Our brain usually stores memories in a quirky way and this often results in deception. The mode of storage of the information is quite different from that of the computer. In the brain, the information is always stored in the hippocampus once received at the first time.
When a person remembers something, the brain rewrites the information and reprocesses it. During the re-storage, that information is transferred to the cerebral cortex. This often results in a person forgetting whether the information is true or false, a condition called source amnesia. This renders a person susceptible to self deception.
According to Ekman, facial expressions are universal while gestures are specific to a person’s culture. It is therefore possible to detect a person telling a lie from his/her facial expression or non-verbal gestures. It is also possible for someone under great distress to hide the real emotions so as to trick another person to give in to his/her deception.
A liar might avoid gestures; facial expressions and change in tones so as to conceal a certain truth hence avoid being caught. In most cases, the victim of the lie might ignore the clues to the lie in fear of the consequences of the lie being revealed, hence accepting to be lied to (Ekman).
In Rodriguez’s case, Ekman would have looked for non-verbal gestures which indicated that he was lying. While he was being interviewed for instance, his body twitched with emotions. The intensity of the emotions being covered resulted in Rodriguez’s leaking out his real emotions hence exposing the lie. He could not conceal the lie completely. He was trying to conceal many intense emotions and this betrayed him in the form of non-verbal gestures.
The Tiger Woods article is a clear indication that people often believe what they want to believe. Even after the allegations of promiscuity of Woods, it was difficult for people to come to terms with the fact that the much respected figure was actually having a questionable character.
Companies could not easily remove his name in their brands and his name remained in most of the billboards. It is quite clear that his tarnished name could bring a negative image to any brand or the golf industry but most people could not just heed to this. It is quite clear that even after quitting golfing, Woods would come to the limelight especially after another celebrity scandal props up.
People often pay attention to certain information while in a certain emotional state although it might be distorted or false. They tend to believe it when received as the first hand information and any additional information only upgrades the already stored information. Some take such information as the truth and any evidence to counter it is ignored.
In the case of the 9-11, most people were in emotions of pain and anguish at the time of the incidence and any information concerning the cause of the attack at that time was perceived as the truth and any efforts to counter that were not successful. The first information that is stored if often re-processed and re-stored at the cerebral cortex and a person often perceives it as the truth even if it were a lie.
The most intriguing fact is that our brains often lie to us. In some cases, the information is absolutely distorted yet held as the truth and people tend to shun the truth after yielding to such deception. People might come to know the truth but still act in deception as it is in the Tiger Woods’ case.
Works Cited
Ekman, Paul. Telling Lies; Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics and Marriage. New York: NORTON & COMPANY, 1992. Print
All people feel thirsty at one point whether they are healthy or not. The thirst sense is guarded by a negative feedback loop which links brain with all the other organs in the body. Unfortunately, in the age of 50 and above this loop gets weaker and weaker and it is very risky situation for the body. By extensive research of the complexity of the thirst instinct mechanism, scientists are trying to develop better cure for people who have lost their sense of thirst.
Many researches have confirmed that the body’s primary “thirst center” is hypothalamus and it is located in brain. Hypothalamus is the cavernous arrangement and its function is to control body temperature, hence it is functioning as the body thermostat and it performs some extra task like controlling sleep and appetite. Sensory neurons in hypothalamus continuously observe the blood’s levels of sodium. It can also receive messages from the sensors which are present in the blood which mainly controls mineral levels and blood pressure. Anytime the blood volume or pressure decreases due to factors as diarrhoea, bleeding or severe sweating, or when blood sodium increases to very high levels from consuming foods snacks or due to some diseases, the urge to drinking water is generated by the hypothalamus.
The reaction to take water due to thirst can be described to as a result of negative feedback which then stimulates the positive feedback which is the reverse. In positive feed back the strong urge to replace or create water or fluid balance forces the brain to command the necessary organs through the nervous system as hand muscles the eyes and others to respond to the thirst stimulus. Here the stimulus is the thirst instinct which gives the brain the message that the fluid levels need to be adjusted to maintain healthy metabolism, the brain then sends messages to the muscles and other organs as eyes to recognize water and generate sliding force to deliver water to the mouth. The brain also alerts the mouth muscles to accept the incoming fluid and swallow it (Halliday, 1998).
The sliding filament theory explains the function which is responsible for contacting and expanding of the muscles. It describes that wide and thin thread in the sarcomere slide with each other and this sliding decreases the length of sarcomere which merely depend on the signals transmitted by neurotransmitters. Sliding happens when myosin heads act together with fibres and actin together with ATP, bends past the actin.
Water is swallowed in the mouth (buccal or oral cavity) and goes down through the oesophagus to the stomach, then to the small intestines through the duodenum, after that it goes to the colon or large intestines, where it is absorbed into the blood vessels through the activity of the osmotic gradient. The water in the blood vessels is then taken to organs in the body; starting with the liver, heart, lungs, the heart, and then through the aorta to the kidneys where it is processed. At this point the water is in urine form; it is collected in the kidney and released into the ureter then to the gall bladder where it accumulates to be later excreted through the urethra to the outside.
Water forms the largest component of blood and acts as the medium for most of the body metabolism hence any shortage is lethal to the body operations. Water shortage will lead to poor air supply to organs, problems in digestion, insulin imbalance and many other problems that will eventually lead to death.
References
Halliday, T.(1998).The Senses and Communication (Biology: Brain and Behaviour). New York: Springer.
Brain development from the prenatal period through adolescence is an extremely significant process, the outcomes of which can have severe impacts on further experiences and behaviors of people. There are many interesting and even unbelievable aspects of brain development. For example, positive relationships between children and adults promote better brain development. This fact is interesting because not all parents pay attention to the way they treat their kids, while this is actually the most significant aspect of a child’s brain development. Trusting, encouraging, and caring attitudes from parents ensure more effective outcomes.
Another interesting aspect is that experiences before and right after birth get into people’s bodies and shape their learning capacities, mental and physical health, and behaviors. This fact is also important because some careless women do not pay attention to their behavior during pregnancy, and some parents consider early communication with their newborns insignificant. Consequently, these children’s chances to develop effectively are reduced by their mothers and fathers.
One of the most important brain developments concepts is neuroplasticity, which is the ability of experiences to impact the structure and activity of the brain. Kids’ developing brains are ready to absorb experiences, and both adverse and positive ones have severe effects. For instance, early childhood abuse can alter cognitive development, and the kid will later have weakened attention skills and memory. Another example of adverse influence is when constant exposure to stressful circumstances in the early years of life (parents’ arguments, bullying at school or in kindergarten, or inability to make even simple choices) may result in slower information processing. At the same time, supportive relationships with parents promote the brain’s ability to manage emotions and stress. Another positive influence is made by parents allowing their kids to make simple choices, which fosters their decision making.
