick. Scientific American, 292(2), 74.

Flanagan, O. J. (1991). The Science of the Mind. MIT Press.

Fox, D. (2006). Through the mind’s eye. New Scientist, 190(2550), 32.

Gamst, G. C. (2011). The recursive mind: the origins of human language, thought, and

civilization. Choice: Current Reviews For Academic Libraries, 49(2), 400-401.

Gollwitzer, P. H. (1990). Deliberative and Implemental Mind-Sets: Cognitive Tuning Toward Congruous Thoughts and Information. Journal Of Personality & Social Psychology, 59(6), 1119.

Koch, C. (2011). Probing the Unconscious Mind. Scientific American Mind, 22(5), 22.

Levine, G. (1997). Carlyle, Descartes, and Objectivity. Raritan, 17(1), 45.

Murchland, B. G. (2010). Mind’s world: imagination and subjectivity from Descartes to Romanticism. Choice: Current Reviews For Academic Libraries, 47(8), 1490.

Pinker, S. (2007). The mystery of consciousness. (cover story). Time International (South Pacific Edition), (3), 54.

Spivey, M. J. (2007). Redesigning our theories of human information processing. Information Design Journal (IDJ), 15(3), 261-26

Yuperlik, A. (2009). Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories. Nature, 462(7275), 915.

Tsien, J. T. (2007). The Memory Code. (cover story). Scientific American, 297(1), 52.

Brain Functions: The Case of Phineas Gage

Historically, there have been two major perspectives on the role of the brain in the cognition and localization of higher cognitive functions. One of the viewpoints, phrenology, states that all cognitive faculties and traits are separately controlled by specific and originally fixed areas and structures of the brain (Mareschal, Sirois, Johnson & Westermann, 2007, p.92). The second and the newer approach suggests that personality traits and higher cognitive functions can be associated only with the cerebral cortex, which works as a whole, so cognitive functions can by performed by several different structures of the specified area. In addition, “it is also postulated that the effects on cognitive functions due to cortical lesions was due to the extent of damaged tissue, but not on the localization of it” (Mareschal et al, 2007, p.93). Nowadays, these two positions are combined in explaining the mechanisms of brain functioning as they relate to cognition.

The primary stage of cognition, sensation and perception, is possible owing to the presence of the sensory apparatus, or groups of cells (for instance, sensitive cells of peripheral nerves, neurotransmitters) and their interconnections which receive information about the environment and deliver it to the Central Nervous system. Sensory information from the external environment (e.g., visual, olfactory, auditory, gustatory, tactile) as well as internal information (e.g. e.g. blood pressure) penetrates the nervous system at the level of brain stem and midbrain, which identify the signal and connect it to the dendrites of the somatosensory cortex. At this level, the first signal system might produce a reflective response to the signal in case the stimulus matches certain already existing sensory patterns.

Processing of sensory stimuli is attributed to practically all parts of the cerebral cortex; in particular, frontal, parietal and temporal lobes are associated with understanding language and speech; the occipital and (to certain extent) parietal lobes are proven to perform visual processing; the parietal lobe also processes the stimuli, deriving from the sense of touch, whereas auditory stimuli are processed in the temporal lobe (Sternberg, 1999, p.121). As one can assume, some functions are duplicated in two or more areas, but clinical studies suggest that the lesion of Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area create irreversible changes in the language function; in particular, the former structure is associated with the expression of language, whereas the latter is responsible for the understanding of speech (Mareschal et al, 2007, p.95). The function of vision is nowadays believed to be performed by higher-order sensory cortices, associated with such specific characteristics of the object as color, shape, contrast and speed, which are located in different areas of the cerebral cortex. The interconnections between these cortices ensure the holistic perception of the object in the environment. Sensory integration, combination of stimuli and comprehension of several sensory messages at the same time constitute the function of the parietal lobe.

Further, due to the cortical folding and optimal connection between the neurons, the sensory information is further processed by the frontal lobe which first generates the mental response to the new message. In particular, the frontal lobe coordinates the abstractive thinking process which allows understanding the message and drawing the necessary logical relationships. This brain area is also responsible for problem-solving, emotional response, judgment and reflection, which in complex shape the individual’s attitude towards the contents of the message.

Inherent is also the capacity of the brain to store information about the incoming signals. As Sternberg states, “The ability of the brain to create memories is due to the capacity of neurons and neural systems to change from one ‘homeostatic state to another” (Sternberg, 1999, p.112), so under the influence of the stimuli – induced changes in activity, neurons are transformed at the molecular level so that these transformations reflect the specified activity. In fact, human memory is constructed by a number of areas in the neocortex and the older areas like the hippocampus Craik & Lockhart, 1972, p. 678).

