The YouTube blog November 30 Dopamine and Serotonin and Us is dedicated to the topic of neurodiversity and the influence of neuromodulators on the human brain. One such neuromodulatory molecule released during a reward-giving action (for example, sex or food intake) is dopamine. Lauren Theresa McCarthy Debiak describes dopamine in her video as a feel-good chemical responsible for providing people with a sense of achievement, improving mood, and boosting their motivation and focus (McCarthy Debiak 00:01:17-00:01:50). Interestingly enough, this biochemical can also modulate our future behavior based on learned experiences.
Discussion
Dopamine is responsible for a phenomenon called a positive prediction error. This is the disparity between an actual and expected reward that is essential for fundamental types of learning about rewards and motivating humans to seek greater rewards (Schultz 23). A typical example of a positive prediction error is when a person assumes they will hate a particular food but ends up enjoying it. Dopamine takes part in this process and changes the persons behavior so that they are less reluctant in the future. In the same way, dopamine communicates a negative prediction error in a persons brain when the reward outcome is poorer than predicted (Schultz 24). This might also influence the persons future behavior and make them seek another way to attain the desired reward outcome. Thus, human behavioral patterns may be completely altered and potentially revolutionized.
Conclusion
To sum up, dopamine effects are interrelated with our life experiences and the rewards we gain from these experiences. This process has been beneficially impacting humankinds traits for centuries. As a result, the neuromodulator has the power to change our behavior and attitude toward certain subjects and objects over time.
Works Cited
Schultz, Wolfram. Dopamine reward prediction error coding. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, vol. 18, no. 1, 2022, pp. 23-32.
The human sleep structure includes two phases: non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. During the sleep period, these phases are in rotation and replace each other several times (Hassan & Subasi, 2017). Sleep phases changes primarily are characterized by different brain waves, which are recorded using electroencephalography (EEG). Each stage of sleep has its features and gets operated by a different set of neurons.
NREM includes three stages; the first one begins immediately after the person falls asleep and lasts about ten minutes. Sleep is characterized by a decrease in alpha rhythms and the appearance of low-amplitude theta rhythms. The second stage lasts from 20 to 40 minutes, during which theta wave activity begins to appear on the EEG readings. During the third stage, delta oscillations of a frequency begin to predominate in brain activity.
REM starts after about 80 minutes from the moment a person falls asleep and lasts about 10-15 minutes. Muscle activity is minimal, and the person is in a state of complete immobility. At the same time, eyeballs often make sharp movements. According to EEG, the brain has the same activity level as during the first stage of NREM. During sleep, the duration of REM periods increases, and in the morning, it can reach up to 30-40 minutes.
There are three types of clusters of neurons, the excitation of which causes a change in sleep cycles. Sleep begins with the activation of the anterior hypothalamus. Sleep-promoting neurons suppress wakefulness neurons at the onset and during sleep. The development of non-rapid eye movement is ensured by the functioning of nonspecific thalamic nuclei and suture nuclei containing an inhibitory mediator. The second structure of neurons regulates REM. They include the locus coeruleus or blue space, the vestibular nuclei of the medulla oblongata, as well as the upper tubercles or upper hills . The third structure of neurons appears to be the centers that regulate the sleep cycle. These include the blue space, which controls the process of falling asleep and waking up and certain areas of the cerebral cortex.
To sum up, there are two sleep stages: non-rapid eye movement sleep and rapid eye movement sleep. Despite the EEG readings accuracy, the relationship between brain waves and dream structure has not been fully articulated. Three different categories of neurons operate sleep inside the human body.
Medical error is a substantial issue affecting thousands of patients and parties related to the healthcare system. According to approximate estimations, medical error is counted as the third leading cause of death in the United States (Makary & Daniel, 2016). In particular, between 210,00 to 400,00 patients die each year because of medical error, compared to about 600,000 annual deaths due to heart disease or cancer (Makary & Daniel, 2016). While certain lethal cases can be counted, the estimations of adverse effects on health appear rather challenging. The case of a 51-year-old man who suffered from a brain damage is one of those where the medical error was recognized due to the jurys decision in a related suit. All of the parties, including the hospital, the health provider, and the anesthesiologist, were found liable for conducting a medical error that caused a severe negative impact on the mans health and life.
The details regarding the mentioned case are critical to understanding the complex environment prone to errors. Initially, a team of medical professionals was performing heart surgery on a 51-year-old man (Capozzola, 2016). At a particular point, the patient suffered a ventricular fibrillation complication, which required resuscitating procedures (Capozzola, 2016). In addition to cardioversion, giving shocks to restore the mans heart rhythm, the surgeon ordered medication needed to stabilize heart rhythm so that the surgery could be finished. The medication ordered was amiodarone, in the dosage of 150 mg (Capozzola, 2016). The anesthesiologist followed the instruction and administered three vials of what he believed to be 50 mg of amiodarone (Capozzola, 2016). Although the heart surgery was finished, the patient had ventricular fibrillation for the second time, which affected the function of his heart and prevented blood and oxygen from being delivered to the mans brain. This situation led to permanent brain damage, meaning that the man would not be able to function adequately and would require medical services throughout his life (Capozzola, 2016). Consequently, the brain damage was alleged to occur due to an amiodarone overdose because the contents of the vials significantly exceeded the expected dosage, which was the result of the hospital pharmacys error.
In the suit against the hospital, the anesthesiologist, and the healthcare provider for whom the anesthesiologist worked, the court decided that all three parties were liable in the case. In particular, the man was awarded $12.2 million, and the hospital was determined 60% liable, the anesthesiologist 25% liable, and the healthcare provider 15% liable (Capozzola, 2016). The hospital was partially liable because the overdose of amiodarone happened as a result of the hospitals pharmacys misdeed. Instead of 50 mg in each of the three vials, there was 900 mg of medication, meaning the patient received an 18 times higher dose than needed (Capozzola, 2016). In this case, organizational liability assumes vicarious responsibility of the superior party (hospital) for their employer (pharmacy) (Edwards, 2022). Since there are various forms of liability, including disciplinary, administrative, civil, and criminal, the hospital took civil liability for its personnels mistake.