Researchers find a lot of interesting information about neuroplasticity and say that this concept can be practically applied to furthering positive brain and behavioral outcomes. For instance, as noticed by DeMaster et al. (2019), “enriching experiences, such as optimal nutrition and highly responsive caregiving, might be leveraged as potential neuroprotective factors” supporting brain development of preterm children (p. 168). Neuroplasticity mitigates motor, language, and self-regulation deficits, so it is vital for parents to provide their children with positive experiences.
The article under analysis is called Brain-to-Brain Interface for Real-Time Sharing of Sensorimotor Information and develops a review of the experiments with a brain-to-brain interface that has allowed a transition of behavior sensor information between two rats. Specifically, the mechanism forwards a new approach to decoding and encoding brain impulses and, therefore, the system has appeared as a new paradigm that permits extracting information and controlling artificial motor intention without direct intrusion to the subject’s body.
In the article, Pais-Viera et al. (2012) have selected the BMI approach to create a new artificial communication channel between two rats. The system creates a new opportunity for transferring relevant behavior information and performing the initially established tasks. Employing the new paradigm has made it possible for animals to perform a number of tasks, which is considered the main result of the experiment. To illustrate the main principle of the mechanism, authors have presented a simple scheme according to which the device encodes information and presents to the receiver.
Transmission of cortical motor signal through the experimental apparatus is also represented clearly and accurately so that each step is described in much detail. There are also charts and diagrams representing the quantitative results in terms of microstimulation pulses and trials reflecting behavioral performance achieved by means of BTBI. Trail examples for transmission of cortical motor impulses via the device have also been introduced to gain a deeper understanding of the process.
The principle of transmitting cortical tactile data is presented in detail. According to this scheme, the encoder rate is expected to sample variables by means of facial whiskers. The width is considered “Narrow” and “Wide” as demonstrated in Photographs (Pais-Viera et al. 2012). Once variable width is sampled, the encoder rat should report on narrowness or width of the aperture. Although the principle of action is simple, the results have surpassed the expectations.
The main advantage of the article lies in the exposition of many schemes, photographs, and charts demonstrates the findings and results. Use of quantitative data is important because it serves as strong evidence to qualitative information. Additionally, the authors employ sufficient terminology and succinctly define their meaning. What is more importantly is that these definitions are delivered in mutual relation with each other. Such an approach is helpful in comprehending the main points of the article. Another advantage consists in accurate representation of the experiment that does not have analogue in related literature.
Despite the existing advantage, there are certain weaknesses. Specifically, the authors fail to describe methodology of the experiment; instead, they have paid closer attention to description of the experiment and the results. The discussion section is two broad, which prevent the audience from understanding the main points of the trial.
In conclusion, the article is of great value for biologists who strive to combine scientific inventories to explore the new behavioral paradigms. The main advantage of the article is the availability of photos, schemes, diagrams, and charts supporting qualitative data. In addition, the authors have also provided sufficient explanation for the terms presented in the research. As per disadvantage, the emphasis should be placed on the broad discussion that fails to highlight the leading directions of the experiment. In general, the article has implications for further research in the sphere of biology and scientific discoveries that relate to behavioral patterns and paradigms.
Reference
Pais-Viera, M., Lebedev, M., Kunicki, C., Wang, J., and Nicolelis, M. A. (2012). A Brain-to-Brain Interface for Real-Time Sharing of Sensorimotor Information. Scientific Reports. 3 (1319), 1-10.
Brain constitutes the central nervous system among all the animals with backbones popularly known as the vertebrates. Also, most animals with no backbone have the brain system. Animals like starfish have nervous systems which are not central at all (Armstrong 1983). This substitutes the brain functions. Surprisingly, other small animals like the sponges do not have any nervous system whereas in vertebrates the position of the brain is right in the head. It is surrounded by the skull. The sensory organs of smell, balance, taste, and hearing are also located near the brain in vertebrates.
This paper is going to describe the major structures of the brain and the functions of each. The brain structures that are going to be of importance in this discussion include Myelencephalon, Metencephalon, Mesencephalon, Diencephalon and Telencephalon.
Myelencephalon
This is a very sensitive part of the brain system located in the central nervous system. Medulla oblongata is part of Myelencephalon. In this region, the fourth ventricle plays a key role. Some nerves called glossopharyngeal work alongside the other nerves as well. For example, Armstrong observes that the accessory, vagus and hypoglossal nerves all perform sensitive roles in Myelencephalon. They all work as a unit and none of them is independent in its functioning (1983). This brain part is different from Metencephalon because it is the one that eventually grows into medulla oblongata. When this brain part is about five weeks, it regulates very important body processes such as digestion, blood vessels, and heart working. According to Pechura and Martin (1991), Myelencephalon also plays the key role of controlling the back and forward movements commonly referred to as peristalsis.
Metencephalon
This part of the brain is composed of cerebellum and the pons. Some sections of the fourth ventricle are also found here. Critical nervous systems consisting of trigeminal, facial and abducens form an integral sensory system. This part of the brain develops from the back of the brain. The pons control breathing mechanism while cerebellum mainly regulates movement of the muscles. As a result, the shape of the animal body is also co-coordinated by Metencephalon (Yusuf 1992)
Mesencephalon
This is the middle part of the entire brain structure. It is made up of corpora quadrigemina and ventricular mesocoel. The cerebral peduncles are located here as well. It is considered the backbone of the brain. The optic lobes play an auxiliary role of co-coordinating the numerous fibres found in the optic fibre (Pechuura & Martin 1992). Colliculus, for instance is responsible for eye movements and interpreting any information related to sound.
Diencephalons
This refers to the front part of the brain and it includes thalamus, epithalamus, prethalamus, pretectum, hypothalamus, and subthalamus (Yusuf 1992). Hypothalamus regulates visceral actions in the brain alongside the nervous system.
Telencephalon
This part plays the following key roles which include determining character and mental ability, interpreting senses, regulating the sense of touch and sense among other similar roles. Telencephalon is within the front part of the brain.
Conclusion
The brain is the central nervous system and has a complicated structure with equally complicated roles. All the vertebrates have the brain as the centre of coordination of all body activities that are related to sense. Body balance and posture as well as eye movements are some of the unique functions of the brain.
References
Armstrong, E (1983). “Relative brain size and metabolism in mammals.” Science 220 (4603):1302–4.