One of the prominent cases of both irreversible changes in brain functioning and substitution is the outcome of the brain I injury which Phineas Gage received. As a result of the workplace accident, the man’s brain was stabbed vertically by a large iron tube. The contemporary clinicians reported that man’s recovery was very slow, and at first his speech was incoherent (Mareschal et al, 2007, p.98). Obviously, a part of the frontal lobe was damaged as a result of the accident as the tube drove through the crown of his head. However, the greatest damage can be attributed to the temporal and parietal lobes, the former area should have been literally divided into two parts. The serious injury of two centers in the brain located in the frontal and temporal lobes and responsible for speech probably resulted in difficulties with language expression which emerged at the beginning of recuperation. However, due to the fact that Broca’s area remained relatively intact, it probably took additional load, originally distributed among the other centers. Furthermore, it needs to be noted that as a result of the accident the man lost the ability to see through his left eye, which once again proves the idea of the interconnection of sensory cortices, responsible for vision, several of which were damaged irreparably so that the vision function did not recover fully.

Reference

Mareschal, D. Sylvain Sirois, Mark H. Johnson & Gert Westermann. (2007). Neuroconstructivism: How the brain constructs cognition. Oxford University Press

Sternberg, R. (1999). The nature of cognition. MIT Press

Craik, F.I.M., & Lockhart, R.S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,11, 671-684

Diagnosis and the Level of Traumatic Brain Injury

The subject of the case study under consideration is a 17-year-old Latina girl, Mary S, who is delivered to a hospital unconscious with a head bleeding freely as a result of an unsuccessful pool jump from the second floor. She is given PET scans that help to define a number of injuries and the necessity to be placed on precautionary life support.

The level of TBI has to be defined by means of the analysis of the results of three types of tests: the Glasgow Coma Scale, the duration of post-traumatic amnesia, and the duration of the unconscious state (Lezak, Howieson, Bigler, & Tranel, 2012).

As she follows the orders of a neurologist, opens her eyes briefly, moves her fingers, but is not able to speak just moan incoherently, the Glasgow Coma Scale demonstrates the results such as: E3, V2, and M6. The loss of consciousness lasts for about 3 hours.

Amnesia is hard to observe as the girl does not respond verbally for about a day. The next day, she recognizes her parents. The interpretation of these elements proves that Mary has the moderate type of brain injury. The moderate brain injury usually causes brain swelling and bleeding as a result of which a person spends much time sleeping.

At the same time, a person is not in comma and can be aroused (still, it is not recommended) (Brain Trauma Foundation, n.d.).

Taking into account all information got and the evaluation of the DSM-V standards, the following diagnosis may be given: traumatic brain injury with the consequences like adjustment disorder with mixed anxiety and depressed mood (309.28 DSM code), posttraumatic stress disorder (309.81 DSM code), and disorder of written expression (315.2).

A Pre-Morbid Estimation

The estimation of pre-morbid functioning is one of the crucial steps that have to be done as when a TBI case takes place. As a rule, special tests like the NAART or WTAR are used to determine a person’s pre-morbid level of intellectual functioning along with the use of existing records (Strauss, Sherman, & Spreen, 2006).

In the case study under analysis, it is stated that Mary has not passed through full-scale IQ tests, this is why the results of the tests are definite in regards to a particular situation.

The WTAR (Wechsler Test of Adult Reading) on the basis of No-Child Left Behind Testing records is may be used with Mary as she meets its age ranges (16-89 years), speaks English perfectly, and can demonstrate her abilities to pronounce irregular verbs with a clear understanding of what they are all about (Strauss, Sherman, & Spreen, 2006).

The test lasts about 10 minutes during which an examiner presents 50 word cards one by one and gives prompts to a patient on how to pronounce a word. Each correct answer is 1 score for the patient. In case 12 incorrect answers take place, the test has to be stopped.

The peculiar feature of the test is the possibility to compare predicted and actual functioning considering the general intellectual status and the condition of memory. As soon as all 50 cards are shown, the results are evaluated in regards to the age of a patient.

Mary is a 17-year-old girl with a high level of knowledge and abilities to work during classes. Her results are expected to be high indeed as she likes to study and achieve the highest grades in comparison to her fellows.

Assessment of Mary’s Post-Injury Intellectual Ability

The WAIS-IV is the test used on Mary to check out her post-injury intellectual abilities and define the possible deficits between her pre-injury performance and post-injury performance.