The jury decided that the patient should be awarded based on the cost of medical services and experienced pain. All three parties shared joint responsibility, meaning they have to pay satisfaction according to the proportion of their liability (Edwards, 2022). In addition, the healthcare provider for whom the anesthesiologist worked could be indicated as vicariously liable. Since the anesthesiologist failed to double-check the dose of medication, his employer could be considered liable for lack of training or instruction provided to their employees.
Hospitals should ensure proper personnel training and the safety of their internal medication-serving systems in order to reduce the risk of similar errors in the future. Foremost, the staff should follow the medication administration rules, checking if the right medication is given to the right patient in the right dose (Capozzola, 2016). Hence, such high-risk medications as amiodarone should be labeled appropriately. The error, in this case, occurred because both surgeon and the anesthesiologist assumed the minimal dosages in the vials (Capozzola, 2016). Although this is a common practice in hospitals, the pharmacys mistake occurred, and higher dosages were contented in the vials.
Accordingly, Makary & Daniels (2016) suggest three steps to reduce the risk of medical errors, such as making errors more visible, responding to them, and making them less frequent. Healthcare institutions need to recognize their responsibilities to foster a safety culture, develop error prevention algorithms, and facilitate the speak-up culture, among others proactive measures (Makary & Daniels, 2016). Accordingly, healthcare professionals should be educated regarding their role in reducing possible errors and contribute to transparency and safety measures to conquer the error issue. As a result, many risks could be prevented, and the hospitals could reduce liability risks in a range of complex cases.
Overall, medical errors affect patients lives and health and lead to severe consequences for hospitals and healthcare practitioners. Many errors can be prevented by such simple steps as double-checking or putting a proper label on the medication. Therefore, hospitals should consider implementing efficient measures to reduce the risk of medical errors, which would contribute to their success and the well-being of their patients.
References
Capozzola, D. D. (2016). Medication mix-up leaves 51-year-old patient with permanent brain damage after heart surgery. Healthcare Risk Management, 38(1). Retrieved from the Trident Online Library.
Edwards, J. S. (2022). Tort law. Cengage.
Makary, M., & Daniel, M. (2016). Medical error the third leading cause of death in the US. BMJ, 353.
Brain drain is an inevitable and serious problem (as seen by officials, employers, analysts, and so on) that will undermine Canadas international competitiveness. In the 1990s, up to 2% of the Canadian population left the country each year to find employment elsewhere (mainly the USA), and researchers note that such figures may become a reality (Boudarbat and Connolly 8). It is believed that the existing educational and healthcare policies, a solid financial regulatory system, an increased focus on the development of the infrastructure have been successful, but the Canadian tax policies and the currency rate can contribute to the increase in the brain drain (Mintz par. 9).
Background
Canada is the 5th country on the list of states losing their inventors with 6.4% of the worlds inventor emigration (Clarke par.4). Canada follows such countries as China, India, Germany, and the UK. More than 13 thousand inventors left Canada between 2006 and 2010.
In 2005, 12% of Ph.D. graduates lived and worked in the USA two years after graduation (Boudarbat and Connolly 9).
Almost 60% of Canadian emigrants are adults aged between 20 and 44 (Mintz par. 5).
Almost 60 % of Canadian emigrants are managers, business people, scientists (Mintz par. 5).
The Canadian government plans to address the problem of the brain drain through the extensive investment in innovation and infrastructure, improved immigration policies, and the attraction of foreign investors (Wells Justin Trudeaus Summer Homework par. 11).
Some Canadian enterprises, non-governmental organizations, and (rather occasionally) the countrys federal government, come up with incentives (significant investments to attract top talent) that have resulted in reverse brain drain as US top talents have come to Canada to live and work in such areas as business, education, and science (Allen par. 11).
The major reasons for the brain drain are the Canadian currency rate and the countrys taxation (Yakabuski par. 3).
It is also believed that high-quality higher education (with rather high prices) is another reason contributing to the increase in the brain drain (Butler par. 8).
Economic Analysis
Almost two-thirds of the Canadian emigrants are skilled employees (often with higher education) engaged in areas contributing to the financial growth of the country who potentially create jobs (Mintz par. 5value).
When the Canadian dollar rose in value, the brain drain was minimal (Mintz par. 4).
High taxes contribute to the problem as people choose the USA where tax policies are more attractive (Yakabuski par. 5).
Some researchers see the brain drain as a positive trend that facilitates the development of human society as people share their knowledge and contribute to the development of the host countries (Pécoud 96). More so, many people turn back to their native countries, which has a positive impact on the development of their economies as the returners are equipped with valuable knowledge and experience.
Nonetheless, at the level of the country, brain drain is regarded as a negative and hazardous trend that hurts the development of the country. The brain drain is associated with a lack of innovation and new jobs in the country that loses high skilled workers (Pécoud 91).
A reform in the sphere of education, taxation, and immigration can address the issues mentioned above in several ways:
Highly skilled workers will be encouraged to remain in Canada if the currency rate increases.
Canadians will be satisfied with the educational services their children receive will be eager to remain in the country.
These workers will stay in Canada if taxes become lower since they will not need to earn more to cover their expenses.
Immigrants will satisfy the needs of the Canadian labor market, which will lead to economic growth, which, in turn, will decrease the rate of the brain drain.
Keeping the educational system at the same high level will provide the country with highly skilled workers who will contribute to the economic growth of the country.
Risk Analysis
If Canada fails to implement the change, the economy will stop developing or even start declining, which will contribute significantly to the brain drain.
The reduction of taxes is unlikely to be approved by the countrys federal and state governments as they need to fill in their tightened budgets.
Option Analysis
Immigration policies should be aligned with social development policies ( Is Migration Good for the Economy 1). For instance, it has been found that a large portion of South African immigrants to Canada often move to the USA due to the inability to integrate into Canadian society (Cohen par. 6). Substantial investment in diaspora community development projects can be beneficial. More so, immigrants coming to Canada often create jobs and invest heavily in the development of the countrys economy, which is beneficial in the long run (Friesen par. 6).
It has been acknowledged that the development and alignment of brain drain policies with taxation, educational, and immigration policies have a positive effect on productive human capital and the overall development of Canada (Schiff 15).
Canadas participation in an international study revealed certain gaps in the educational system. It is found that Canadian students show insufficient results when it comes to math and science ( Canadas Students Slipping in Math and Science par. 6). Therefore, it is important to focus on these areas as they are associated with innovation that is the core goal of the Canadian government (Wells par. 11).