Pechura M. C. and Martin J.B. (Eds.). (1991). Mapping the Brain and its Functions. Integrating Enabling Technologies into Neuroscience Research. National Academy Press, Washington D.C
Yusuf H.K.M (1992). Understanding the Brain and its Development. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a method that quantifies brain activity through the measurement of blood flow and amount of oxygen in the blood (Mohamed et al. 3). Extremely powerful radio waves change the atomic positions in the body and aid in obtaining images from the areas where these changes are taking place. These waves reflect a signal that is interpreted to reveal the tissue composition (the anatomy of the brain or the activity of the brain in the form of blood flow). MRI provides motionless pictures of anatomical organization of internal body parts such as the brain using computers (Alac & Hutchins 629). Brain mapping entails the identification of brain regions involved in responses to external stimuli (Varoquaux, Gramfort & Thirion 1). Brain mapping is actually carrying out a functional localizer, which is the concentration of tasks to specific regions of the brain (Friston et al. 8). In a brain MRI scanning session, hydrogen ions in the tissues of the brain release indicators that are recognized by a computer (Alac & Hutchins 631). These signals get into the computer in the form of numerical data that the computer changes into brain images. Therefore, fMRI images reveal the level of activity in different regions of the brain (Daimiwal, Sundhararajan, & Shriram 1). Images obtained while a subject is carrying out a given cognitive task can show the parts of the brain that are most active in that particular task. Using various colors on the images shows how the dissemination of activity in the brain varies with time (Alac & Hutchins 631). This technique is used in a variety of ways to establish maps of active processes in the brain such as lying or telling the truth (Alac & Hutchins 632).
Some lie detection techniques use non-verbal cues, for example, perspiration, facial expressions, respiration, and body movements to recognize dishonesty (Mohamed et al. 1). These methods have their disadvantages that necessitate the development of more advanced techniques such as the infrared thermal imaging and the standard polymorph. However, a polygraph also has its drawbacks. For example, it solely relies on quantifying responses of the sympathetic nervous system, a parameter that is not unique to lying and occurs during other emotional states such as exhilaration, remorse and annoyance (Mohamed et al. 2). This paper looks at the various applications of fMRI.
Applications of fMRI for Brain Mapping
Functional MRI is one of the techniques that spot regions of the brain associated with some motor and sensory tasks. Blood Oxygenation Level-Dependent contrast (BOLD) is the most prevalent fMRI technique that captures functional images of the brain. The neural brain activity due to motor or sensory tasks causes localized alterations in the flow of blood. Therefore, the resultant levels of oxygenation are subject to disparities (Daimiwal, Sundhararajan, & Shriram 1). Performance of tasks by areas of the brains increases the neuronal as well as the consumption of oxygen and glucose. Consequently, the hemodynamic and metabolic alterations that arise influence the oxygen content of the tissues that are easily detected by the MRI scanner (1). Brain mapping needs a speedy 2-dimensional imaging such as echo-planar imaging. The desired information is obtained from a series of images showing the oxygenation changes with time. Therefore, in fMRI a single experiment has several images recorded during various time intervals. Images obtained as the subject is carrying out a task (the ‘on’ state or activation state) are compared with images when the subject is not performing the task (‘off’ state or base line state) (Daimiwal, Sundhararajan, & Shriram 2). The variation between the strength of the images in the activation state and the baseline state gives the resultant signal. Activation maps, which show sections of the brain accountable for given tasks, are found from statistical tests of the means of the images.
Processing the signals obtained from fMRI involves several methods such as the “temporal spatial and spectral spatial representation” that makes use of frequency domain and time information (Daimiwal, Sundhararajan, & Shriram 3). The research gives a model by Friston et al. that describes a linear model for the hemodynamic response in fMRI time series (Daimiwal, Sundhararajan, and Shriram 3). The drawback of this model, however, is determining the hemodynamic response function that works together with the convolution of the stimulus function to give the activation signal (3). Worsley and Friston solve this problem by providing a statistical parametric mapping (SPM) that uses a generalized linear model operating at each voxel (Daimiwal, Sundhararajan, & Shriram 3). The linear model of the equation is “x=βG+e where ‘x’ is the unsmoothed time series and ‘e’ is the error vector whose components are independent and normally distributed with zero mean and variance 1” (Daimiwal, Sundhararajan, & Shriram 3). Using a Gaussian filter and GLM to sift and iron the data enables the fitting of the processed data into the voxel and the computation of the parameter β. The process then uses a t-statistic is to sense the considerably activated pixels (3).
Functional MRI has several clinical applications because it is a noninvasive technique that can be performed repeatedly. These applications include the assessment of the brain’s anatomy, checking the progress of brain tumors, guiding the planning of surgical treatments of the brain, and evaluating the consequences of stroke, trauma or degenerative illnesses on the functions of the brain (Daimiwal, Sundhararajan, & Shriram 4). In addition, fMRI helps establish the regions of the brain responsible for handling crucial functions such as speech, thought, movement, and feeling, a process known as brain mapping (Daimiwal, Sundhararajan, & Shriram 1).
The Use of fMRI in Brain Mapping of an Ecologically Valid Situation
The researchers in this study utilize BOLD contrast to reveal implicit rejoinders that are strongly linked to the action of the neurons (Mohamed et al. 1). This system facilitates the precise recording of brain sections that take part in superior cortical functions such as dishonesty and telling the truth (Mohamed et al. 2). A number of fMRI imaging studies reveal that activated sections of the brain during judgement and management of information are “the parietal lobes, prefrontal cortices, and anterior cingulated” (Mohamed et al. 3). The use of control question technique (CQT) and the widely accepted polymorph method reveals poor correlation between signals obtained from BOLD and the test scores of the polymorph. This study uses a tailored polygraph as a positive control and equates the findings to standard computerized polygraph dimensions using the Integrated Zone Comparison Technique (Mohamed et al. 4).
The researchers develop a working neurological mode of deception to guide their work. This model caters for data concentrating on the neural constituents of cheating, neural substrates associated with reward circuitry, and inhibition processes (Mohamed et al. 4). This model also depicts the sequences of proceedings involved in normal polygraph tests. The first step in giving a fib or an honest reply starts with hearing the question, comprehending it and then remembering an occurrence or a fact that connects to the question. Seeing or hearing the question stimulates the matching visual or auditory cortex. Receptive language comprehension links to initiation in Wernicke’s area, which comprises parts of “the superior temporal gyrus and the dominant angular cortex” (Mohamed et al. 5). The brain region that relates to feelings such as fear and anxiety is the amygdala, which is stimulated whenever an individual remembers events relating to anxiety. It is possible for the test subjects to recall events relating to anxiety and provide truthful responses. Therefore, the activation of the amygdala is not a deceiving or inhibition state of affairs, and a misinterpretation of this usually gives a wrong positive in the polygraph measurement (Mohamed et al. 5).
