Category: Brain

The Internet has become an essential part of human life. It is impossible to imagine a civilized house without an Internet. All the companies work with the help of the Internet and it seems that people are unable to live without this innovation. The Internet gives people much.

News is considered on the Internet, all the information people need may be found online, people communicate and entertain with the help of the Internet. However, many scientists start warning people about the harmful effect of the Internet on human brain. To operate actively and successfully, human brain should work. The Internet prevents people from thinking that results in stunting their mental growth.

Much research is initiated in this direction and thinking critically it is possible to find many reasons why people should start warring about their brain rewire. Reading the article ‘As the Internet rewires our brains’ written on February 28, 2009 by Kurt Cagle, it is impossible to disagree with the statements provided there that the Internet “is turning us into idiot savants, Aspergers and reverting our brains to a more primitive state”.

Starting the discussion with the most popular Internet services, it is essential to speak about Facebook and Twitter. These services affect human ability to think. Children who start communicating in these social nets stop thinking critically.

Heavy use of Facebook and Twitter makes children just repeat the said, think primitive and forget about critical skills. To be critically developed, human brain has to work. Such services as Facebook and Twitter do not give people an opportunity to think, they just make them consume some information which does not train human brain.

People repeat primitive statements, they get to know the simplest news about the life of other people, but this information does not make people think, therefore, their brain remains stable. As it has already been mentioned, people have to train their brain to have the skills of critical thinking and to have brain work, in general. What is Facebook? It is a social network which helps people to get in touch, but, in practice, many people have made it the way of their life. Twitter is a more primitive way of social life, and it also makes people degrade.

How else does the social network affect people? Thinking about the Internet, the most spread facility which comes to mind is communication.

It is obvious that many people communicate online with friends and relatives who live far away. But the main problem is that there are people who begin to think that online communication is the only way of interaction. Kurt Cagle in his article presents several examples of the cases when people could not understand each other when speaking in the real world. Live communications are not interesting for people.

Modern youth would better write a message online than call to a person or arrange a meeting. Online people have an opportunity to speak with many friends at one and the same time and there is no need to leave the house. Moreover, people are able to write messages without showing intonation and face reaction. People can think about the answer for some time. All these aspects make people lazy.

Therefore, when they speak in a real world, from eye to eye, it seems that they fail to understand each other as there is not much time on thinking. Rereading a message or answering it online people may think thoroughly, but there is no such an opportunity while real communication. Speaking in a real world people forget how to express their opinion. They have to think fast, but the absence of constant training and practice does not give them a chance to express their thoughts adequately that leads to full misunderstanding.

One more problem of the Internet which confirms the opinion that it rewires our brains is the absence of the concentration while reading. When people read books they have to be too concentrated not to leave important details. Now, reading a book, people do not need to think about it.

There is a lot of software and other possibilities which help people find necessary information in the text without reading the whole part. Moreover, having forgotten the place where the information is located people can easily search for that fragment using the innovative technologies. This also leaves people without the necessity to train their brain.

According to Kurt Cagle, human brain has to work in order to be active. When people read information with the desire to remember it brain works, but if people do not try to memorize the most important parts, when they are not interested in thinking critically brain stops working. Moreover, the Internet is full of many comments and reviews on the necessary topic and many people use them. It is easier to ask at Yahoo or use another service online where those who think may answer this question.

This information is referred to. Unfortunately, the Internet gives people too much information. The intensive stream of information lowers human attention. It is a fact that when people consume too much information they do not need to, they stop paying much attention to it, their attention lowers and it leads to inability to remember information. Those facts which people have to remember may be found online, why should they memorize them?

Kurt Cagle says that all the changes in human activities lead to changes in human mind. When people learnt speaking their brain changed. The development of reading and writing also affected human mind. Now the Internet era has come and it is a big question whether it benefits human brain or harms it.

According to the facts and research which has already been conducted, the Internet “kills” the skills people have been obtaining during many centuries. The innovations assist people and make their lives easier. However, they also prevent human brain from work which is a negative side.

In conclusion, I would like to state that I agree with the article ‘As the Internet rewires our brains’ by Kurt Cagle. People stop learning. Getting more information, they do not see a necessity to remember it that prevents their brain from work. It is obvious that human live communication is important, but people do not tend to speak to each other eye to eye as it is easier to write a message.

All these factors are upsetting as the destinations of many centuries are ruined. New generations would follow the examples of their parents and they would refuse to think. Thus, I suppose that in several centuries we will have to start learning writing and critical thinking as our ancestries did.

Interpreting the difference between sex and gender is essential in the modern world. This information is significant to understand why a person considers themselves a man or a woman. A video by TED (2019) offers valuable information on the topic because the speaker explains the issue scientifically. The video helped me actualize my prior knowledge on sex and gender as well as enriched my understanding of what biological processes make people transgender.

The video under consideration improved my comprehension of sex and gender. On the one hand, TED (2019) and Chapter 3 highlighted the biological differences between the male and female sexes. In particular, males have XY chromosomes, while XX chromosomes are found in females (TED, 2019). On the other hand, the video offered biological explanations of what gender is. There is scientific reasoning of cases when people have male bodies but consider themselves women.

According to TED (2019), such a scenario occurs because of specific prenatal brain development since genitals become male or female during the first trimester while the brain matures during the second trimester. Consequently, the conjunction of particular prenatal processes can contribute to the fact that a person’s gender and sex do not align at the DNA level. As a result, there emerge transgender people who position themselves differently compared to their primary sexual features.