Assessment of the Proposal
Strengths
The suggestions to increase investment in innovation and infrastructure are effective as these spheres are elements of a countrys international competitiveness (Brücker et al. 66). The focus on short-term gains associated with the low Canadian dollar would have rather an adverse effect on the economy potentially turning it into an industrial rather innovative state. This shift will be erroneous as the future is associated with information, innovation, and advanced technology rather than the production of some materials, resources, or consumer products.
The economic growth will contribute to the strengthening of the national currency which will encourage Canadians to remain in their home country rather than seek opportunities in a new land. The author draws peoples attention to this issue, which is an important step towards finding the best solution to the problem.
Keeping taxes at the same level, and lowering them down in some areas could also reduce the brain drain as people will not see better prospects in such countries as the USA and will stay in Canada where living standards are high.
Weaknesses
The author claims that the Canadian educational system does not need any changes as it has been effective so far. At that, Canadian students lag behind other nations in such important areas as science and math ( Canadas Students Slipping in Math and Science par. 6). This can be regarded as a sign of starting problems in the system that should be addressed as the failure to raise a generation of innovators can threaten the development of the entire nation (Wells par. 17). More so, there is a lasting debate on the effectiveness of the approach used and the attempts to employ the so-called Finlands paradigm, which is the focus on trust rather than accountability (Hancock par. 2).
The author suggests reducing taxes but does not provide a strategy to fill in federal and state budgets. Mintz mentions the problems the country is facing with its aging population and the need to address this issue (par. 18). Nonetheless, this suggestion is rather protectionist (serving the business world rather than communities) and seems irrelevant. The author also fails to mention that the high taxes were central to the development of such spheres as education, health care, and infrastructure. The authors comparison of the Canadian and US taxation is rather limited.
The author fails to mention the impact immigration can have on the level of the brain drain as well as the overall development of a host country. At that, immigrants invest in the economy, create jobs, share innovative ideas, and see the existing issues in Canadian society from another perspective. Thus, the authors suggestions lack the necessary depth and comprehensiveness.
Personal Recommendations
Canadian taxation policies need certain changes. The reduction will result in a deficit in budgets, so a more thoughtful approach is needed. It is possible to reduce taxes for graduates who choose to work at Canadian companies. Some recommend asking US multinationals for certain reimbursement, which could also be an option (Butler par. 10). However, it could be implemented at the organizational level rather than country-wide policies. In other words, such reimbursement could take a form of launching projects in Canada, setting subsidiaries in this country, and so on.
The educational system should also undergo some changes. The curriculum can be slightly changed, and it can be effective to start several projects encouraging students to choose such spheres as science, mathematics, and so on as their career paths. The debate concerning the choice between accountability and trust should also come to an end. It can be beneficial for the country to find the balance between these paradigms and provide more freedom to students but help them progress through regular assessment.
Immigration policies should also be improved to address the brain drain problem. The Canadian government is planning to increase the number of immigrants accepted ( Canada May Aggravate Asian Brain Drain par. 4). This is a positive incentive as immigrants contribute significantly to the growth of the host countrys economy (Pécoud 96). At that, it is possible to change the way immigrants are accepted. The points system has proved to be effective, but it still has some shortcomings (Schiff 15). It is necessary to change the way the education of applicants is evaluated as the quality of education in different countries differs considerably. Therefore, it is important to provide some additional points to applicants who received education in countries where education quality is higher, while giving fewer points if the applicants education is not regarded as sufficient.
Works Cited
Allen, Kate. How Canada Reversed the Brain Drain. The Star. 2015. Web.
Boudarbat, Brahim, and Marie Connolly. Brain Drain: Why Do Some Post-Secondary Graduates Choose to Work in the United States. 2013. Web.
Brücker, Herbert, Simone Bertoli, Giovanni Facchini, Anna Maria Mayda, and Giovanni Peri. Understanding Highly Skilled Migration in Developed Countries: The upcoming Battle for Brains. Brain Drain and Brain Gain: The Global Competition to Attract High-Skilled Migrants. Ed. Tito Boeri. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2012. 15-209. Print.
Butler, Collin. Brain Drain: U.S. Firms Should Pay Canada for Top Talent, tech CEO Says. CBC News. 2016. Web. .
Canada May Aggravate Asian Brain Drain. Asian Pacific Post. 2016. Web.
Canadas Students Slipping in Math and Science, OECD Finds. CBC News Canada. 2013. Web.
Mintz, Jack M. Jack M. Mintz: Living with the Low Canadian Brain-Drain Dollar (Part 2). Financial Post. 2016. Web.
Pécoud, Antoine. Depoliticising Migration: Global Governance and International Migration Narratives. London: Springer, 2014. Print.
Schiff, Maurice. Brain Drain, Educational Quality and Immigration Policy: Impact on Productive Human Capital in Source and Host Countries, with Canada as a Case Study. 2014. Web.
Wells, Paul. Adding up the Ways Were Falling Behind in Education. MACLEANS. 2013. Web.
. Justin Trudeaus Summer Homework: Easing Canadas Brain Drain: Paul Wells. The Star. 2016. Web.
Yakabuski, Konrad. If the Dollar Goes South, Brains Will Follow. The Globe and Mail. 2016. Web.
The is s long-going debate whether cellphones may contribute to the development of brain tumors in those who use them for prolonged periods, but scientific evidence is so far inconclusive on this matter. The reason for the worries is that cellphones emit RF energy that contains both electric and magnetic energy, and exposure to it may be unhealthy for a human being. While any radio equipment does the same thing, and there are industry standards that regulate explosion to RF energy, cellphones are different because people keep them so close to themselves and use them for many hours on a regular basis. In 2012, the Supreme Court of Italy ruling stated that a man’s cellphone was the cause of his tumor – and, more importantly, even the World Health Organization issued a warning that “cell phone usage may cause the development of glioma, a type of tumor that starts in the brain or spine” (Loki, 2018, p. 603). Yet one should also remember that cellphones have been around since the 1980s and were already quite popular by the 1990s. Humanity now has three decades worth of experience in using cellphones, and if their effects on brain tumors had been pronounced, it would have been more noticeable. As of now, there is lingering suspicion about the causal connection between cellphones and cancer, but firm scientific evidence on the subject remains elusive.