The subject strategizes a rejoinder that is in harmony with reality or falsehood after recollecting relevant occurrences. While planning a false response, an extra region of the brain is assembled to provide this response. A distinct activation of the same area can also produce a lie. Inhibition or hiding of the truth is the major facet of the construction that fMRI tries to uncover. Several studies come to the agreement that the prefrontal cortex area plans deceptive responses and covers up the truth. It is shown from fMRI studies that the anterior cingulate cortex and sections of the right hemisphere are triggered during lying, and that motor response is the final constituent of giving a true or false statement. The motor system situated in the frontal lobe gives this rejoinder.
This study explores the sections of brain instigation during lying and telling the truth using BOLD fMRI at 1.5 Tesla and a real-life situation (Mohamed et al. 6). It uses 11 subjects of an average age of 28.9 years. Random fMRI and polygraph tests are done using two situations. One scenario entails telling a lie about a gunshot incident (6 subjects), whereas the second scenario involves telling the truth about the same incident (5 subjects). Interviews and polygraph tests are carried out on all subjects, and the signals are recorded and analyzed. The first session, a lie only condition (LOC), establishes brain activity during lying and the second session (truth only condition-TOC) determines brain activity during truth telling. The obtained images are processed and analyzed then the two sessions are compared revealing that there are disparities between brain activation in lying and saying the truth (Mohamed et al. 11).
Polygraph scores reveal total correlation in the GS category (six subjects), whereas in the NGS (five subjects) category varying results are obtained giving accuracy of between 60 and 80 percent. Four out of the five subjects are correctly identified as truthful. Fourteen brain regions are found active during lying, whereas seven sections are identified as active when telling the truth.
The results of this study show that there are exclusive areas of brain function that can separate lying and telling the truth and that these two processes have distinct as well as overlapping regions.
Understanding fMRI Brain Images and Making Sense out Of Them
Carrying out scientific research entails many forms of cognitive processes such as classification, “reasoning, problem solving, and analogy formation” (Alac & Hutchins 629). The researchers tackle cognitive processes ensuing when scientists interrelate and show that these interactions are, in addition, cognitive processes. They direct their focus on the interpretation fMRI images to allow them comprehend the cognitive process of interpreting fMRI maps.
Alac and Hutchins combine participant observation with the microanalysis of given occurrences (632). The detailed microanalysis reveals the cognitive aspects of the observed practice (Alac & Hutchins 632). The ethnographic exploration involves recording the activities of various scientists in three laboratories. Fifteen subjects participate in the investigation for about nine months. Video recording, document analysis, direct observations, and semi-structured interviews are the data collection techniques that the study uses (Alac & Hutchins 632). A microanalysis on digital video recordings of scientific procedures reveals how scientists make meaning of complex fMRI images. These footages reveal synchronized demonstrations that help in interpreting the images.
The investigation of the visual brain areas involves six scientists in a laboratory. They realize that the overall orientation of visual sites across individuals is uniform and that the retinotopically planned visual areas are carbon copies of the retinal arrangement (Alac & Hutchins 634). In addition, they find out that the eye’s ocular characteristics propel stimuli, which are positioned next to visual zones in the adjoining retinal position. It is also seen that all visual information reaches the cortex of the brain through the primary visual area (VI) situated in the posterior occipital lobe of each hemisphere. The study analyzes five excerpts obtained from the interaction between an expert and a learner. The two participants sit before a computer with a brain image and discuss various sections of the brain. A phase map on the computer screen helps define early visual areas. The expanding ring stimulus reveals how visual stimuli trigger responses of the neurons. The expert makes a chart, which she uses as a collective architecture for seeing. The expert reveals that the chart is her own way of understanding retinotopic mapping. She further says that making the chart makes her understand verbal instructions and that she frequently uses the chart to teach other people. While explaining the retinotopic map and identifying its center, the expert points to the probable location of the fovea of the brain image even though she is not sure of the exact location (Alac & Hutchins 647). This implies that understanding an unknown concept entails transcribing the known to the unknown (647). The rotating wedge phase map helps to sketch boundaries amid the visual areas.
The study also finds out that linguistic expressions together with gestures are employed with the phase map and that language and gestures describe what does not exist in the brain. While explaining an unknown phenomenon, an individual can supplement the unknown information with dynamic and fictitious information. These elements are of utmost significance in the implementation of cognitive tasks.
Brain Mapping Psychological Processes Using Psychometric Scales
Linking brain activity to psychological processes is a significant aspect in social sciences. Previous studies involving fMRI use multiple stimuli to provoke activation in areas of the brain areas that are consistent to psychological processes, but the connection between psychosomatic practices and their equivalent neural correlates is vague (Dimoka 1). A clear connection enables social scientists to comprehend the “underlying brain functionality of psychological processes to advance their neurological understanding of these processes” (Dimoka 1). Such information is also valuable to neurologists in building detailed functional maps of the human brain.
The study conducts two fMRI tests to examine a proposed brain mapping technique with four psychological processes with “well-established self-reported psychometric scales” (Dimoka 2). The initial experiment involves trust and mistrust, whose neural correlates are known. The second study, on the other hand, uses two psychological processes with unknown neural correlates (perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness). The first experiment aims to certify the neural correlates of the published literature, whereas the second study seeks to test the method using parameters with unknown neural correlates. The first set uses 15 right-handed subjects and exposes them to a three Tesla Siemens fMRI scanner continuously. Statistical data analysis uses the general linear model in SPM5 to check the contrast based on BOLD. The second experiment utilizes a different set of 15 subjects and exposes them to fMRI scanning as they view two websites and compare their perceived usefulness and ease of use.
The study observes that the high trust seller in the first test stimulates significant activation in the caudate nucleus, putamen, and anterior paracingulate (Dimoka 4). The putamen and caudate nucleus are the brain’s ‘reward’ centers that are frequently associated with trust (Dimoka 4). The anterior paracingulate captures when an individual acts cooperatively and is associated with social inferences. The orbitofrontal cortex, an area that computes uncertainty is stimulated in distrust. The bilateral amygdala and bilateral insular cortex are also activated in distrust. All these values are consistent with those in the literature. In the second experiment, ease of website use stimulates the anterior cingulated cortex and caudate nucleus. Low usefulness, on the other hand, stimulates the activation of the insular cortex, which is associated with the fear of loss. These findings show that perceived usefulness relates to prospects of good results from using the technology, and this is why apparent usefulness corresponds to the reward area in the brain (Dimoka 5). Conversely, a badly planned technology is linked to a low degree of supposed usefulness. This is mapped onto the brain as a possibility of loss from using that technology.