In conclusion, the video under analysis helped me improve my understanding of sex and gender concepts. While I knew the biological determinants of male and female sexes, identifying such characteristic features of genders was remarkable for me. I believe that the scientific explanation of why some people have conflicting views regarding their sexes and genders can reduce the spread of homophobic ideas across the globe.

Reference

TED. (2019). The biology of gender, from DNA to the brain. YouTube. Web.

Speaking about marijuana’s influence on the brain, doctors always focus on the occurrence of psychogenic syndrome. This state is manifested by mental weakness caused by organic lesions of the brain. Vascular disorders play a decisive role in the development of pathology. Scientists have proven that severe hashish intoxication develops after taking marijuana. As a result, the blood flow in the brain vessels becomes distorted. Toxic substances that are distinguished as a result of smoking cannabis penetrate the blood. Getting into the capillaries, the drug prevents blood from proceeding at normal speed. As a result, the brain is at a high risk of being damaged as well as the structures that are located next to it (Marijuana DrugFacts, 2019). The adverse effects of marijuana become even more pronounced and tangible if a person smokes cannabis for a long time. Each month, the number of dead nerve cells increases. Then there are failures in the functioning of the central nervous system.

Marijuana abuse can lead to severe changes in the body. For example, problems such as heart failure, tachycardia, hypertension; Reducing the level of testosterone, the anomaly of spermatozoa; violations of motility problems with movement may occur in the long run of the use of marijuana. One of the main misconceptions is that marijuana causes no addiction. The practical research proved that the long usage of this drug could cause marijuana use disorder leading to dependence on this drug (Is marijuana addictive, 2021). Another myth of marijuana is that the drug improves metabolism and promotes weight loss. The action of cannabinoids on metabolism is undoubted. They reduce blood glucose levels (therefore, a brutal appetite appears) and cause dehydration. Due to this, catabolic processes in the body are activated. Thus, the changes in metabolism and weight are spurious and unhealthy.

Considering the short-term effects of heroin on the human brain, one of the most dangerous ones is the activation of the opioid receptors. The first symptoms after taking this drug may include vomiting, dizziness, hypothermia, and shortness of breath. From the long-time perspective, heroin has a cumulative effect, interfering with the work of almost all organs, causing the deterioration of the cells (What are the long-term effects of heroin, 2021). The drug assessment of 2019 shows that New Jersey is one of the higher levels of heroin reports counting for over 100 000 per year (National drug threat assessment, 2020). The number of reports in the mentioned state increases each year. There are various support programs and hotlines for people addicted to heroin. People seeking help or their close friends or relatives can learn more about these programs by calling the medical centers or advertising. Then, professionals will direct them to the detox centers or rehabs where clinicians provide treatment for addicted people.

Should Nicotine Be Made Illegal? Why or Why Not?

The law should not prosecute nicotine usage. First of all, even though it is considered a toxic substance but not a drug in a prevalent number of countries, nicotine is addictive. From a practical medicine perspective, nicotine does not cause a change in thinking and perception and has no hypnotic effect (Is nicotine addictive, 2021). Therefore, the medical criterion in defining nicotine as a “narcotic substance” is excluded. The dependence that nicotine causes is attributed to dependence on a poisonous substance. If nicotine is illegal, the psychological temptation will be increased.

Moreover, nicotine addiction is primarily related to psychology, not physiology. Mass media, cinematography, literature, and other sources affecting social cognition promote nicotine as one of the attractive personal features. Considering the creation of smoking culture by the films and TV show series, nicotine usage can not be abolished by making it illegal. This problem requires another, more innovative solution. It would be more rational to develop people’s awareness of the adverse effects of nicotine to lower the rates of nicotine users. Creating the alternative to nicotine tobacco without having adverse health effects can be the rational solution for this problem.

Legalization

The legalization of marijuana in some countries is dangerous. Such a situation can increase drug usage rates. Marijuana use over a prolonged time leads to an imbalance of neurotransmitters (Marijuana DrugFacts, 2019). Most often, addicted people start to seek more powerful drugs after marijuana. The legal status of marijuana can be preserved only in medicine, considering the accurate conversion of cannabis into a medical drug suitable for safe treatment. Thus, some counties should eliminate the legal status of this drug.

Heroin legalization should never be proposed because it will definitely increase the number of drug users. Hard drugs are extremely dangerous and will cause a huge percentage of drug-related deaths. Moreover, legalizing heroin state puts teenagers at the highest risk. Being at the development state, young people are affected by heroin severely. The future generation’s physical and mental state and the future of society can be destroyed by heroin legalization.

Changes in the legal status of nicotine are unnecessary. The nicotine itself is not that dangerous compared with the chemical additives infiltrated into the cigarettes. The legislation aimed at controlling the structure of cigarettes can be proposed. Cancer-provoking substances should be minimized. Making nicotine illegal may increase the number of black-market tobacco sellers, negatively affecting the countries’ economy. The forbidden fruit temptation psychology may cause the increase of nicotine usage. Therefore, enhancing nicotine with an illegal status has many negative consequences.

References

Drug Enforcement Administration. (2020). National drug threat assessment. Web.

NIDA. (2021). Is marijuana addictive? National Institute of Health. Web.

NIDA. (2021). Is nicotine addictive? National Institute of Health. Web.

NIDA. (2019). Marijuana DrugFacts. National Institute of Health. Web.

NIDA. (2021). What are the long-term effects of heroin use? National Institute of Health. Web.