Reference
Loki. R. (2018). Do cellphones cause brain cancer? In R. Johnson-Sheenan & C. Paine, Writing today (4th ed.) (pp. 600-607).
One of the most evident things that can be observed nowadays is that the Internet has a considerable impact on people, the development of relations, the ways of how information is exchanged, etc. However, people are not always sure if the Internet has enough powers to change the way of how a human brain works. For example, the BBC’s author, Tom Stafford admits that everything can change the brain, and the Internet rewiring it as well.
Many researchers want to find out if the Internet has a negative or positive impact on the brain, some people are eager to share their opinions, and writers try to gather as many interesting points of view as possible and introduce a clear picture.
The current achievements in the sphere of science and psychology show that the Internet influences people’s way of thinking, understanding information, and even the possibility to store information for a long period of time: people become more forgetful but can generate information better, lose the required portion of concentration but have high IQ results.
The current paper aims at discussing these controversies not to identify the quality of impact the Internet may have on the human brain but to understand how the Internet can influence people and their abilities to survive in a new technologically developed world.
Why People Use the Internet
Before asking the question about how the Internet can influence the brain, it is necessary to identify why people continue using it even if they know or, at least, guess about some threats. One of the goals people want to achieve is to get more time for living and deprive themselves of the necessity to do simple things like making notes, writing letters, searching for information at libraries, etc.
The Internet is a good chance to store and share information, search for the facts and answers in a short period of time, and observe the changes that take place globally. The Internet provides people with an opportunity to practice certain things the same way TV or reading does. People want to know more, that is why they try to use different options to achieve their goal.
The Internet cannot be regarded by people as a threat. It is a helpful tool that should be used. However, it is enough to deprive people of the Internet for a certain period of time to observe how dependent people and their actions on the Internet are. It means that human brain, as well as a person, depends on the Internet.
Challenges between the Internet and People
One of the most provocative things is the impossibility to feel the condition of the human brain. The brain that is packed neatly in the skull (that is a symbolic bone-crate) cannot send a sensory signal to a person. It is hard to realise if the brain can feel changes and demonstrate the appropriate reactions. At the same time, people know a lot about the effects brain has on a human organism. That is why the reactions that can be observed in a person can serve as the explanation of the changes that can happen in the brain.
For example, the observations show that people start forgetting more using the opportunities of the Internet. The human brain does not find it necessary to remember information. It is evident that people do not want to remember as much information as possible if they know that they can use the Internet and find the required piece in a short period of time.
Long-term memory of people who do not use the Internet from their childhood may be not under threat. However, if the first memories are connected to the Internet, it is possible that not only short-term memory can be under threat. At the same time, the Internet itself does not make people use it. People themselves make decisions and invite the Internet to their lives. Is it possible that the human brain creates something that can damage it? Gregoire, Stafford, and Harris say “Yes” in their articles. They rely on the works of successful scientists and researchers to prove that the Internet does change the human brain, but these changes turn out to be abstract.
To Support or Disregard the Internet
It is stated that the Internet continues supporting the ideas of innovations, opportunities, and growth in different spheres of life. It means that no terrible impacts of the Internet on the human brain can be observed. Still, it is impossible to neglect the fact that the Internet continues promoting changes, and people need to know the nature of such changes.
The Internet is the source of mixed information: people can enter Facebook, listen to the music, watch pictures, and communicate. The brain has to be ready to be adapted to different sources of information and perceive it at the necessary level. That is why it is hard to pay full attention to all tasks complete only. The Internet is also the possibility to use Google and find any kind of information. Current students should not waste their brains memorising different historical facts and dates. They can use Google and find the necessary answer quickly. It means that the Internet helps to facilitate the work of brain and does not overload it.
The list of the chosen topic’s contradictions is far from over. On the one hand, the Internet helps the brain to search information and understand the worth of abstract information. On the other hand, the possibility to use the Internet substitutes any other types of work (e.g. visiting libraries and reading the books, visiting museums and observing the historical artifacts, etc.). People lose the connection between what is material and what is abstract and make themselves weak in regards to the necessity to use evidence to prove their points of view.
Finally, from a purely observational point of view, it is possible to suggest that the use of the Internet reduces the necessity of physical activities. People do not need to walk and search for answers. People may not even leave their beds and earn money. At the same time, the human brain works perfectly. It means that the brain can be better trained with the help of the Internet at the expense of the body activities. The only parts of a human body that can move are the eyes and hands.
Conclusion
In general, the Internet may positively influence the human brain and the possibility to comprehend and evaluate information. Still, people should understand that their brain cannot exist for a long time if the body gets worse. That is why the Internet should not be used as an absolute substitution of various physical activities and changes. The Internet is just a source of information created by and for people.
Reference List
Carr, N 2010, The Shallows: how the internet is changing the way we think, read and remember, Atlantic Books, London.
Easton, T 2011, Taking sides: clashing views in science, technology and society, McGraw Hill, Dubuque, Iowa.
The differences between a human being and a computer can be partly explained by looking at their reaction to an external stimulus. First of all, a computer can process information from external environment only according the predetermined patterns or algorithms. In contrast, a human being can freely choose various ways or strategies of analyzing a stimulus. This is the main reasons why people are capable of independent decisions, but one cannot say the same thing about computers.
Furthermore, one should note that humans’ reaction to a stimulus is affected by their previous experience. In particular, a person can change his/her behavior if it was not successful in the past. This ability is the basis of human learning. Currently, researchers attempt to develop the algorithms for machine learning.
For instance, one can mention such a program like Deep Blue that can adjust its strategies depending upon the moves of a chess player. Nevertheless, computers are very limited in their ability to change their behavior or strategies.
Finally, one should note that humans are able to act irrationally. For instance, people can be influenced by their unique biases, prejudices, or opinions that can hardly be explained or justified through reasoning (Edgar, 2003, p. 452). This is why humans can respond to a stimulus in an unexpected way. In contrast, computers lack this ability. Certainly, irrational behavior of an individual is not always beneficial; however, this is an inherent quality of a human being.
Thus, some of the capabilities possessed by a human being cannot be easily replicated in machines. In particular, one can speak about such aspects as freedom of choice, ability to adapt one’s behavior, and irrationality. At the present moment, computer scientists attempt to address these limitations, but one cannot say to what extent their efforts will be successful.