The Use of fMRI in Detecting Decision-Making Impairment
The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) is an extremely sensitive test for the recognition of decision-making impairment in a number of neurologic and psychiatric conditions (Li, Lu, D’Argembeau, Ng, & Bechara 410). Neurological patients often have brain damage in areas such as the mesial orbitofrontal and the bilateral amygdala. They often get poor IGT results. Damage to the parietal cortex also causes poor IGT performance. IGT performances categorize a number of psychopathological conditions such as pathological gambling, substance addiction, obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, anorexia nervosa, chronic pain, attention deficit among many others (Li et al. 411).
The study uses right-handed participants with a mean age of 23.1 years to investigate brain activity during an IGT session. The original version of IGT decks (ABCD) is used together with three additional decks (KLMN, EFGH, and IJOP). The subjects are asked to choose a card from each of the decks as the computer program traces the sequence of the selected cards. Selecting a card is associated with a loss or gain that the computer screen displays every time the participant chooses a card. The subjects have at most four seconds to decide and failure to choose a card within the stipulated time results in an automatic, random selection of a card by the computer. The subjects use four buttons of a fMRI-compatible box instead of the computer mouse to select the decks (Li et al. 414). The study uses a regression analysis to test the obtained data for reward and risk processing and errors in prediction.
The net score of each block of cards is determined by getting the difference between the total advantageous decks and the total disadvantageous decks. Consequently, subjects with scores below zero are considered to make disadvantageous selections, whereas those with scores above zero are seen to make advantageous selections. These scores enable the categorization of the participants into learners (scores below zero) and non-learners (scores above zero). The researchers hypothesize that the possible reason for the low scores in the learners is that they have immature prefrontal cortex. The fMRI results from the three decks give similar results of the brain-activated regions showing that it is possible to localize activation using one version of the IGT (Li et al. 417).
Conclusion
The use of fMRI in brain mapping plays a significant role in various disciplines such as the medical field, psychological field, education field, and law enforcement (truth and lie detection). Different experiments by various researchers reveal that similar areas of the brain are responsible for performing particular tasks. Therefore, this paper concludes that fMRI is a reliable tool in determining the regions of the brain that are responsible for cognitive tasks.
Works Cited
Alac, Morana and Edwin Hutchins. “I See What You Are Saying: Action as Cognition in fMRI Brain Mapping Practice.” Journal of Cognition and Culture. 4.3 (2004): 629-661. Print.
Daimiwal, Nivedita, Sundhararajan M., and Revati Shriram. “Applications of fMRI for Brain Mapping.” International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security, 10.11(2012): 1-5. Print.
Dimoka, Angelika. “Brain Mapping of Psychological Processes with Psychometric Scales: An fMRI Method for Social Neuroscience.” NeuroImage (2010).
Friston, J. Karl, Pia Rotshtein, Joy J. Geng, Philipp Sterzer, and Rik N. Henson. “A Critique of Functional Localizers.” Foundational Issues in Human Brain Mapping. Eds. Stephen Jose´ Hanson and Martin Bunzl. Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2010. 3-24. Print.
Li, Xiangrui, Lu Zhong-Lin, Arnaud D’Argembeau, Marie Ng, and Antoine Bechara. “The Iowa Gambling Task in fMRI Images.” Human Brain Mapping. 31.2010 (2010):410-423. Print.
Mohamed, B. Feroze, Faro H. Scott, Nathan J. Gordon, Steven M. Platek, Harris Ahmad and Williams, J. Michael n.d., Brain Mapping of Deception and Truth Telling about an Ecologically Valid Situation: An fMRI and Polygraph Investigation. Web.
The paper by Byne et al. (2001) has more convincing data on the relationship between the anatomy of the brain and an individual’s sexual orientation than that of LeVay (1991) due to several reasons. First, Byne’s study recruited a larger sample size than that of LeVay, meaning that the findings are more credible and representative of the population. Second, the paper by Byne et al. (2001) not only studied the volume of the various interstitial nuclei of the human anterior hypothalamus (INAH 1 to INAH 4), but also focused on investigating if the cell number in the various nuclei has an active role to play in influencing the sexual orientation in humans. Third, although the study by Byne et al. (2001) reinforced LeVay’s findings that INAH 3 is sexually dimorphic by virtue of having a large volume in heterosexual men than heterosexual women and homosexual men, their findings are more convincing due to the interest taken by the researchers to compare them against other research studies on the topic. Lastly, the paper by Byne et al. (2001) has more convincing data based on the extensive elucidation of how statistical analyses were conducted to reach the conclusions made.
Personal Perspective
Drawing from the articles by Byne et al. (2001) and LeVay (1991), it is justifiable to say that brain anatomy plays a significant role in influencing the sexual orientation of an individual. Although the two studies have several limitations that may influence the findings, it is clear that the volume of INAH 3 is large in straight men than it is in straight women and homosexual men. This nucleus is found in the hypothalamus, which produces many of the body’s vital hormones that are responsible for controlling diverse cells and organs. Owing to the fact that the hormones produced by the hypothalamus preside over a multiplicity of physiologic functions including sex drive, it is possible to use the noted volume/size differences in INAH 3 to explain variations in sexual orientation. The rationale for believing in this perspective is based on the fact that both studies found significant differences in the volume of INAH 3 among straight men and homosexual men, implying that the large volume of INAH 3 and its capacity to carry more neurons could be responsible for influencing sexual orientation in humans (Byne et al., 2001). However, more research studies need to be done to determine how this section of the brain behaves when a person is sexually aroused to determine if INAH 3 is responsible for sexual orientation.
Proposed Experiment
Since comprehensive brain scans are possible using contemporary technology, the experiment can be set around investigating how the INAH nuclei in the human hypothalamus react upon exposure to sexually implicit content. The experiment can recruit heterosexual men, heterosexual women and homosexual men, who are then divided into experimental and control groups. Brain scans are then conducted prior to the experiment, after which the different sets of the control group (homosexual men, heterosexual women and heterosexual men) are exposed to sexually implicit material such as adult movies (gay movies for homosexual men and heterosexual sex movies for straight men and women) in their normal environments to control for factors such as fear and anxiety. Routine scans of the brain are taken after each exposure for a period of six months. Participants in the control group are exposed to general movies and measures taken after each exposure. The brain scan measures are then analyzed and compared to note how the hypothalamus and the various nuclei behaved after each sexual exposure. Although such a study is unethical, its findings could be used to determine if brain anatomy is responsible for influencing an individual’s sexual orientation.