Introduction

Brain is the vital organ coordinating our activities and life. The problem of brain functioning and development has still a lot of areas for research. Nowadays, we have more questions than answers on the problems of brain functioning. However, the scholars presented interesting findings on the brain development in the childhood.

The aim of this essay is to analyze the information presented in the articles Starting Smart: How Early Experiences Affect Brain Development by Theresa Hawley and Brain Development by Karen DeBord.

The analysis of the articles

The article Starting Smart: How Early Experiences Affect Brain Development by Theresa Hawley is devoted to the problem of brain development of children. The author of the article presents the results of the scientific research which indicates to the vital necessity of adults’ care for children in the early ages. Exactly in the early period of life, the brain gets the important impulse for intense development. The idea of the predominance of genetics in the brain development had existed in the scientific world for a long period of time.

However, recent studies have proved that the child’s experience is also a crucial factor determining the development of brain “plasticity” (Hawley n.pag.). The author of the article explains the reasons for this fact. She stresses that the number of brain neurons is programmed genetically but the connections between neurons are formed throughout the life and, especially, in the childhood (Hawley n.pag.). The role of adults care in the brain development of children is the main idea of the article.

The author emphasizes the importance of parents’ love and responsive care for the reasoning and emotional intelligence of children. At the same time, she mentions that the abuses and mental traumas negatively affect the intellectual and emotional development of children. Hawley refers to the results of the research on the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

“Although the ability of the brain to put abused children on constant alert may help them to survive in traumatic environments (for example, the battered child may be able to better avoid the abusive father when he is in a bad mood) it exacts a cost, for the child and for society” (Hawley n.pag.).

The results of the research also suggest that the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder can be coped with. It was found that the effective treatment does not, essentially, depend on the age.

The author also lists the ways of helping parents to support healthy brain development (Hawley n.pag.). In particular, she mentions community-based programs aimed at educating parents, high-quality home visiting programs preventing the abuses and neglect, mental health service, and the educational campaigns explaining the rational nutrition for children (Hawley n.pag.).

In addition, the author of the article touches upon the problem of children care provided by the care arrangements and kindergartens, in particular.

In my view, the article is rather interesting. It will be useful for the purpose of the research on brain development as well as for the better understanding of the problem of children upbringing.

The other article, Brain Development by Karen DeBord is also dedicated to the problem of the mechanism of brain development and the factors which stimulate its development process. Karen DeBord summarized the main findings of the recent scientific research on the problem. The information presented in her article is based on the results of PET scan (positron-emission topography) which measures the brain activity (DeBord n.pag.). She briefly describes the mechanism of brain functioning and development.

The main idea of the article is the importance of the early learning for brain development. The author mentions that the age between 3 and 10 is the most favorable time for learning (DeBord n.pag.). However, the learning process continues throughout the life of an individual. Besides, she stresses that the baby’s emotions are developed between 10 and 18 months (DeBord n.pag.).

The article contains brief information about brain work. The author puts a particular emphasis on the role of parents’ love and care in the intellectual and emotional development of children. She describes several important steps which should be taken by parents.

In particular, she mentions a constant loving care, touching, paying attention to hearing and language, paying attention to the development of vision, naming things with which the child interacts. Besides, the author emphasizes the importance of listening to the classical music. It has been proved that exposing children to the complex music sounds contributes to the development of their math skills (DeBord n.pag.).

In my opinion, the article is well-structured. The author managed to give the most important pieces of information on the topic in a well-organized form. Due to the comprehensive language, the article is accessible to not only the specialists but to everyone interested in the discussed problem. Overall, the article is very interesting and I will recommend it to my fellows.

Conclusion

In order to sum up all above mentioned, it should be said that the brain development is one of the urgent problems of modern science. However, the scholars have already achieved substantial breakthrough in the understanding of its peculiarities. The articles Starting Smart: How Early Experiences Affect Brain Development by Theresa Hawley and Brain Development by Karen DeBord summarize the findings of the recent research. The authors paid particular attention to the brain development of children.

Works Cited

DeBord, Karen n.d., Brain Development. PDF file.

Hawley, Theresa 2000, Starting Smart: How Early Experiences Affect Brain Development. PDF file.

The human brain is a core organ in the body. It influences a wide range of human activities such as learning, communication, memorizing and other biological processes. The human brain consists of numerous parts, which enable it to achieve its functions. Each part of the brain carries out a function in order to enhance the functionality of the brain.

However, all these parts of the brain are synchronized through some cells and play different roles to achieve a certain function. The feature that makes the brain a distinct organ from any other organ in the body is the cerebral cortex. (Iaccino, 1993, P. 247). This part is divided into two sides namely, the right he sphere and the left hemisphere.

Each hemisphere has distinct features based on the structure and functions. For example, each part of the hemisphere is divided into four parts called the frontal, the temporal, the parietal, and the occipital. All these parts have different functions in their respective hemispheres.

How each hemisphere operates and performs its functions, is what characterizes the performance of different human body functions, which include learning. Extensive research has been carried out on the differences between the right and left sides of the brain. This research has indicated that the right side of the brain is better at specialties, emotions, and neurotransmitters functions.

The different hemispheres thus affect individuals differently in terms of learning. Learning can be categorized in term of individual’s ability to integrate information and provide meaningful conclusions. There are four different ways of thinking that the different sides of the brain affect learning.

The detailed analysis of these ways of learning elucidates the differences in learning patterns among students based on the side of the brain that is dominant. These ways of learning include Analytical thinking, sequential thinking, interpersonal thinking and imaginative thinking.