The test consists of a number of stages that touches upon the girls’ verbal comprehension, working memory, perceptual reasoning, and processing speed (Strauss, Sherman, & Spreen, 2006).

Mary came to the hospital to take the tests in time and demonstrated her desire to pass through the tests within a short period. She supported eye contact and was eager to answer all questions clearly. During the tests, she stayed calm and focused on the tasks, but she could be easily distracted by outside noise.

Sometimes, it was seen that Mary was at a loss as she could not find out a correct answer as quickly as she used to. She liked to complete tasks before the deadlines, still, the results of the test proved that she could suffer from some deficits.

WAIS-IV scores were as follows:

VC (114): similarities 13, vocabulary 103, information 12;

WM (100): digit span 10, arithmetic 10;

PR (98): block design 10, matrix 910, symbols 11.

In general, full scale IQ was about 105; general ability index was 106.

The evaluation of the tests and Mary’s reaction, it is possible to admit that her TBI associates with such deficits like short-memory problems, processing speed, attention functioning (she is unable not to pay attention to the distracting factors around), and social perception deficit (she wants to control the reactions of people on her behavior, but she cannot do it).

The comparison of her pre-injury and post-injury performance proves that the girl has some problems with the perception of the world around and the inabilities to complete the functions she used to complete. She is upset and even angry with her inabilities to memorize simple facts mentioned recently.

Assessments of Cognitive Speed

Several tests, which are more sensitive, are used in order to determine why Mary cannot keep up in class.

These are Trails A&B, the PASAT, and Digit Symbol. As Mary was diagnosed with TBI, the tests under consideration should help to define the reasons of why she cannot concentrate on the details, be more attentive, and memorize information. The purpose of the Trail Making Test is to prove the presence of brain injury.

Mary has to connect the 25 numbers chaotically distributed on a page. She begins properly, still, in several seconds, she starts making mistakes and stop completing the test. She does not want to continue. The part B of the test (the alternation between numbers and letters) helps to check out Mary’s visual motor abilities and visual spatial abilities.

The results are the same: the girl does not want to finish the test due to her inabilities to focus on the task. She does not meet time limits as well. It proves the presence of TBI as well as the consequences such as anxiety and written expression.

The PASAT test causes a number of problems as the use of a tape and the necessity to follow certain rules in a definite period of time make Mary dissatisfied and angry because of her inabilities to meet time deadlines and requirements of the test.

Several attempts are made to re-start the test, still, it also serves as a proof of a traumatic brain injury that causes a number of problems with cognition and behavior in general.

Finally, the Digit Symbol test, that requires attention and time, calms Mary down and provides her with a chance to complete the task properly meeting all the standards. It shows that her cognition may undergo some improvements in case special conditions are provided.

Recommendations for Accommodations and Rehabilitation

The effects of brain injury turn out to be catastrophic for Mary. She refuses to attend school and talk to her parents about the problems that really bother her. Her injury harms her cognitive skills, memory, and concentration abilities. The results of these deficits are problems with reasoning and even vocabulary.

She cannot keep up in class and suffers from fatigue and anxiety. This is why some accommodations in classrooms and rehabilitation at home are necessary for Mary.

Accommodations can be as follows:

  1. Provide with additional time for various class assignments;
  2. Support Mary with some teacher’s notes;
  3. Give her oral and written instructions;
  4. Allow her using notebook to check her spelling and grammar in cases of emergency;
  5. Reduce the rubric expectations in regards to the quality of the work done.

Still, it is necessary to admit one fact – Mary may not want to be provided with special terms of education. This is why it is better to offer her some time for rehabilitation at home and use medical support to overcome the challenges of TBI.

Rehabilitation details:

  1. Cognitive therapy focuses on the improvement of cognitive skills that can be relearned. It is possible due to certain repetitive activities, support of a professional, and clear explanations.
  2. Occupational therapy may be provided by advanced nurses and followed according to a properly developed health plan in a hospital.
  3. Neuropsychological tests should be considered on a regular basis as they can show the results of the therapies used.

As soon as these hints are taken into consideration by Mary and her parents, she has all chances to get recovered and achieve appropriate results within a short period of time.

A Prognosis

Mary’s case is a tragic development of the events that cannot be predicted but may be improved.

As soon as she is diagnosed with TBI with a number of consequences influencing the girl’s cognitive development, memory, and behavior, the test assessments, and evaluation of her reactions by the professional neurologists prove that Mary suffers from long-term TBI effects.