References
Byne, W., Tobet, S., Mattiace, L.A., Lasco, M.S., Kemether, E., Edgar, M.A.,…Jones, L.B. (2001). The interstitial nuclei of the human anterior hypothalamus: An investigation of variation with sex, sexual orientation, and HIV status. Hormones and Behavior, 40(2), 86-92.
LeVay, S. (1991). A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men. Science, 253(5023), pp. 1034-1037.
The role of the brain when reading comprehension is mainly; responsible for attention. When one is reading comprehension, attention is needed, the brain captures the attention of the reader ensures that the reader’s mind is concentrated on reading and not any other activities in the surrounding. Planning is also necessary while reading comprehension, the brain is responsible to plan on which style one needs to adopt while reading. Abstract reasoning is done by the brain, one needs to reason or think as per the comprehension and to understand what the comprehension is all about. The brain also predicts what will happen next when one is reading comprehension. A reader may be in a position to tell how a comprehension will end or what will happen to different characters while reading. The brain also provides a long-term storage memory where a reader may be in a position to recall the events that have taken place in the comprehension and the right order.
It begins with the visual recognition of letters and continues from phonological processing and higher-level processing from content comprehension. Helps a reader to integrate comprehension, and can tell why certain events are occurring and in their correct order. Eye movement is controlled by the brain, the reader can move their eyes in the right order without omitting most words. Emotions are also controlled by the brain; a reader can express the feelings they have towards a line or paragraph making them understand the comprehension and enjoy reading it.
Different parts of the brain perform different functions; the temporal lobe is responsible for phonological awareness and decoding or discriminating sounds. This provides a reader with a means to access the written form, sounds, and letter combinations to represent words. One who has difficulty in phoneme awareness and skills may be poor in spelling and reading development. The frontal lobe handles speech production and also enables one to be able to read fluently to bring about a good flow while reading comprehension. It is responsible for understanding simple and complex grammar in the reader’s native language. It is the part responsible for memory, emotions, impulse control, problem-solving, social interaction, and motor function. The other part is the angular and supramarginal gyrus which executes the main action of reading. It connects each letter while reading a comprehension forming a word, a sentence then a paragraph for understanding and flow of the words.
A child may be taught to comprehend what they are reading through; helping them make connections with what they already know to what they are reading. With this, they become focused and concentrative with the comprehension. Talking about certain memories that a child has ever encountered when you come across a similar one in the comprehension is a major way to help a child connect and thus understand the comprehension. Asking questions to a child encourages the kid since they find the answers in the comprehension. This sparks curiosity and eagerness to know or think about what will happen next or to express the feelings of the character. Visualizing a child also helps to bring a story to life. Describe how a scene looks like in one’s mind and explain one’s feelings about it. Do this together with the child and point out the difference between the two scenarios.
Combining what you and the child already know with some events in the story may help the child make some predictions and guesses. Relating a character’s dressing code to something that they might be doing also helps a child in understanding. One may also figure out what’s important in the comprehension. Ask the child to mention the main characters, important events in the comprehension, problems being solved by the characters, and other minor events. This brings a child to a clear understanding of the comprehension and may relate to real-life situations. One may also check the understanding of the child by checking the parts that might be confusing the child. Ask the child to reread a part that is confusing and specific words that might trip the child up. Helping them know more about the world so that they can get meaning out of what they read. Expand a kid’s background knowledge and vocabulary by asking them to find out the meaning of certain words from the comprehension.
We may ensure that children comprehend word and the world through; advancing children’s vocabulary. Researching different vocabulary through exposure to the world in different contexts. Wide vocabulary and broad knowledge indeed go hand in hand since a child may find different vocabularies relating to comprehension in the real world. Practicing different strategies that a child finds in comprehension teaches children to understand that just like a person, a text is trying to communicate something. Encouraging optimal vocabulary growth in preschools and kindergarten also brings about intelligent remediation. Early learning of words and things in the world helps a Child to overcome early disadvantage. Helps one to be familiar with different vocabulary while reading. Referring to certain words not only verbal helps a child to know the connotations of the word to the actual objects that unify the word’s real traits.
Generally, those who have not had the opportunity to take this course, may take their time to read the above article. They get to understand the role of the brain in reading comprehension, how the brain plans, strategizes, brings about emotions, acts a long-term memory, and also recalls vocabulary. Asking questions, combining the comprehension with what the child knows, asking children to try out new things and others that have been discussed above. Also, they should ensure children comprehend words and the world by familiarizing words with real-world situations.
References
Elleman, A. M., & Oslund, E. L. (2019). Reading comprehension research: Implications for practice and policy. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6(1), 3–11.
Nation, K. (2019). Children’s reading difficulties, language, and reflections on the simple view of reading. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 24(1), 47–73.
Patael, S. Z., Farris, E. A., Black, J. M., Hancock, R., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Cutting, L. E., & Hoeft, F. (2018). Brain basis of cognitive resilience: Prefrontal cortex predicts better reading comprehension in relation to decoding. PloS One, 13(6), e0198791.
Spear-Swerling, L. (2016). Common types of reading problems and how to help children who have them. The Reading Teacher, 69(5), 513–522.
Spencer, M., & Wagner, R. K. (2018a). The comprehension problems of children with poor reading comprehension despite adequate decoding: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 88(3), 366–400.
Spencer, M., & Wagner, R. K. (2018b). The comprehension problems of children with poor reading comprehension despite adequate decoding: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 88(3), 366–400.
The study of the constituents of the brain is the same as finding one’s way around an unknown city. Generally, one needs a system of bearings and its main divisions. Ones one has acquired this information, he/she can converse the general position of any destination with ease. To be acquainted with the fact that the human brain has 5 divisions, it is essential to comprehend its premature development. In the embryos of vertebrates, the tissues which in time develop into the CNS are known as fluid-filled tubes. The initial signs of brains development are 3 swellings that crop up at the frontal part of this tube. They finally grow to form the fore, mid and hindbrain. “Before birth, the initial swellings become five. This is because the forebrain and the hindbrains grow into two different swellings. The five swellings are the Telencephalon, the Diencephalon, the Mesencephalon, the Metencephalon, and the Myelencephalon” (Pinel, 2007). These are the ultimate divisions of the human brain. This paper will therefore focus on the human brain, its divisions and its functionality.