Analytical Thinking

Several theories have been put forward regarding the right and left-brain dominance. It is clear from some of the theories that each side of the brain regulates different types of thinking. It is also stated that different people have a certain preference to a certain way of thinking than others.

This is attributed to what side of the brain is dominant. Analytical thinking is considered as the ability to generate relevant ideas based on logical conclusions. Data collection is an activity that requires critical analysis of data before making a decision on which data is relevant to the topic under study.

Students whose their left hand side of their brains are dominant tend to be good at this practice. This is because the left hand side of the brain processes information, which requires critical thinking. A student whose right hand side of the brain is dominant is poor at this practice.

This is because, the right side of the brain is not well defined to carry out critical thinking related processes. Therefore, for detailed homework assignments, the right brained students tend to spend more time on the problems than their left brained counterparts do. When two students are reading the same text, they come up with different interpretations. This is because the ability to understand relies on the individual’s critical thinking, which in turn, depends on which part of the hemisphere is dominant in the individual.

Sequential Thinking

It is clear that the left hemisphere of the brain and the right side of the brain process data differently. However, it should be remembered that most processes mainly take place at the dominant side of the brain. Extensive research has been conducted on how the brain processes information.

These researches have indicated that, the thinking and learning processes become more efficient when the brain functions fully. This means that, when both sides of the brain are working together, an individual’s thinking and learning processes become exceptional. This implies that, the stronger side strengthens the weaker side of the brain.

The left side of the brain processes data in sequence, in addition to, linear mode of thinking. It is believed that, a person who uses the left side of their brain is proficient at performing their actions in an organized manner. The art of making lists, preparing of schedules and their day-to-day planning is easy to these kinds of people. The left side of the brain is designed to process information in sequence.

This fact has made the people who use their left sides of the brain to be proficient at performing things in sequence. For example, a left brained student has a higher probability of being excellent at math and following directions as well as spelling. This contrasts the students whose use the right side of their brains.

These are considered random thinkers because, a right brained student may hand in their assignment late, or incomplete not because they did not intend to complete it, but just because they were doing something else. This is attributed to the random nature of their dominant side of their brains.

Interpersonal Thinking

This is the ability of an individual to relate well with others. It is based on the ability of an individual to listen to others and share their ideas to others. In addition, it requires the need to seek understanding of the environment around someone. Left hand brained students are considered the best at expressing what they have in their minds.

They know exactly what they feel, and can choose the right words to deliver the required information no matter the environment that, surrounds them. On the contrary, the right brained students have difficulties in expressing themselves. A student may know an answer to a question in an exam, but lack words to express the required information.

The right brained students tend to depend on sensory input in delivering information. They do this in order to enhance their efficiency of delivering the information. This is attributed to the poor ability of the right hemisphere to keep memories of events that have occurred either within a short or even a long time.

Therefore, it has become a common practice for the right brained students to make mental videos of what they read or even write to enhance their memories.

Imaginative Thinking

Imaginative thinking is the art of the brain that concretely processes information rather than use of intuition. This characteristic distinguishes many students in class. It defines the limits of information analysis and creation by a student. A student who is exceptional in coming up with meaningful imaginations tends to be remarkable in their studies.

In fact, the art of imaginative thinking enhances the ability to tackle problems not only in class, but also in real life situations. The students who use the left side of their brains have no problems in processing the problems that are presented before them. They tend to think far way, beyond what is before them. They put many efforts to use certain information in order to generate a solution w to any challenge that comes before them.

These left brained students tend to make logical simulations better than their counterparts who use the right hemisphere of the brain. On the contrary, the right brained students may need visual aid or may want to touch or feel the actual object. In fact, they prefer to look at the words being used in a certain context so as they can know how to use them in their context.

For mathematical problems, they may need to see how the mathematical formulas work to apply it on their own. They accomplish this with the aim of avoiding brainstorming which is not well developed in the students who use the right hand side of the brain.

Conclusion

From the above discussions, it is evident that there are distinct features between the left side of the brain and the right one. This fact implies that people also have different learning styles. It is also clear that left brained students are more advantageous than their right counterparts are in reading and understanding material.

This does not necessarily mean that, the students who use their left side of their brains are more intelligent than those who use their right side. However, flexibility in utilizing both the brain sides is the key strategy for attaining academic prosperity.

References

Iaccino. J. (1993). Left brain- right brain Differences. Pennsylvania: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Left brain, Right brain, Whole brain– Home page. (n.d). Web.

Left brain, right brain. Prospectus Magazine. (n.d). Web.

The brain is one of the most fascinating organs of the human body. It carries out multiple functions and is responsible for our breathing, movements, speech, and, of course, thinking. A huge number of scientists and researchers are focused on studying functions, features, and capacities of the human brain. This way, neuroscience can be called a study where the brain researches itself. The contemporary science has collected a great deal of information about the human brain. The functionality of our brain is so huge that there are several different kinds of scientists studying it: psychologists, psychiatrists, and neurologists.

Even though the human brain today is very well-researched, the untrue commonly believed facts about it still exist. For example, many people grew up convinced that there are right and left-brained individuals, classical music played for the babies makes them smarter, or that we use only ten percent of our brain. Everyone has faced these myths at least once in their lives. Besides, there are sources that keep maintaining these myths for the public.

For instance, some of the Hollywood films released not so long ago are based on the belief that we only use ten percent of our brains. Good examples of such films are “Limitless” and “Lucy,” featuring Bradley Cooper and Scarlett Johansson accordingly. The popularity of these movies may create a significant impact on the number of individuals taking such myths for granted.