She is in need of professional help and appropriate treatment at home as well as in a hospital. She has to be treated by an expert in order to re-develop her skills and be able to gain control over her emotions and inabilities. Mary has to be ready that she cannot perform all the activities at the same level as she used to.

She needs to be supported by her family and her friends.

In case these suggestions are followed, a prognosis of her recovery may be rather positive. Of course, people suffer from some problems after their TBIs. They need time and understanding.

Mary’s status in a society she lives in should help her to find the required portion of support and continue living according to her ordinary style of life soon.

Reference List

Brain Trauma Foundation. (n.d.). Facts about traumatic brain injury. Web.

Lezak, D., Howieson, D.B., Bigler, E.D., & Tranel, D. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment. New York, NY: The Oxford University Press.

Strauss, E., Sherman, E.M., & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Advantages of Brain-Compatible Learning Environments

Introduction

Over the recent past, there has been various issues or problems associated with the learning process in a classroom setting. Students tend to be distracted by a variety of issues and since learning requires maximum concentration, they end up performing poorly. This has therefore necessitated a need for coming up with some strategies aimed at enhancing concentration so as to uplift academic performance among students.

There is a relationship between the brain and student learning and if emphasis is placed on this, better results ought to be attained. One significant strategy is the brain-based learning. This entails a set of principles, knowledge, and skills that enables practitioners in learning institutions to optimize the learning process to allow for better performance (Fogarty, 2009).

This piece of paper gives a critical analysis of brain-compatible learning environments. Much emphasis will however be on the benefits attributed to the brain-compatible learning environments and the problems they are able to solve.

Brain-Compatible Learning

Brain-compatible learning environments are extremely crucial aspects in fostering learning. Despite the fact that brain-compatible learning does not offer solution to all the problems experienced in learning institutions today, it plays a great role in enhancing the learning process. This is mainly through seeking to create a more effective and efficient learning process, which is aimed at benefiting the learner.

This is achieved through gaining a deeper understanding of how the brain learns thus allowing for the provision of the most effective learning environment possible. The concepts of brain-compatible learning include enhanced trust and belonging, directed choices, enhanced environment, meaning-filled content as well as adequate time (Williams & Dunn, 2007).

Some of the key elements that are worth noting while discussing the issue of brain-based learning include the curriculum or what is taught in schools, the instructions or how the different issues are taught, the environment or where the teaching takes place as well as the assessment or how the teaching or learning can be measured.

Irrespective of the methods or techniques used in teaching, the curriculum that is taught in learning institutions ought to be relevant and easy to understand or synthesize. Relevance of the curriculum entails including what is helpful to the students in their personal lives as well as in their future careers. This will enhance learning by making it interesting and avoiding workload.

Instruction is the other crucial element when it comes to the learning process. This entails how the students are taught. In the process of teaching, the teachers and other facilitators ought to engage in different teaching techniques to ensure that all aspects are understood easily. Use of different techniques also helps deal with the problem of boredom.

There should, for instance, be the use of practical examples and illustrations especially for technical issues. This will allow the students to relate the theory they learn with real life experiences.

Brain-based instruction necessitates that the instructors or teachers understand how the brain functions so as to come up with appropriate instruction, that which the mind can handle at a particular time. Teachers should combine their professional knowledge with that of the brain to facilitate environments that are learner-centered.

The environment, within which teaching and learning takes place, is also a crucial element in determining the success level of the learning process. The teachers and other school facilitators should ensure that learning takes place in a favorable environment. The mind is prone to various kinds of disruptions that in one way or the other may affect concentration thus hindering understanding of what is being taught.

A simple example entails buildings. Buildings have been deemed to have a significant effect on teaching and learning. The buildings should therefore be considered right from the time they are set up. “Brain compatible learning environments are places where students’ curiosities are piqued and potential anxiety, frustration or confusion is diminished” (Kaufeldt, 2010).

Assessment of any kind of activity is also essential. There ought to be some appropriate assessment measures to ascertain the progress of learning or what the students are gaining. Assessment allows taking of appropriate adjustments to ensure that all objectives of learning are achieved effectively.

In all the above named processes, the brain and its functioning should be the main point of focus so that the students’ wellbeing is considered and taken into account. This will allow maintenance of a brain-compatible environment that fosters teaching and learning.

There is a need of a shift in thinking among all responsible parties in the education system. Rather than thinking of a classroom, they should think of a brain-compatible environment. This will ensure that all factors that either foster or hinder learning are catered for in the best way possible hence better performance (Sherry & Morse, 1995).