The CNS (Central Nervous System) is constituted into the spinal cord and the brain. The brain is the section of the CNS found within the skull. “It is commonly divided into five main parts, listed here in the order from the lowest. They are the Medulla Oblongata (Myelencephalon), Pons and Cerebellum (Metencephalon), Midbrain (Mesencephalon), Thalamus and Hypothalamus (Diencephalon) and Cerebral Hemispheres (Telencephalon)” (Seymour, 2000).
The brain of a human being is in the center of the nervous system. Surrounded by the cranium, the human brain has an identical structure as that of other animals. The major difference is that it is more than 3 times larger than the brains of typical mammals with the same body size. Most of the extension is in the cerebral cortex, this is a complex layer of neural tissues covering the exterior part of the forebrain. In particular, the frontal lobes are extended; these are connected to the executive functioning such as self-control, scheduling, and way of thinking, interpretation, and conceptual thought. The brain segment that is devoted to visualization is also significantly broadened in human beings (Johansons, 2006).
The human-brain checks and controls the body’s actions and responses. It constantly gets sensory data and does a rapid analysis on this information, and then acts in response, managing bodily actions, responses and functionality. The brainstem manages breathing, heart rate, and additional autonomic courses of action that are autonomous of the conscious brain functionality. As shown by Murre & Sturdy (2005), “the neocortex is the center of higher-order thinking, learning, and memory, while the cerebellum is responsible for the body’s balance, posture, and coordination of movement”.
The Medulla (Myelencephalon) is the brain structure/division that is most posterior. It is made up of strips ferrying signals linking the body to the brain. The reticular formation is the most interesting fraction of this structure. The reticular formation is a multifaceted system of more than 100 miniature nuclei that takes up the mid of the brain-stem as of the posterior edge of this structure to the frontal edge of the mid-brain. It has a mesh-like formation, the nuclei of this part are responsible for a variety of functionality, these include sleeping, concentration, motion, muscle-tone safeguarding, and a variety of cardiac, circulatory and respiration responses. Injury to this part of the Myelencephalon is considered to be life-threatening. In general, the Myelencephalon does not play a significant function in verbal communication or comprehension.
The Pons and Cerebellum (Metencephalon) similar to the Myelencephalon, accommodates numerous ascending and descending strips and a fraction of the reticular formation. It forms a protuberance known as Pons situated on the brainstem’s ventral surface. This is a key division of this structure while the other is the Cerebellum. The latter is a big, complex part on top of the brain-stem’s dorsal part. This is a vital sensor-motor division, cerebella injury gets rid of the aptitude to accurately manage a person’s motion while adapting them to altering conditions. This part has extra neurons and is generally responsible for motor coordination (Thompson, 2000).
On its part, the midbrain (Mesencephalon) is divided into 2 (Tectum and Teqmentum). “The Tectum is the dorsal surface of the midbrain” (Pinel, 2007). In animals, this part is made up of 2 duo bumps. The posterior (inferior colliculi), has an acoustic functionality; the frontal pair (superior colliculi) has visualization functionality.
The tegmentum, on the other hand, is the partition of the midbrain ventral to the tectum. “In addition to the reticular formation and tracts of passage, the tegmentum contains three colorful structures that are of particular interest to biopsychologists: the periaqueductal gray, the substantia nigra, and the red nucleus” (Pinel, 2007). The first structure is a grayish matter found in the cerebral-aqueduct. This is a duct linking the 3rd and 4th ventricles. This part has the function of arbitrating the pain reduction outcomes of opiate drugs. The substantia-nigra and red-nucleus are all vital constituents of the sensorimotor system.
Thalamus and Hypothalamus (Diencephalon) are double structured. The Thalamus is a big, two-lobed formation constituting the upper part of the brainstem. The lobes are situated on all sides of the 3rd ventricle. These lobes are joined together by Massa-intermedia that run in the ventricle. This part has numerous nuclei pairs that are mostly projected to the cortex. Some of these are sensory relaying which get signals from sensory-receptors, process them, and finally, send them out to the correct areas in the sensory cortex. Therefore, this part is responsible for the sensory system that relays senses to the audio and visual organisms. This is also responsible for our general attention.
The hypothalamus, on the other hand, is situated under the anterior thalamus. Its function is to regulate a number of motivated behaviors. It applies its functionality partly by regulating hormone release in the pituitary glands. The pituitary gland hangs from it on the ventral surface.
Apart from this gland, there is 2 other formation on the hypothalamus. These are the “optic chiasm and the mammillary bodies. The optic chiasm is the point at which the optic nerves from each eye come together. The mammillary bodies (pair of spherical nuclei) are located on the inferior surface of the hypothalamus behind the pituitary” (Pinel, 2007).
The Cerebral Hemispheres (Telencephalon), is the biggest part of the brain. This part arbitrates its most intricate functions. This division instigates voluntary motion, reads sensory input while arbitrating complicated cognitive developments such as studying, talking and problem resolving.
“Of the other subcortical and interior portions of the Telencephalon, the basal ganglia, which partially surround the diencephalon, participate in motor functions, including articulation of speech” (Pinel, 2007). The hippocampus and the amygdaloid nucleus, found inside the cortex’s lower parts, are very vital in expressing emotions.
The cortex is what is seen in many brain pictures. This is illustrated by the many grooves found on it. The many folds of this part are for the sole reason of making use of the small part in the skull the most. These grooves are referred to as the Sulcus. This is one of the parts dividing the cortex into its major partitions. The cortex is further divided into 4 lobes which are “the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes” (Pinel, 2007). These are what constitute the Telencephalon.
All divisions/structures of the human brain work together monitoring and regulating one’s bodily actions and responses. The human brain forever gets sensory data that it quickly analyzes after which it reacts, and in the process manages the body’s actions and functionality.
References
Johansons, D.C. (2006). The Brain. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Murre, JM., Sturdy, DP. (2005). “The connectivity of the brain: multi-level quantitative analysis”. Biological cybernetics, 73 (6), 529–45.
Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Seymour, R. (2000). Language and Brain: Neurocognitive Linguistics. Houston: Rice University Press.
Thompson, R. (2000). The Brain: An Introduction to Neuroscience. Worth Publishers.
The brain is an extremely fundamental organ in all vertebrates and most invertebrates. It is considered to be the most complex organ of the human body. The brain is responsible for coordination of the qualities that define humanity. It for example deals with matters of intelligence, interpretation of the senses, facilitation of body movement as well as controlling human behavior. The brain plays a great role in giving meaning to things that happen around us through its various fundamental functions. Through the five senses (smell, touch, sight, taste and hearing), the brain receives messages that direct our behavior and actions. The messages could also be stored in the memory for use in future (Bell 12). As an organized structure, the brain is divided into different parts each serving significant function(s). This piece of work gives a critical analysis of the anatomy of the brain.