Outbrain contains around one hundred billion neurons, and it is constantly busy juts because it controls the processes in our body that never stop. Our brain is active all the time, when we think, when we meditate, sleep, or lie unconscious. Some of the parts of our brain function more actively than others. At the same time, none of the areas of our brain are constantly passive.

When someone makes a statement about people being divided into left-brained and right-brained individuals, this person should be informed about the constant communication that the hemispheres of our brain engage into. Outbrain truly contains two hemispheres – right and left, and they are responsible for different functions in our bodies. This was tested on split-brain patients whose corpus callosum no longer functions. Corpus callosum is a part of the brain situated under the cortex. It is a gathering of neural fibers responsible for the communication between the cerebral hemispheres.

When the communication is stopped, the patients start to experience difficulties naming the objects they cannot see when they touch them with their left hand (Animations: Split-Brain Functioning, part 2 par. 1). This happens because the information about the objects we hold in our right hand is processed by the left hemisphere, which is responsible for speech.

The information about objects we touch with our left-hand goes straight to the right hemisphere, for our brain to be able to verbalize the names of the objects the information needs to be transmitted to the left hemisphere. Yet, when corpus callosum does not work, such communication becomes impossible, and the patient cannot name an object in their left hand. This way, if left-brained and right-brained individuals existed, their body functions would be rather limited.

In conclusion, the beliefs about ten percent of our brain left and right-brained people or other similar statements are pure myths that have been successfully disproved by scientists. Making such statements is ignorant and incorrect.

Works Cited

Animations: Split-Brain Functioning, part 2. Psychology. Web.

Abstract

The proponents of the study described the first Brain-to-Brain interface experiment. The focus is on the feasibility and workability of the interface, with respect to transmission times in all stages of signal transmission, creating a basic framework for the creation of and advancement of B2B technologies. The proponents of the study utilized EEG and TMS technologies to record a signal from the “Sender’s” motor cortex, and send it via the Internet to the TMS device placed on the “Receiver’s” motor cortex. The sender’s signal is superimposed upon the brain of the receiver, causing a response that satisfies the principle condition of the game task. However, it is important to point out that the experiment was merely a sophisticated version of the well-known knee jerk reflex experiment. There was no meaningful interaction between “Sender” and “Receiver” to warrant the claim that one human being was able to communicate to another human being without using any form of linguistic device. Nevertheless, the said experiment was a major stepping stone towards the creation of a brain-to-brain interface technology that would allow complex actions, such as, the efficient knowledge and skill transfer between a novice and an expert.

Goals of the Experiment

The proponents of the study described an experiment by which they test the functionality of a brain-to-brain (B2B) device. This experimental setup involves the use of the technologies of Electroencephalography (EEG) and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) respectively to record, and send encoded brain signals via the Internet. The proponents of the study crafted a proof of concept experiment where they test the question: is it possible to create a connection between two human brains, and therefore create a B2B device?

The Model

To test their hypothesis, the proponents of the study devised a relatively simple experiment whereby three pairs of respondents were connected to each other using a BBI setup comprised of EEG and TMS. They engaged in a cooperative task in the form of a game. This setup enables the experimenters to not only determine if their prototypical B2B device is a success, but also to assess its performance. The game features either a rocket or a friendly plane flying across the “Sender’s” screen, requiring the “Sender” to move the receiver’s hand by using the B2B device. This enables the sender to decide to use the receiver’s hand to click a button to shoot the rocket. If the “Sender” understands the significance of the supply plane, he refrains from taking any action therefore preventing the transmission of the “shoot to destroy” signal to the “Receiver.” This simple experiment is a manipulation of a response test in which a subject responds to a prompt by clicking the correct button as fast as they can. In this case, it tests the response, and thus the connection between two conscious subjects as they collaborate to complete a task.

The Techniques

The experiment included three pairs of subjects, and took place in four randomized blocks, two of which were control while the remaining two were experimental. During the control blocks the TMS coil placement was rotated, breaking the circuit to the receiver’s motor cortex whereas during the experimental blocks the BBI circuit was unbroken. The EEG procedure was prefaced by training sessions. The sender subjects had an EEG placed on them, and made to move a one-dimensional cursor by imagining wrist movement. The motor signals are emitted in the mu band (8-12 Hz) and picked up by the EEG to be routed to the receiver. The TMS procedure was also prefaced by training and calibration sessions where the subjects were screened and the TMS machine was calibrated to their individual motor cortex: specifically the coil is placed on top of the part of the cortex that controls the extensor carpi radialis, the muscle that extends the wrist, thereby causing an upward motion of the hand. The game the subjects played forced them to collaborate, and fostered the use of the BBI.

Results of the Experiment

The “Sender” was able to communicate with the “Receiver” using a non-invasive approach. This capability was confirmed using an ingenious research methodology that includes placing respondents in two different buildings that are located one mile from each other. The considerable distance was the assurance that the “Sender” was unable to use any type of audiovisual signals to communicate with the “Receiver.” The proponents of the study were able to prove that a communication link was established by observing a game task that allowed them to measure the outcomes of the experiment. The validity of the experiment was enhanced, when the experimenter added the control part of the research methodology. With regards to the “control” pair, the “Sender” was still able to send signals to the “Receiver”; however, the “Receiver” was unable to process the signal. It was due to the manipulation of the “Receiver’s” cap, and it prevented the brain from interpreting the signal transmitted by the “Sender.” Thus, the wrist movements were not made in random but as a direct reaction to the signals sent by the “Sender.” In fact, the control pair was unable to record any hits to the missile or the airplane.