What can computers do that humans cannot?
There are several things that computers can do more effectively than humans. In this case, one can speak about specific tasks that are performed according to certain patterns (Stillings, Weisler, & Chase, 1995, p. 41). Moreover, these patterns have to be accurately described. For instance, one can mention that computers can easily add, subtract, multiply, or divide numbers that may include thousands of digits. Theoretically, people can also cope with these activities, but it may take them an excessive amount of time.
Additionally, computers can better record and analyze external stimuli to which they are exposed. For example, these technologies can be used by meteorologists who have to analyze numerous data sets. These professionals rely on the ability of information technologies to retain and examine gigabytes of quantitative information that is needed to forecast weather. Again, this activity can be very time-consuming, if humans decide not to rely on computers.
Furthermore, machines can be much better at evaluating different options within a very short time. To demonstrate this point, one can refer to chess computers that can assess millions of moves within a minute.
Thus, computers are much better at doing tasks that follow a certain pattern or logic. With the help of algorithms, machines can perform various activities much quicker than human beings. Nevertheless, information technologies can be effective only in those cases, if a certain activity can be described as a regular set of steps.
Reference List
Edgar, S. (2003). Morality and Machines: Perspectives on Computer Ethics: Perspectives on Computer Ethics. New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Stillings, N., Weisler, S., & Chase, C. (1995). Cognitive Science: An Introduction. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Technological development has transformed society by making information the basis for various areas of human activity, increasing the importance of its creation and dissemination. The availability of different information due to digitalization significantly impacts individuals – not only their actions but also their personal life, socialization, health, and other aspects. Digitalization leads to the decline of specific skills like impairments and delayed gratification, which are more related to the human brain. On the positive side, it results in the improvement of other abilities, such as strategy development. Societies have benefited positively from technological enhancements; however, it has its effects on the population in constant use. The research paper aims to identify technology’s positive and negative impact on human well-being. It seeks to answer questions like how it impacts the human brain and what are its benefits and drawbacks. Since digitalization has increased the flow of information that a person receives daily, it is crucial to consider the impact on human brain functioning. The use of technology has increased rapidly, causing major impacts on the brain due to the constant interaction with machines.
Digitalization of Society
The amount of information surrounding people increases exponentially, and its impact is contradictory. On the one hand, information exchange and digital communication provide solutions to many problems. They make communication at long distances easier or promote scientific discoveries through global findings exchange. In the contemporary world, digitalization has been so beneficial. It fosters innovation and creativity as part and parcel of our day-to-day living (Bejinaru, 2019). Positive consequences can be seen around; data can now be processed and sent in milliseconds. Humans are currently working hand in hand with machines making the work much faster and more efficient (Bikalenko et al., 2021). Modernization of society has emerged as one of the most critical issues in the modern world. Digital artifacts and online practices have penetrated a significant portion of social, organizational, and economic activities (Bejinaru, 2019). As a result, the barriers limiting individual development in innovation and problem-solving to address societal challenges are eradicated. Automation has spread widely and, to date, significantly impacted human activity.
Technology Spread
The negative impact of digitalization and the scale of changes in daily life they have brought attract more public attention. In particular, about 59% of the world’s population uses the internet and, on average, spends more than six and a half hours online (Hoehe & Thibaut, 2020). This time spent with computers scares society and makes them pay attention to the harm caused. Globalization plays a vital role in the spread of machinery and knowledge across borders. Automation has made the world more integrated, making the transfer of information faster and through various channels. Emerging markets have adopted the use of current innovations to boost their productivity. Machinery enhancements improve incomes and living standards worldwide (Vedechkina & Borgonovi, 2021). Global growth heavily relies on how robotics spreads across nations.
Developed states spread their innovations to non-developed ones, thus promoting technological diffusion. With globalization as the key factor facilitating the spread, all individuals can benefit from recent developments. It results in the experience of both the negative and positive consequences of adopting modern changes. Mechanization has altered how we conduct our daily activities and revolutionized our ways of life (Limone & Toto, 2021). Currently, over two million smartphones are sold globally in a single day. Active web users are rising worldwide; they stand at 3.2 billion and are estimated to continue increasing (Sweller, 2020). Multifunctional devices like smartphones have been innovated; they can be used to perform several tasks. The gadgets have proved their significance in helping man undertake his day-to-day deeds. With smartphones, one can access any information without limitations using search engines like Google or Bing.
Digitalization’s Impact on Human Activity
Human beings have been impacted by digitalization both negatively and positively. Our lives have been reshaped mainly during the Covid-19 pandemic when online transactions were highly recommended. Human activity has been affected in several ways, the unemployment number has been reduced, quality of life improved, and access to public services has been made much more manageable (Small et al., 2020). In the business industry, digital technologies have increased efficiency by making work easier. The manufacturing process has been improved through automation, thus making it much faster and cost-effective. As a result of the rapid innovations experienced, humans have witnessed changes in their cognitive, axiological, communicative, and mental realms (Limone & Toto, 2021). The rise of associated problems occurs just as globalization increases. The main effect caused by globalization on all human activities is the decrease in the cost of manufacturing. As a result, products are offered at a much lower price.
Technology has made positive contributions worldwide but has also negatively impacted human activity. There is a variety of evidence suggesting the effects of globalization and its overreliance and use. Mobile phones and social media have resulted in the experience of physical and psychological problems like difficulty in focusing and eyestrains (Limone & Toto, 2021). It tends to develop lazy individuals who rely heavily on it and cannot engage in the use of problem-solving skills. Internet addiction has its consequences, mainly affecting teenagers and growing children (Refer to Figure 1). Physical issues likely to be adopted include eyestrain, poor posture, sleep issues, and reduced physical activity (Ruiz-Ruano García & Puga, 2020). The common psychological effects likely to be developed include isolation, depression, and anxiety (Small et al., 2020). An individual with such problems is expected to be unproductive and would build brain issues.