Although brain based learning is attributed to a lot of benefits, it also has got some challenges. The most obvious one is resistance to change among the different parties that are involved.

The fact that learning institutions and the teachers are used to an ordinary classroom, just meant to be a venue for the learning process, makes it hard to accept the concept of brain based learning. Resistance to change could mainly occur due to the extra efforts required to facilitate a brain based learning environment.

Brain based learning is associated with other extra costs in terms of both time and resources. For instance, apart from the normal teaching career knowledge, teachers are expected to gain a deeper understanding of the brain and its functioning in an effort to incorporate the desired aspects of a brain- based environment.

Although this could be considered as an extra burden, the benefits associated with brain based learning surpass this by a great extent.

Another problem could be lack of adequate funds to facilitate the process. This could be in making of appropriate buildings, those that are able to help the students remain focused, away from distractions. A brain-compatible learning environment also necessitates some changes that are not usually present in an ordinary classroom.

This includes provision of tight security levels, enhancing movements for instance through linking indoor and outdoor areas to avoid straining the brain, changing displays to enhance interaction with the environment and stimulate brain development as well as having other resources that in one way or the other facilitate close proximity of the physical, educational as well as other varied settings.

Ignorance of the available methods is also an obstacle to implementation (Lucas, 2004).

All in all, it is worth noting that despite the fact that brain-compatible learning environments are demanding in terms of the changes, time, and other resources required, the advantages accrued to it surpass the drawbacks greatly as it will be seen in the next section. This therefore dictates that brain- compatible environment is a strategy that is worth investing in.

Advantages of Brain-Compatible Learning Environments

Most of the benefits that are associated with brain-based learning environments are based on brain space principles that govern effective teaching and learning.

Some of the principles include; creation of stimulating environments with attractive displays, linking indoor and outdoor areas in an effort to facilitate movement, allowing for maximum security away from dangers and threats, allowing for flexibility in the learning process where there are breaks between lessons and change of environments and promotion of intrapersonal as well as interpersonal intelligence through provision of active and passive areas for the students to have some personal reflections as well as active engagements among others (Gagne, Briggs., & Wager, 1992).

There are various benefits that are associated with brain-compatible learning and environments. The significance of brain compatible learning environments could clearly be derived right from their definition. It entails active engagement, utilization of strategies and adherence to certain stipulate principles that are deemed important in enhancing learning to the highest or best possible level.

According to Williams and Dunn (2007), brain based learning entails an active engagement of appropriate strategies that are usually founded upon principles that are drawn from neuroscience. In simple terms, brain-compatible learning entails coordinating learning in regard to the manner in which the brain is naturally meant to function and learn. This allows for effective learning that yields better results.

Another benefit associated with brain-based learning environment is the fact that they allow for catering of the specific needs of the different students based on their capabilities. This is because by understanding that different individuals possess different talents and understanding capabilities, the teachers are able to come up with different strategies aimed at catering for the varying students’ needs.

Failure to understand and deal with the differences in an appropriate manner may lead to overworking of some students which in turn result in stress, reduced motivation, and a generally poor academic performance (Slavkin, 2002).

Classrooms should be transformed to real world environment that is stimulating. The curriculum should be set in such a way that it stimulates the brain’s neural networks. This could be through the inclusion of cultural, sensory, and other aspects.

Brain compatible learning environments allows teachers to refrain from the tradition practice of applying uniform strategies for all the students with the belief that it is still effective and instead learn to take care of the diverse learners appropriately. This could be achieved through development of unique learning profiles for all the students and preparation for complex instruction.

Brain-compatible learning environments take into account the fact that the brain is a complex organ that is responsible for carrying out various responsibilities. The conscious and unconscious elements of the brain are used in the learning process.

Other functions of the brain that are relevant in learning include attention, perception as well as memory. Brain-compatible learning environments are associated with the immersion benefit. This entails making the learning process as real and involving as possible. This is made possible through strategic incorporation of different stimuli (Slavkin, 2002).

Brain-compatible learning environments also make use of problem solving knowledge and skills in the learning process as opposed to ordinary learning by rote. This has the advantage of enhancing the experience by making it more significant and rewarding for the students.

This in turn makes the entire learning process inspiring and effective. The active engagement of the brain contributes to improved learning. It for instance promotes memory, which is a crucial element in learning due to the need for future reference or consultation.