Discussion and Conclusion

The strength and weakness of the experiment can be found in the introduction portion of the document that described the first direct brain-to-brain interface in humans. The introduction portion of the document succeeded in whetting the appetite of the readers creating interest in knowing more about the study. The readers are interested to learn more about the outcome of the study, because the proponents pointed out that “a great deal of the information available to our brain is not introspectively available to our consciousness, and thus cannot be voluntarily put in linguistic form” (Rao et al. 1). They proceeded to enhance the level of interested by implying that the experiment is a stepping stone to solve the problem experienced by master surgeons and expert musicians who are desperately trying to transfer their knowledge and expertise to a novice. However, the aforementioned limitation in communication prevented them from simply telling a student how to exactly “position and move the fingers during execution of critical hand movements” (Rao et al. 1). In other words a successful brain-to-brain communication eliminates the problems that are inherent in linguistic communication. The student and the teacher do not have to grapple with awkward and imperfect human speech. It is a problematic setting especially if one considers the interaction between two people that came from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds.

Due to the way the statements were phrased, the readers expected that the said experiment would provide a solution to the aforementioned problem. It seems to have been implied that the proponents of the study were able to develop a foolproof way to demonstrate brain-to-brain interface while performing simple tasks. No one expected that the first brain-to-brain interface would yield dramatic results, such as, the ability to control another human beings actions just through the power of thought. Nevertheless, the expectation was quite high. The expected result was that the “Sender” should have been able to communicate a simple message to the “Receiver.” For example, the “Sender” should have communicated the desire to move a finger or a toe. But a closer examination of the methodology, and the outcome of the experiment revealed that the study was merely a sophisticated rendition of a knee-jerk reflex experiment. In a knee-jerk reflex experiment, the respondent sits cross-legged in a chair while the experimenter taps the knee with a small hammer. The knee-jerk reflex creates an involuntary movement of the muscle causing the top most leg to move forward in a quick jerk like motion. A variation of the knee jerk reflex phenomenon is the use of an electric current to move the lifeless limb of a dead frog.

It can be argued that the brain-to-brain interface experiment described in the study was a sophisticated variant of the knee jerk reflex. But instead of using a hammer to cause the involuntary movement of a body part, the experiment calls for the use of a sophisticated set up that allows the experimenter to send signals directly to the brain. The electric signal sent to the motor-sensory area of the “Receiver’s” brain caused the involuntary movement of the wrist that was interpreted by the mouse pad as a clicking motion. It was considered as the primary evidence that two human beings can communicate with each other using a brain-to-brain interface even in the absence of any type of audiovisual signal coming from the “Sender” or “Receiver.”

Although the research design did not lead to the realization of high expectations, the experiment was ground breaking as a stepping-stone towards complex brain-to-brain interaction in the future. The experiment was able to prove that non-invasive interface is possible. This is an important development because “invasive modalities need to implant microelectrode arrays inside the skull within the brain, which involves expert surgeons with high precision skills” (Hassanien and Azar 280). In addition, invasive modalities leads to the scarring of the brain tissue that reduces the efficacy of the transmittal device and increases the health risk to the patient.

Aside from demonstrating the efficacy of non-invasive techniques in brain-to-brain interface, this experiment also revealed the advances made when it comes to understanding the different functionalities of different areas of the brain. In this particular experiment, the experimenter knew which area of the brain to manipulate using electric signals to force a voluntary action on another human being. Thus, scientists are not going to start from scratch in creating similar types of experiments. Neuroscientists are encouraged to focus on other areas of the brain such as the area that controls audio and visual perceptions (Richmond, Rees, and Edwards 38). Neuroscientists must develop an experiment to test the viability of sending communication signals directly into these areas to determine if meaningful communication using brain-to-rain interface is possible. It is time to move beyond the knee jerk reflex experiment that characterized this particular study. In the future, state-of-the art BBIs can lead to the creation of a sophisticated teaching tool that enables experts to affect an efficient means of knowledge and skills transfer to their students.

Works Cited

Hassanien, Aboul and Ahmad Azar. Brain-Computer Interfaces. New York: Springer, 2104. Print.

Rao, Rajesh et al. “A Direct Brain-to-Brain Interface in Humans.” PLOS ONE 2014: 1-12. Print.

Richmond, Sarah, Geraint Rees, and Sarah Edwards. I Know What You’re Thinking. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print.

The article at the center of attention is “Game Theory: The Effects of Video Games on the Brain” by Paturel, Amy. The article opens up with Anthony Rosner, from London, England, who became a saint in the World of Warcraft web-based gaming local area at 17. He created an empire, led the assault, and entered a magnificent environment that exceeded his wildest dreams. He put his education, relationships, health, and cleanliness on the back burner. According to a report conducted by the worldwide market research firm The NPD Group, his gaming addiction is not uncommon.

Video games are enjoyed by nine out of 10 youngsters, which translates to 64 million teenagers who use keyboards and cell phones to form phrases. According to several experts, excessive gaming before 21 or 22 is likely to rewire the brain physically (Paturel, n.p). This article compares the quantity of dopamine released when playing video games to the amount of stimulant amphetamine or methylphenidate released after intravenous injection. Methylphenidate is a stimulating substance for the central nervous system. It causes hyperactivity and helpless drive control by influencing the synapses in the cerebrum and nerves. A lack of ability to concentrate consistently, clutter, consideration shortfall, hyperactivity issue, and narcolepsy are totally treated with methylphenidate.