The Brain Anatomy
The anatomy of the brain is a complex concept that is difficult to understand. This is more so due to its complicated structure and function. It acts as a center in which controlled activities are carried out. This is mainly achieved through the processes of receiving, interpretation, and directing of sensory information in the whole body.
The brain is divided into diverse parts that are charged with different significant functions. The individual functions are combined in a systematic manner to bring about an absolute success in the functioning of the brain as a whole. Some of the basic parts of the brain include the cerebral cortex lobes namely; the temporal lobes, the frontal lobes, the occipital lobes, the parietal lobes, the prefrontal cortex, and the limbic system. The brain could also be divided into three major parts namely; the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.
The Frontal Lobes
The frontal lobes are responsible for body processes such as planning, movement, problem solving, and decision making among others. The frontal lobes are divided into three main parts include, the premotor area, the motor area, and the prefrontal cortex. The general functions of the frontal lobes include; reasoning, memory, motor functioning, planning, and judgment as well as impulse control (Mercier, Kitasako and Hatton 170).
The Prefrontal Cortex System
This is considered to be the most evolved brain system. It is the core part of the frontal lobes of the brain. It plans intricate cognitive behaviors, decision making, personality expression as well as shaping social behavior. Other functions involve impulse control, judgment, critical and forward thinking, allowing one to learn from experience and mistakes, perseverance, and problem solving among others. It works interdependently with the other parts of the brain.
Some of the problems associated with the prefrontal cortex include short attention span, impulse control problems, misperceptions, social and test anxiety, inability to persevere, procrastination, poor judgment, short term memory problems, hyperactivity, difficulty in learning from experience, and chronic lateness among others.
The premotor and motor areas on the other hand play a great role in the control of execution of voluntary and involuntary muscle movement. This is made possible due to the presence of nerves. While the motor is in charge of making movements, the premotor is responsible for selecting movements, coordinating the motor sequences as well as choosing managing behavior (Mercier, Kitasako and Hatton 183).
The Temporal Lobes
The temporal lobes form a critical part of the cerebral cortex. Structures associated with the limbic system are contained in the temporal lobes. They include the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the olfactory cortex. These lobes are involved with functions such as speech and language coordination, visual perception, memory management, auditory perception, and emotional responses (Mercier, Kitasako and Hatton 173).
The Occipital Lobes
These lobes are located at the back part of the cerebral cortex. They are mainly involved with visual processing in conjunction with the posterior segments of the temporal lobes and parietal lobes. This function is made possible due to the presence of the primary visual cortex within the occipital lobes. It is responsible for the reception of visual input from the retina after which the occipital lobes interpret the visual signals to provide meaning. The major functions of the occipital lobes are color recognition and visual perception (Willis 74).
The Parietal Lobes
The parietal lobes are subdivided into the anterior parietal lobe, the superior parietal lobe, and the inferior parietal lobe. The parietal lobes are responsible for the following functions in the body; Information processing, pain and touch sensation, cognition, visual perception, speech, and spatial orientation, visual guidance of different parts of the body for instance the hands, eyes and head, directing movement in space, distinguishing left from right and detecting and respondingto stimuli in space (Bell 36).
The Limbic System
The limbic system is an extremely crucial part of the brain. Some of the functions executed by the limbic system include setting the emotional tone of the mind, modulating motivation, processing the sense of smell, storage of highly charged emotional memories, enhancing bonding among individuals, modulating libido, coordinating sleep cycles and appetite as well as emotional coloring. Some of the structures that enable the above named functions include the amyqdala, the hippocampus, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, fornix, cingulate Gyrus, and the olfactory cortex.
Amyqdala is responsible for processing reflexive emotions such as fear, memory and learning while Hippocampus assists in formation of long-term memories. Fornix joins the hippocampus to other parts of the limbic system while the Thalamus acts as a relay station between the cortex and the senses. The Hypothalamus is responsible for directing various functions, for example, hunger and temperature. Cinqulate Gyrus on the other hand processes conscious emotional experience. The Olfactory cortex is involved with recognition of odors through synthesis of the sensory information it receives from the olfactory bulb (Mercier, Kitasako and Hatton 174).
The brain could also be discussed in terms of the major subdivisions; the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain. These subdivisions play different roles, which when combined make the brain a successful and efficient organ (Bell 42).
The Forebrain
The forebrain plays major fundamental roles in the body. Some of them include reception and processing of sensory information, thinking and perception, coordination of language and the control of the motor system. The forebrain is divided into the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The telencephalon contains the cerebrum from which major information processing takes place; at the cerebral cortex. The diencephalon on the other hand carries out functions such as transmission of sensory information and motor control. This is made possible through structures such as hypothalamus and thalamus (Willis 22).
The Midbrain
The brainstem is made up of a combination of the midbrain and the hindbrain. The midbrain entails the part of the brainstem that joins the forebrain and the hindbrain. The major functions of the midbrain involve motor function, visual response, and auditory response (Mercier, Kitasako and Hatton 186).
The Hindbrain
The hindbrain is also a crucial component of the brain. It comprises of the mycencephalon and mentencephalon. Mycencephalon contains a crucial part, medulla oblongata, which plays a great role in controlling different autonomic functions such as digestions, breathing, and heart rate. The mentencephalon on the other hand is responsible for allowing for balance and equilibrium, conduction of the sensory information as well as coordination of various movements. This is made possible due to the presence of cerebellum and the pons that play significant roles (Willis 27).
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it is evident that the brain is an incredibly essential part of the body. It acts as a processor and coordinates various aspects at once. It is charged with a variety of functions that in one way or the other helps us to be human and thus understand and appreciate what happens around us. This is clear even from the brain’s basic functions, for instance, controlling and coordinating our actions and reactions, enhancing thinking and feeling of various aspects as well as allowing us to have memories and emotions. The anatomy is complex and requires a lot of attention to capture the different aspects that surround it. Most of the parts share responsibilities and are therefore dependent on each other. Proper care should be given to the brain; for instance, avoiding injuries to ensure that there is proper functioning of the brain and the body as a whole.
Works Cited
Bell, Charles. The anatomy of the brain: explained in a series of engravings. New York: T.N. Longman and O. Rees, 2009. Print
Mercier, Frederic, Kitasako, John, and Hatton Glenn. Anatomy of the brain neurogenic zones revisited: Fractions and the fibroblast/macrophage network. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, Vol. 451, (2), 170–188, 2002.
Willis, Robert. The anatomy of the brain: with a general view of the nervous system. New York: S. Highley, 1826. Print