A brain- compatible environment also fosters learning that is absolutely free from stress. Stress is a condition that not only affects learning in a negative manner but also other processes especially those that require concentration. Stress in the learning environment could result from a wide range of sources and activities.

For instance, when students are subjected to strict deadlines or tightly designed time frames they may get stressed. This is especially where the students are relatively slow in learning. Stress disheartens the learning process, makes it impossible for a student to engage in creative thinking and hinders memory retention.

Although it may be a hard task to eliminate activities that lead to stress in a learning environment, a brain-based approach makes use of stress relieving practices in an effort to offer a supportive environment to the learner that helps in satisfying his or her needs. Some of the practices could seem simple but they are extremely helpful.

They include; physical activities such as stretching and having some breaks for physical exercises to avoid overworking that could build up stress, provision of some training that impacts the students with skills that allow coping with emotional related stress among other strategies (Slavkin, 2002).

Individualization is the other benefit that is attributed to brain-based learning environments. Brain-compatible learning environments allow the teachers to apply an individualized approach as opposed to applying a uniform strategy upon all the students. This ensures that all the needs of each and every student are catered for appropriately bearing in mind that different students have different learning capabilities.

This allows for discovery of new aspects and thus deepens learning. The use of a variety of approaches and a wide range of problem solving methods in a brain-based learning environment is also beneficial because it allows students to learn in a personal and pragmatic manner. Every student feels well represented and is motivated to work even harder to better academic performance (Jensen, 2008).

Conclusion

From the above discussion, it is evident that there have been major problems in the field of learning. This has brought about the need to come up with appropriate strategies aimed at minimizing or eliminating the problems. As opposed to the past, the field of education has entered an extremely significant era, the brain era.

Various parties have become interested in learning more about the human brain and how it operates so as to enhance learning by providing a favorable learning environment that does away with distractions that may hinder attention, an aspect that is incredibly crucial in a learning setting. Although there are problems that are associated with brain-based learning environments, the benefits surpass them greatly.

This therefore dictates that this scientific approach should be introduced and strategically implemented in learning institutions to enhance learning. The issue of understanding the brain and how it functions is extremely crucial and it helps in the adoption of appropriate strategies in the learning process.

Reference List

Fogarty, R. (2009). Brain-Compatible Classrooms. 3rd ed. California: Corwin Press.

Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design 4th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich College Publishers.

Jensen, E. (2008). Brain-Based Learning; the New Paradigm of Teaching 2nd Ed. California: Corwin Press.

Kaufeldt, M. (2010). Begin With the Brain: Orchestrating the Learner-Centered Classroom. Scotts Valley, CA: Sage.

Lucas, R. W. (2004). The Creative Training Idea Book: Inspired Tips and Techniques for Engaging and Effective Learning. New York: AMACOM.

Sherry, L., & Morse, R. (1995). An Assessment Of Training Needs In The Use Of Distance Education For Instruction. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 1(1): 5-22.

Slavkin, M. L. (2002). The Importance of Brain Functioning On Cognition and Teacher Practice. The Journal of Teaching and Learning 6(1): 21-34.

Williams, B.R., & Dunn. E. S. (2007). Brain-Compatible Learning for the Block. 2nd ed. California: Corwin Press.

A Lecture on the Growth and Degeneration of Brain Cells

Introduction

According to Kleiner (2005), the brain tissue is made up of glial cells and neurons. The former makes up 90 percent of the tissue. Neurons, which are also referred to as nerve cells, are responsible for the conduction of signals from the brain to the rest of the body. Glial cells, on the other hand, do not transmit nerve signals.

On the contrary, they serve such other physical and nutritional functions as the digestion of dead neurons and the provision of neuronal support. They are also involved in the manufacture of the myelin sheath (Pinel, 2011). In this lecture, the presenter will analyze the growth and degeneration of brain cells.

To this end, the presenter will examine what facilitates the growth process, what happens when the brain cells die, as well as the impacts of the growth and degeneration of brain cells on the brain and on human functioning. The presenter will provide an example of a disorder brought about by disturbances in the growth of brain cells, as well as an example of a disorder brought about the degeneration of brain cells.

The Growth and Degeneration of Brain Cells

The growth of new brain cells depends on various factors. One of them is the activity of the protein responsible for altering epigenetic marks in the cell’s genetic material (Stannard, 2009). Another factor that enhances the growth of brain cells is exercise. According to Jason & Greenamyre (2011), exercise not only improves general health, but also enhances the growth of new brain cells.