Impact on the Human Brain
The possibility of both favorable and harmful effects on the brain of various activities in the information society can be significant for the younger generation. Their cognitive abilities are formed under the influence of external factors, and the features of the information and technologies used can improve or interfere with this process (Firth et al., 2019). Many researchers, such as Lime and Toto (2021) or Vedechkina and Borgonovi (2021), draw attention that the impact can be beneficial and harmful. For example, such negative consequences as reduced focus, risk of dependence on technology, impaired social and emotional intelligence, slower cognitive and brain development, social isolation, and sleep disorders can be highlighted (Small et al., 2020). However, the effect can be positive with careful technology and information selection. For example, neural activation of circuits responsible for decision-making, improved memory, cognition, multitasking skills, and response speed are possible (Small et al., 2020). These facts indicate the importance of responsible use of technology and consumption of information.
Digitalization’s Effect on Brain Functioning
The overuse of electrical gadgets like computers, tablets, and smartphones adversely affects brain functions such as cognition, language, and visual perception. It results in the creation of structural changes in the brain primarily focus. Over 4.7 billion people use the internet, with the majority spending much of their time online (Firth et al., 2019). They, in turn, overload their brains by providing various information to be processed. According to Sweller (2020), increasing the amount of data creates an overload for the human brain since its cognitive abilities are limited at specific levels of information processing (Ruiz-Ruano García & Puga, 2020). Moreover, the risk of obtaining false and contradictory information is constantly increasing, destabilizing perception (Ruiz-Ruano García & Puga, 2020). Such influence modifies the features of brain functioning, and it is necessary to study change’s potential benefits and disadvantages.
The brain’s cognitive performance gets affected due to the frequent destructions presented by the internet. As a result, individuals cannot realize their abilities and optimize their emotional, behavioral, and psychological functioning to cope with life situations. For example, there were concerns about mental disorders, in particular, an increase in the number of cases of depression, anxiety, and suicide (Hoehe & Thibaut, 2020). However, Hoehe and Thibaut (2020) note that technologies should not be characterized as bad or good since the effect depends on who uses them and how. As a result, the study of digitalization’s impact on the brain should also consider this human factor. Human brains crave additional information; it is upon an individual’s ability to know how to balance to prevent technology’s overreliance. Proper planning will incorporate bot with no experience of any negative consequences.
Beneficial and Adverse Effects on the Human Brain
Technology has resulted in several benefits to human brain health. Neural exercise is attained; exposure to the internet for research is a mentally stimulating process that exercises the brain (Bikalenko et al., 2021). Using the internet for short-term study results in internet training and better brain functioning. There is cognitive training as interaction with various sources of knowledge gets enhanced. Multitasking skills are also developed, improving other competencies such as divided and sustained attention and working memory (Bejinaru, 2019). Individuals engaging in video games tend to establish adequate reaction time. Visual attention reaction time gets influenced, thus improving cognitive and motor skills (Hoehe & Thibaut, 2020). The accomplishments improve surgical abilities as they lower any lower error roles in the operating room. Video games are a potential source of these benefits; they improve multitasking skills, fluid intelligence, and improvement on working memory (Hoehe & Thibaut, 2020). Overreliance on something is not always good; despite having a positive impact, technology also negatively influences the brain.
Digitalization affects and changes various aspects of brain functioning. In their research, Firth et al. (2019) highlight changes in attention, memory, and social cognition. In particular, streams of information from several sources contribute to the dispersion of attention. The constant availability of a large amount of data also affects how people memorize and extract knowledge (Firth et al., 2019). Sleep is also highly influenced; screen exposure disrupts sleep, thus harming cognition and personal behavior. Individuals that make use of the internet frequently tend to get addicted. Technology has changed the habits and norms of social interaction, affecting self-perception (Firth et al., 2019). At the same time, Firth et al. (2019) note that many aspects of the digitalization effect on the human brain have not yet been studied. However, the impact will only increase, given the development speed and the spread of technology.
Responsible Attitude Toward Digitalization
Globalization has resulted in positive developments in the world around us. It has its positive and negative impacts, which the beneficiaries can control. A responsible attitude toward digitalization will facilitate eradicating the emerging adverse effects of total negligence and ignorance (Leidner & Tona, 2021). When using an electronic gadget, taking breaks and engaging in other activities is essential to avoid being addicted. Developing critical thinking skills such as communication, problem-solving, observation, and inference is crucial. These qualities help improve decision-making capabilities and build confidence and ethics. Responsible attitudes can only be addressed if the methods of limiting the negative impact of digitalization are identified (Leidner & Tona, 2021). Individuals need to take advantage of digitalization to develop cognitive abilities. The innovations need to be adopted from positive benefits and the negative ones prevented or eradicated.
Methods of Limiting the Negative Impact of Digitalization
Technology addiction is a common problem the current population faces. There are potential strategies that can be implemented to limit the adverse effects of technology. The first step is to identify what type of technologies take much of your time (Leidner & Tona, 2021). Step two involves preventing getting addicted to innovations and other electronic gadgets. It is advisable not to let technology take control of one’s life. Professional help can be sought if the journey away from addiction becomes too mountainous. Digital dieting should be adopted; through this, a person refrains from the use of any technology that they are addicted to or cannot stay without (Limone & Toto, 2021). Developing critical thinking skills will also promote better judgment, enabling sound decisions to prevent addiction. Self-discipline is a vital factor that can facilitate proper technological use.
Taking Advantage of Digitalization to Develop Cognitive Abilities
The use of technology has proven to be beneficial; it has improved the quality of life and resulted in the development of digital skills. Positive impacts of digital technology on cognitive skills include the provision of adequate knowledge (Vedechkina & Borgonovi, 2021). It helps to learn the alphabet and order of numbers, identify correct numbers and recognize images. When students learn using digital platforms, they are most likely to concentrate on the vital details rather than interpreting knowledge more abstractly. The Internet is a powerful cognitive enhancement technology; it offers instant access to information and the ability to share knowledge much easier (Sweller, 2020). When children are exposed to Apart from facing possible side effects, the brain has higher abilities to make positive use of innovations.
Conclusion
The use of technology has resulted in several impacts that affect users’ physical and psychological health. Depending on the frequency of use, it can result in different outcomes. The advantages outweigh the drawbacks; negative experiences are mainly attained due to ignorance. Societies have developed immensely socially and economically due to globalization. Technology has spread across all corners of the earth, and its impact can be seen from the resulting human activities. The use of machinery has both negative and positive consequences for brain health. Adopting responsible attitudes toward automation will help in limiting the potential effects likely to be attained. The study is critical as it outlines the possible impact of innovations and how they can affect physical and mental health. It also guides how the potential drawbacks can be prevented. Future research needs to build upon the findings of this research and address the limitations presented in the study.