As per this article, individuals with ADHD are inclined to a wide range of addictions, however, they are more helpless against digital addictions like PCs, computer games, and the Internet. Despite accumulating evidence of game-related cognitive, behavioral, and neurochemical repercussions, diagnosing gambling addiction remains difficult (Paturel, n.p). Some academics believe it is a separate mental condition, while others say it is another sign. It is unclear if potentially problematic gambling contributes to the onset of mental illness or if the mental disease causes the onset of potentially problematic gambling.

As shown by research, 45 youths played violent video game for only 30 minutes, and their prefrontal cortex activity in the brain was quickly reduced when compared to those who played nonviolent games. According to previous studies, playing intense games for 10 to 20 minutes increases brain regions connected to arousal, anxiety, and emotional reactivity. This additionally brings down the movement in the front-facing projections connected to enthusiastic guidelines and execution control which, after a couple of reiterations, one’s cerebrum will genuinely change. One may improve their performance by devoting time and effort to certain activities, such as shooting opponents in video games or playing baseball. These acts and ideas generate neural pathways between different brain sections by stimulating connections between brain cells. This neuronal pathway becomes stronger as one engages in more particular activities.

As the quantity of computer game news stories about preparing kids and zombies ascends, as does the quantity of experts notice about the risks of over-the-top screen time. This might make it necessary to outlaw computers and smartphones entirely. To guarantee the children’s healthy relationship with video games (and other types of entertainment), make sure they have fun outside of them (Paturel, n.p). The article should apply a method that minimizes the risk of making broad generalizations about video games as a whole. That allows researchers to look at the relationship between a range of gaming behaviors and the numerous characteristics that define those habits and psychological functions. Some of the consequences they spoke about in the research were minimal. Given the complexity of human behavior and its numerous elements, this point is unsurprising.

Works Cited

Lobel, Adam, et al. “Video Gaming and Children’s Psychosocial Well-being: A Longitudinal Study.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, vol. 46, no. 4, 2017, pp. 884-897. Web.

Paturel, Amy. “Game Theory: The Effects of Video Games on the Brain.” Brain & Life, 2014, Web.

Nowadays, it became a common assumption among social scientists that, after having developed the capacity to indulge in abstract cognition, the representatives of the Homo Sapiens species have effectively ceased being subjected to the Darwinian laws of natural selection. When thoroughly scrutinized, however, such a point of view will emerge utterly erroneous. The validity of this suggestion is best illustrated with respect to the scientifically proven fact that, as time goes on, the human brain continues to evolve, in the sense of becoming ever more adapted to the workings of the surrounding social environment – the process that appears to have a strong “negative” quality to it. After all, whereas the average size of the brain in Cro-Magnons (early Homo Sapiens) and Neanderthals used to account for about 1500-1600 cc, the contemporary representatives of the human race have the average brain-size of 1350 cc (Holloway, 2014). Nevertheless, there is a good evolutionary rationale behind the process in question. Before we get to discuss it at length, it is important to mention the following:

• While accounting for about one-fiftieth of one’s bodily mass, the brain consumes up to 25% of metabolic energy, generated by the person’s body (Magistretti & Allaman, 2015). What this means is that the brain cannot function in the full “switched on” mode for too long.
• The brain’s functionality is strongly utilitarian. That is, it serves the purpose of helping an individual to succeed in achieving his or her foremost biological objective – to ensure the intergenerational survival of its genome. And, there are three activities that directly lead to reaching such an objective, on just about anyone’s part – sexual mating, securing access to nutrients, and aspiring for domination (Hodgson, 2013).

In light of the above-mentioned considerations, there can be very little doubt that the ongoing “shrinkage” of the human brain is evolutionary predetermined. The logic behind this suggestion is quite apparent. The reason why our early ancestors (Cro-Magnons) were able to develop an enormously large (by today’s standards) neocortex is that, having been deprived of the atavistic survival-ensuring “assets” (such as protruding fangs, strong muscles, sharp eyesight, etc.), it allowed them to successfully compete with even the most vicious predators within the same environmental niche. This simply could not be otherwise – the primates’ endowment with the enlarged neocortex increases their ability to react adequately to the externally induced stimuli, which is a huge survivalist advantage. However, there was a point back in history (about 100.000 years ago) when our ancestors have switched to leading a fully socialized lifestyle – something that amplified the extent of their evolutionary fitness even further (Dielenberg, 2013).

This development had a very strong effect on the sub-sequential evolution of the human brain, in the sense of rendering certain parts of the neocortex (responsible for the cause-effect types of cognitive reasoning) rather “redundant”. After all, the actual price of one’s admittance into the society is the person’s willingness to suppress its biological instincts and delegate some of its hunter-gathering functions to the third party. Consequentially, this resulted in creating the situation when most people are no longer required to exhibit any extraordinary cranial capacity, as the main precondition that guarantees the spatial proliferation of their genotypes. Quite to the contrary – as practice indicates, it is specifically the measure of a person’s cognitive conformism/intellectual mediocrity that positively relates to his or her chances to attain a social prominence. The society does not tolerate those who stand out because their very existence poses much threat to the stability of the former (Moffett, 2013). The socially constructed “natural selection of brains” begins at school – it is namely the smartest and most misbehaving/violent kids who end up being ostracised by their peers (Gentry & Whitley, 2014).