It also stimulates the growth of neurons in the hippocampus, especially the dentate gyrus. The gyrus is responsible for neurogenesis. Meditation also facilitates the growth of brain cells. The relationship between meditation and growth of brain cell is complex. Several studies have shown that the growth of brain cells is accelerated among people who meditate, compared to those who do not engage in this activity (Stannard, 2009).

The use of antidepressant drugs is also known to accelerate the growth of brain cells. According to Kleiner (2005), depression, anxiety, and stress are known to cause the death of brain cells. The trend is, however, reversed by the use of antidepressants, such as Prozac. The drugs facilitate neurogenesis (Kleiner, 2005).

Environmental factors affect the growth of brain cells. When the brain is exposed to an enriched environment, there is increased growth of neurons in the hippocampus than when it is exposed to an impoverished environment. Research has also proven that learning enhances the growth of neurons.

The neurons can die in the absence of learning. Regulating the intake of calories is another factor affecting the growth of brain cells. The regulation protects the neurons, thus enhancing the growth of the cells.

What Happens when Brain Cells Die?

The cells die through a process referred to as apoptosis. Cells that are dying shrink, condense, and finally fragment, releasing apoptotic bodies. The released bodies are small and bound by a membrane. They are phagocytosed by other cells (Orrenius et al., 2010). The phargocytosis process involves several cells. They include neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, and B lymphocytes.

The process begins when a neutrophil or microphage engulfs the dead cell in a phagocytic vesicle. The vesicle is also referred to as a phagosome. The next step in the death of brain cells involves the fusion of the phagosome with a lysosome. The combination of the two gives rise to a phagolysosome. The contents of the lysosome destroy the cell engulfed in the phagosome.

Having looked at the process through which brain cells die, it is now important to look at what happens when this happens. In other words, what are some of the effects associated with the death of brain cells in humans and other animals? According to Sciencemuseum.org.uk (2013), one of the most obvious effects associated with the death of brain cells is the development of diseases associated with the brain.

The diseases impair the functionality of the brain, affecting the memory and cognitive ability of the individual. One such common disease associated with the death of brain cells is Alzheimer. The condition is associated with dementia and such other impairments of the brain.

According to Sciencemuseum.org.uk (2013), the death of brain cells is also associated with the formation of ‘plaques’ by some proteins in the body. The plaques interfere with the functioning of the cells. The impairment leads to the death of more brain cells. The figure below is an illustration of an Alzheimer’s brain affected by plaques:

Figure 1: Confocal Image of an Alzheimer’s Brain Affected by Amyloid Plaque

Source: Sciencemuseum.org.uk (2013)

Another form of protein in the brain creates what Sciencemuseum.org.uk (2013) refers to as ‘tangles’. The tangles interfere with the structure of the affected brain cells, which consequently affects their functionality. The effect is the death of more brain cells. The transmission of signals from one neuron to the other is performed by, among others, chemicals specializing in this function.

The chemicals decline when the brain is inflicted by such diseases as Alzheimer. What this means is that the function of the brain is interfered with. Some of the conditions brought about by the death of brain cells are irreversible. For example, Sciencemuseum.org.uk (2013) opines that majority of dementias cannot be reversed.

Many researchers are engaged in efforts to find cures for these conditions. In the meantime, there are drugs aimed at alleviating some of the symptoms associated with conditions brought about by the death of brain cells.

The Impacts of the Growth and Degeneration of Brain Cells

The growth and degeneration of brain cells have various impacts on the brain and on human functioning. It affects the physical and mental functioning of the human. There are several disorders arising from neuro-degeneration. They include Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinsonism, multiple sclerosis, and Huntington’s disease (Jason & Greenamyre, 2011).

The degeneration of brain cells involves the death of nerves and loss of brain tissue. As a result, the size of the brain reduces significantly. The reduction in the size of brain impairs the functioning of this organ severely (Stannard, 2009). The impairment is transferred to other parts of the body.

Degeneration of brain cells affects various parts of the brain. One such part is the hippocampus. The hippocampus is regarded as center of memory creation. When cells in this part of the brain degenerate, they impair the memory of the individual. Another part of the brain affected by degeneration is the cortex.

The cortex shrivels as a result of neurodegeneration. The shrinking impairs thinking capabilities, planning, and remembering. The center is responsible for movement, sensory stimulation, emotion, higher intellectual functioning, and speech. The ventricles are also affected by the degeneration of brain cells. The ventricles are fluid-filled spaces that resemble indents.

The spaces occur naturally in the brain. When the brain starts to degenerate, the ventricles grow larger. The increased size of these centers takes up the space occupied by the brain. As a result, the enlarged spaces reduce the size of the brain.