References
Bejinaru, R. (2019). Impact of digitalization on education in the knowledge economy. Management Dynamics in the Knowledge Economy, 7(3), 367–380. Web.
Small, G. W., Lee, J., Kaufman, A., Jalil, J., Siddarth, P., Gaddipati, H., Moody, T. D., & Bookheimer, S. Y. (2020). Brain health consequences of digital technology use. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 22(2), 179–187.
Figure 1. Effects of Internet Addiction. Note. Adapted from Internet addiction and digital detoxification: Symptoms and consequences of excessive smartphone use stock illustration, by N. Chaykovskaya, 2020
As it is known, active exercises help to improve not only a physical but also mental state, helping to better focus on goals and achieve high brain efficiency. In the article “The Time Course Effect of Moderate Intensity Exercise on Response Execution and Response Inhibition” written by Joyce, Graydon, McMorris, and Davranche (2009), the authors seek to find a relationship between how quickly tasks are performed if a person is actively engaged in sports. The researchers want to determine the relationship between speed of response and specific work and identify how often a person should do physical exercises. The stated objective is achieved by testing a group of volunteers in the laboratory and evaluating the results demonstrated by them and comparing the indicators obtained.
Summary of the Research Article
The authors in their work sought to trace the relationship between the cognitive functions of the human brain and how specifically physical activity influences them (Joyce et al., 2009). The primary goal of the scientists was to determine how the quality of work with particular and limited time changes if people are given a specific task and asked to perform a series of physical exercises. It was assumed that there would be a difference in indicators if a person did that job without preliminary preparation and practicing sports.
As a target group, university students were tested whose average age was twenty-three. These people had not previously participated in such experiments; none of them suffered from neurological or other dangerous diseases. The study was conducted in several stages, and participants underwent specific tests every day at the same time in order to reduce the risk of changes caused by different time of the day and brain activity.
Primary Hypothesis
The primary hypothesis put forward by the authors of the study was the following: a particular set of physical exercises that are performed in parallel with using cognitive functions of the brain allows better coping with all the tasks and speeds up the decision process (Joyce et al., 2009). As critical objectives, it was decided to use stop-signal tests. It was planned that the participants of the two groups would show different results during the two main sections when the experiment was conducted.
Methodology of the Experiment
For the study, the authors used a practical approach to solve specific tasks (Joyce et al., 2009). As a method of analysis, a mixed research was taken as a basis since not only questions and oral tests were applied during the work but also the number of participants was evaluated. The results obtained were calculated according to the volume of members and their indicators. The data were analyzed and, based on available results, it was suggested that complicated physical load could affect the properties of human cognitive functions.
Findings and Conclusions
As the authors claim, their study proved that speed of responses made after physical exercises could increase (Joyce et al., 2009). Also, in the process of work, it was revealed that a preliminary activity does not interfere with the performance of particular tasks; on the contrary, it improves the response to set goals and helps to orient more quickly. According to Asp (2017), various indicators of the human brain work are tightly connected with the body indicators, and if there are any changes in performing the same activities, results may be different. It means that if people do the same work differently, for example, solve tasks either after physical activities or without them, the brain will react individually to these changes.
The authors confirm that their assumptions turned out to be correct and argue that additional research in this area can bring even more evidence to their work (Joyce et al., 2009). Cognitive functions of the human brain largely depend on the state of the organism. Hormones produced in the course of specific activities affect the productivity and quality of the work performed; they are important indicators of the human mood and the manner of work. All the results may be used as a basis for the following studies.
Critical Evaluation of Media Claim
The study conducted by Joyce et al. (2009) fully supports the claim in the media article written by Asp (2017) and helps to make conclusions concerning the use of the authors’ research in the process of studying the stated issue. First, the title of the two works is similar, the only difference is that a scientific paper has complex subtitles, and the media article is designed for a large number of readers and is framed in a more journalistic style.
Secondly, the goal of both papers is to determine the effect of physical activity on accelerating the brain and to test how exercises contribute to a faster response to specific tasks. In addition to the impact on the brain activity, Asp (2017) also emphasizes a positive effect of exercises on the general condition of the body. Therefore, it may be the only significant difference between the two articles.
Joyce, J., Graydon, J., McMorris, T., & Davranche, K. (2009). The time course effect of moderate intensity exercise on response execution and response inhibition. Brain and Cognition, 71(1), 14-19.
There has been an escalation on the debate whether the homosexual trait is an acquired characteristic or a genetic trait. Majority of the human rights activists sympathizing with gay community argue that homosexuality as congenital is a genetically condition and therefore homosexuals should have the right of association and marriage (Bailey, 2003). They based their arguments on the act scientists in the late 20th century discovered that homosexuality is a genetic or hormonal condition. Scientific studies have correlated sexual orientation to almost everything ranging from the parts of the brain, length of the finger, differences in the inner ear, and hormonal differences among others (LeVay, 1991).
A Psychiatric Professor in the University of Columbia by the name Robert Spitzer contended that humans can alter their sexual orientation from homosexual to heterosexual through reparative therapy counselling (Bailey, 2003). Spitzer was an opponent of the ideology which conceived that homosexuality was an inborn characteristic and could not be changed. Some of the most recent studies carried out on homosexuality suggest that it is not a genetic trait but a fashion among the youths (Bailey, 2003). These studies also suggests that homosexuality among women is based on social interaction, presented as an emotional appeal besides physical attraction that may change with time (Kauth, 2000).
Contrary to the increasing evidence relating to inevitability and impossibility in resisting homosexual behaviour, some studies have been extensively publicized as evidence to a genetic element. However, these studies are either badly constructed or not well presented as to their importance (Bailey, 2003). Other Columbian University professors in the psychiatric department studied the most dominant homosexual gene on the brain structure and found out that most studies have procedural flaws. These professors concluded that there is no evidence to support the genetic aspect of homosexuality. They asserted that the appeal of the present genetic explanation of sexual orientation was purely driven by discontent with the current status of psycho-social explanations than from a considerable body of investigational data (Kauth, 2000)…
Despite of the opposition regarding the biological explanation of sexual orientation, some researchers are very optimistic on the correlation of the above two elements and argue that the past studies have been poorly undertaken (Bailey, 2003). The biological evidence to support the difference between the heterosexuals and homosexuals relates to the brain structure, hormonal difference, similarity of homosexuality among twin and the genetic markers in siblings (Kauth, 2000).