Once assessed from the evolutionary standpoint, the described situation will appear to make a perfectly good sense, as the continual socialisation of “hairless primates” allows them to increase the energetic cost-effectiveness of how their brains address different existential challenges. As a result, more and more people are being encouraged to think “algorithmically”, without having to “activate” their brains, within the context of how they go about trying to take possession of a particular resource. This, of course, naturally induces the size-wise reduction of the human brain, which in turn helps to increase the extent of people’s evolutionary specialisation (Rospars, 2013).

For example, there are now millions of citizens in the West who “specialise” in receiving welfare payments from the government, without having to apply any cognitive/physical effort, whatsoever. Evidently enough, there is nothing incidental about the fact that the very same peoples exhibit a certain tendency to prioritise “baby-making” as their foremost pursuit in life – all in full accordance with the most fundamental Darwinian principles (Hofmann & Hohmeyer, 2013). As practice indicates, however, just about any fully specialized species represent the “dead end” of evolution. Hence, the actual significance of the evolutionary predetermined “shrinking” of the human brain – the process that defines the essence of social dynamics in today’s West more than anywhere else in the world.

In light of what has been mentioned, it will be appropriate to conclude this paper by stressing out once again that: a) the human brain continues to evolve as we speak, b) the concerned process is “blind” (it does not serve any “higher” purpose) – the suggestion that correlates well with the atheist outlook on what the term “evolution” stands for. Consequently, this can be interpreted indicating the fact that the continuing evolution of the human brain should assessed with respect to both the surrounding social environment and the main operational principles of organic life. I believe that this conclusion is fully consistent with the line of reasoning, deployed throughout the paper.

References

Dielenberg, R. A. (2013). The speculative neuroscience of the future human brain. Humanities, 2(2), 209-252.

Gentry, R., & Whitley, E. (2014). Bulling in graduate school: Its nature and effects. The Qualitative Report, 19(36), 1-18.

Hodgson, D. (2013). The consequences of human behaviour. Humanities, 1(3), 205- 228.

Hofmann, B., & Hohmeyer, K. (2013). Perceived economic uncertainty and fertility: Evidence from a labour market reform. Journal of Marriage and Family, 75(2), 503-521.

Holloway, A. (2014).Scientists are alarmed by shrinking of the human brain. Web.

Magistretti, P., & Allaman, I. (2015). A cellular perspective on brain energy metabolism and functional imaging. Neuron, 86(4), 883-901.

Moffett, M. W. (2013). Human identity and the evolution of societies. Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective, 24(3), 219-67.

Rospars, J. (2013). Trends in the evolution of life, brains and intelligence. International Journal of Astrobiology, 12(3), 186-207.

Introduction

The human brain continues to evolve, becoming more adapted to the surrounding social environment. This process is essential for the existence of our society and its development. Thus, it could be assumed that the brains evolution is stipulated by social interaction and the further sophistication of relations between individuals and groups.

Analysis

Surprisingly, today our brain is smaller than Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals had (and 1500-1600 cubic centimeters correspondingly) (Holloway, 2014). This alteration of the size is evolutionary predetermined. The reason why our early ancestors were able to develop an enormously large brain is that they had to struggle with other predators who initially had better positions supported by strong muscles, sharp fangs, eyesight, etc.( Byo24NEWS, 2011). The large brain allowed human beings to compete with even the most vicious animals within the same environmental niche. Their enlarged brain increased their ability to react adequately to the external factors, which helped them survive. However, about 100,000 years ago people united in communities and turned into entirely social creatures who had to interact with each other to survive (Holloway, 2014). This fact impacted the development of our brain significantly. People did not have to demonstrate their natural instincts and struggle alone. Instead, they delegated some of their hunter instincts to a certain group of people. Consequentially, this resulted in creating the situation when most people are no longer required to exhibit any of the initial assets humans overtime were consistently using.

The society does not tolerate those who stand out because their existence poses much threat to the stability of the former. The socially constructed “natural selection of brains” begins at school when children are affected by the community in which they spend the bigger part of their time and which teach them how to appreciate particular social values (Gentry & Whitley, 2014). In general, the development of society helps people to increase the effectiveness of how their brains address different challenges that emerge in their lives. As a result, more and more people start to use particular behavioral patterns instinctively without having to use their brains. This, of course, naturally induces the size reduction of this part of the body. However, it helps individuals to perform socially important activities in which they are engaged better. For example, millions of people communicate with other individuals using accepted behaviors and not even thinking about their choice Moreover, humans have the potential for further development as they do not belong to fully specialized species and their brains will not ever stop evolving. In such a way, the decrease in the size of the brain could be considered the process that defines the essence of social dynamics in today’s West more than anywhere else in the world.

Conclusion

We can conclude, that the human brain evolves as we speak and there is no clear purpose for it. We just continue our development (Byo24NEWS, 2011). There are many factors that contribute to the different stages of human brain evolution. One of them would be the external environmental factors, our position in the world, and how can survive regarding the existing environment and conditions. We, as humans, began to reduce our roles within the natural environment and assign them to other groups due to a social hierarchy constructed over time. The second factor is due to social situations, which is caused by the different challenges undergone by individuals during their lifespan.

References

Byo24NEWS. (2011). Human brains have shrunk, ‘evolution is making it leaner and more efficient’ – research. Web.

Gentry, R., & Whitley, E. (2014). Bulling in graduate school: Its nature and effects. The Qualitative Report, 19(36), 1-18.

Holloway, A. (2014). Scientists are alarmed by shrinking of the human brain. Web.

Magistretti, P., & Allaman, I. (2015). A cellular perspective on brain energy metabolism and functional imaging. Neuron, 86(4), 883-901.