The growth of brain cells has various positive impacts. The growth is associated with reduced levels of anxiety and depression. The reason for this is that the newly generated cells are found in the hippocampus. It is the part of the brain associated with learning, memory, anxiety, and depression (Kleiner, 2005)

An Example of a Disorder Caused by Disturbances

There are various disorders associated with disturbances in the growth of brain cells. One such disorder involves the growth of brain tumors. The tumor is a collection of cells growing independent of other parts of the body (Orrenius et al., 2010). One such tumor is the meningiomas. The tumor grows between the meninges.

Another is the infiltrating tumor, which grows in a diffused manner through the surrounding tissues. Brain tumors are characterized by headaches, which are usually severe in the mornings. They are also associated with nausea and vomiting, change in speech, vision, or hearing. Other issues include problems with balancing and mood changes.

An Example of a Disorder Caused by Degeneration

An example of a neurodegerative condition is the Parkinson’s disease (Pinel, 2011). It is a movement disorder characterized by stiffness or tremor of the fingers. The condition becomes more severe with time. In advanced stages, the patient experiences resting tremors. The tremors are, however, not experienced in voluntary activities and sleep.

Muscle rigidity, difficulty to initiate movement, slow movement, mask-like facial expressions, pain, and depression are also symptoms associated with this condition. The disease is brought about by neurodegeneration of the substantia nigra. The degeneration leads to reduced production of dopamine.

References

Jason, R., & Greenamyre, J. (2011). Toxicological sciences. London: McGraw-Hill.

Kleiner, K. (2005). Marijuana might cause new cell growth in the brain. New Scientist, 8(7), 2-4.

Orrenius, S., Nicotera, P., & Zhivotovsky, B. (2010). Cell death mechanisms and their implications in toxicology, Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 5(4), 34-38.

Pinel, J. (2011). Biopsychology. London: Pearson.

Stannard, S. (2009). Comparing a healthy brain to an Alzheimer’s brain. Genome Biology, 3(5), 4-9.

Person’s Individuality, Gender Differences and the Triune Brain

Introduction

It is quite important for us to understand our brain and how it functions to make learning an interesting venture. The following essay highlights the various parts of the human brain and how its constitution contributes to our gender differences.

Triune brain

The human brain is divided into three layers, hence the name, “triune brain”. These parts have developed with evolution and each of them has its own functions. They include, the Reptilian Complex (R-Complex), which is the part of the brain that we share with birds and reptiles. It is involved in body maintenance and controls actions like hunger, ‘fight or flight reactions, and temperature. It is the part that acts very fast such that in case one is frightened; he/she acts without thinking. The second layer is the Limbic System, whose function is to control emotions and storage of memory for later retrieval. It is also engaged in actions concerning food, sex and feelings of love. We share this brain with mammals like dogs, horses and cats. The third part is the Cortex. Cortex controls the high level of thoughts, language, and speech. It helps us to think logically and plan ahead. It enables learning to take place and hence learning environment should be secure, free from any pressure. The three parts are interconnected with each other such that the functions interplay, hence defining every person’s individuality.

Gender Differences

Some differences experienced in the two genders can be said to be attributed to the brain composition. For instance when it comes to skills like understanding directions, men seem to outperform women. This is because women rely on neocortex in working out such tasks whereas men use the hippocampus which is located in the interior of the brain. It deciphers the information regarding one’s location at that time. In women, the hippocampus is not at work at that time hence they tend to rely more on visual features like buildings.

When it comes to information dispensation men mostly rely on the higher level of thinking (cortex/language side) while women use both sides that is, the cortex and the limbic system. With the cortex being the highest level of thinking, mostly involved in problem-solving, making sound thinking and forming language, it may enlighten on why men are not as talkative, tend to work alone and are more concerned with the outcome. On the other hand, women use both sides of the brain and in this case, emotions are in action. This is why females work better when in groups, talk a lot and are more concerned with ways on how to get to a solution other than the solution itself. Women also find fun in activities like shopping while many men find it an odd job.

Another character common in women is the ability to spot and manage certain emotions, whether facial or tonal variations, and interpret them faster than men. This is because females have more callosum which is in charge of controlling feelings of anger as compared to men.

The preoptic area is a section of the brain in the hippocampus and it controls the mating processes in human beings. This section is said to be in greater quantity in men than women and that is why men are more sexually active than women.

Conclusion

The above variations in the two sexes however do not depict one gender as being superior to the other since they are there to complement each other to help both genders.