Brain structural difference between homosexuals and heterosexuals
Sex differentiation in the structure of the hypothalamus and the closest brain structures have been found to relate to sexual characteristics of humans such as trans-sexuality and sexual orientation ( Ellis & Ames, 1987). Gender differences in the hypothalamus and other limbic structures are believed to be the reason behind sex dissimilarity in reproduction and sexual traits in humans. Scientific researches show that hypothalamus is the basis to human sexual behaviours (Pilgrim & Reisertm, 1992).
The brain of a homosexual contains double the number of cells as compared to the heterosexual counterpart in the suprachiasmastic (SCN) nucleus-an area within the hypothalamus (Swab et.al 1997). The homosexual traits increase the neuronal digits in the brain structure. The growth of the SCN cell numbers among the gay men is believed to be taking place during the early stages of brain development (Ellis & Ames, 1987).
At birth, the adult SCN cells ranges from 13 to 20 percent, however these cells starts to grow very first at the post natal period (Swab et.al 1997). The total number of the SCN cells in the male adult homosexual is the same as those found in the infants (homosexual) in the postnatal period. In the normal circumstance, the SCN cell number declines by about 35 percent from the summit value as a person approaches adult age. Therefore, among the homosexual men the decline of the SCN cells is prevented (Ellis & Ames, 1987).
A growing number of studies explain that the brains of homosexual men are less masculine than those of the straight males. This is well demonstrated in the visual-spatial work performance. Visual-spatial work performance is used to measure the level of brain masculinity and in normal circumstances male heterosexuals usually exceeds the female counterparts (Swab et.al 1997). Besides, the audio waves of the gay males while processing verbal-spatial tasks are more corresponding to the female heterosexuals as compared to heterosexual males (Ellis & Ames, 1987).
A research at the Texas university revealed that the brain of the gay males and females responds straight to the hearing / auditory stimuli as compared to those of the heterosexuals (Ellis & Ames, 1987). When short auditory stimuli are directed to the ear, a unique series of brain waves is generated. These waves vary in their magnitude or timing among the gay and straight persons. Female homosexuals experience brain waves intermediate to the heterosexuals while in the case of males the brain is shifted away from those of the male and the female heterosexuals (Swab et.al 1997).
Scientific studies also show that the male and female brains demonstrate sexual difference/ dimorphism in the pre-optic zone of the hypothalamus. Males have twice as many cell numbers in this area as compared to the females (Schultz et.al 1996). The same study also established that some of the interstitial nuclei of the anterior Hypothalamus are two times larger in males than in females. The same difference is witnessed among the homosexual and heterosexual males (Ellis & Ames, 1987). Post mortem assessment of the brains of the heterosexual males has shown that interstitial nuclei of the anterior Hypothalamus are twice as many in heterosexual females and homosexual males (Ellis & Ames, 1987).
Other studies on the role of hypothalamus on sexual orientation showed that the sexual dimorphic nucleus reduced in volume plus the cell numbers in females at the immediate post natal age. However, the above findings complicated the study of the brain since the number of sexually dimorphic nucleus and the cells within are also influenced by chemical, hormonal and social factors (Schultz et.al 1996). Another subject that complicates the difference between the brain structure of the gays and the straight persons is the issue of sexual experience which also affects the structure of the brain. This has raised eyebrows on whether homosexuality alters the brain structure or brain alters itself as a result of homosexuality (Bailey, 2003).
Genetics and hormonal influence in homosexuality
Sexual orientation is also a result of hormonal balance in the womb thus homosexuality is attributed to the same hormonal influence. Because hormonal level in the womb is not available, substitutes for hormonal influence have been used to determine how hormones influence sexual orientation (Golombok et.al 1993). These proxies comprise of different skeletal structures, ratio of length of a number of phalanges among others. Homosexual males and straight females have less long bone in their limbs than heterosexual males and gay females (Ellis & Ames, 1987).
Studies on family lineage have shown that homosexual men had more gay relatives in their maternal tree than their paternal pedigree, implying the connection to the X chromosome (LeVay, 1991). Researchers found that the association was at the region of Xq 28. The theory of natural selection also supports the possibility of the connection of X chromosomes with homosexuality. Since homosexual males can not reproduce, their perpetuation has been enhanced by the reproducing females with gay genes in them (Golombok et.al 1993).
Conclusion
There has been a lot of publicity on the origin of the homosexual orientation. A great notion has been created linking homosexuality with genetics instead of the environmental influence. Nevertheless, with the examination of the scientific literatures it is not yet very clear on what courses homosexuality. The origin of homosexuality has led to many debates, with some group proposing the biological influence while others opposing. Major difference between the homosexuals especially men and the heterosexual counterparts is attributed to the difference in the particular cell numbers within the hypothalamus. Homosexuality can also be explained in genetic terms. However, there are no substantial evidence to support all of the above scientific theories on the difference and origin of homosexuality.
References
Bailey, J.M. (2003). The man who would be queen: The science of gender-bending and transsexualism. Washington, D.C: Joseph Henry Press.
Ellis, B.J., & Ames, M.A. (1987). Neuro-hormonal functioning and sexual orientation: A theory of homosexuality-heterosexuality. Psychol Bull, 101:233–258.
Golombok , S., Spencer, A., & Rutter, M. (1983). Children in lesbian and single-parent households: psychosexual and psychiatric appraisal. J Child Psychol Psychiat, 4 pp. 551-572.
Kauth, M.R. (2000). True nature: A theory of sexual attraction. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
LeVay, S. (1991). “A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men”, Science journal 253 pp. 1034-1037.
Pilgrim,C., & Reisertm, I. (1992). Differences between male and female brains – developmental mechanisms and implications. Harm Metab Res, 24 pp. 353-359.
Schultz, C., Braak, H., & Braak, E. (1996). A sex difference in neuro-degeneration of the human hypothalamus. Neurosci Lett, 212 pp.103-106.
Swab, D.S., Zhou,J., &Hoffman, M.A. (1997). Sexual differentiation of the human brain. Biomedical review, 7 pp. 17-32.
