Category: Brain

The brain is the most vital component of the human body. It directs and organizes actions and responses, helps think and feel, and provides human experiences such as memories and emotions. This research paper consists of three parts that highlight the three-dimensional sagittal view model of the brain, the structure that underlies neuronal communication, and three projects to get some first-hand understanding of sensation and perception. The sections aim to explore the brains role in developing perception necessary in the sense of awareness essential in human existence.

Model of the Brain

Figure 1 shows a sagittal view model of the brain modeled to represent different sections responsible for the brains functioning. The labeling shows the shape and relative position, including cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, amygdala, hippocampus, medulla, and pons. All the brains four lobes, including the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe, are also labeled. Table 1 provides a key that explains where each required part is represented in the models as per the alphabetic sequence used. The intention is to visualize and locate some of the critical structures in the human brain.

Table 1: Figure 1 Key.

The structure that Underlies Neuronal Communication

Part B involves understanding the neurobiology that underlies human experience. This section explores how communication occurs in the brain, specifically how neurons communicate with each other. Figure 2 shows a 3D model of communicating neurons with labeled cell body, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, axon terminal, containing vesicles of the neurotransmitter, on the sending neuron and synapse. The neurotransmitter molecules and receptor sites are also labeled on the receiving neuron.

Table 2: Figure 2 Key.

Sensation and Perception Demonstrations

Part C of this research paper experiments on understanding sensation and perception through small, first-hand demonstrations. The three selected projects include Tasty Buds, The Nose Knows, and Two-Point Discrimination. The procedure involved getting support from a friend. Based on the ethical code in experiments involving humans, this segment engages a 31-year-old friend after agreeing to participate. The participant understands that participation is optional and may withdraw at any moment. The participant is instructed on the procedures involved in data management. After the experiment, the volunteer was informed about the purpose of the research, the hypothesis, and the findings.

Tasty Buds

The tasty Buds experiment draws a map of the tongue indicating the sensations most sensitive to the different substances. Figure 3 labels some parts of the tongue that were good at detecting tastes from the foods in the experiment. Part F of the tongue did not detect any of the tastes. The most likely reason is that the human tongues dorsal core is devoid of fungiform papillae and taste buds.

Table 3: Figure 3 Key.

The Nose Knows

The Nose Knows experiment involves engaging a friend based on the ethical codes on testing mashed banana, avocado, potato, melted butter, eggs, applesauce, jelly beans, garbanzo beans, sweet potatoes, and Weetabix baby food. The experiments observed that the tester could identify mashed bananas and applesauce only. Foods that seem to be strongly associated with smell in the selected category include melted butter, eggs, jelly beans, garbanzo beans, sweet potatoes, and Weetabix baby food. The commonality with these foods is that they do not have a uniquely distinctive taste. During the interview, it emerged that humans tend to find rotten eggs to smell disgusting, probably because of the hydrogen sulfide composition, which smells like Sewer gas. The nose seems to function closely with the tongue to taste in foods.

Two-Point Discrimination

Two-Point Discrimination was also conducted as per the ethical codes in research, with the results showing that the forearms are the most sensitive parts of the body with 2.5mm. The observations are similar to the skins senses table research by Dan R. Kenshalo that shows fingers are the most sensitive at 23 mm (Sawai et al., 2019). Figure 4 relates to the experiment data as it reflects on the somatosensory cortex area responsible for receiving and interpreting relevant stimuli, including touch.

Conclusion

The insights into the brains structure, the communication between nerves, sensations, and perception demonstrations reveal the importance of the brain in human life. Part A sagittal view modeling has brought some transparency to the structure of the human brain. Part B complements Part A demonstrating that neural transmission is a complicated electrochemical process whose understanding is beneficial in psychology, especially in determining why some ideas or behaviors become obsessive or unrestrained and how repetition alters the brain. Part C connects the two concepts in Part A and Part B as it demonstrates sensation and perception, an experience that seems to rely on communication between nerves and brains.

References

Hughes, C. L., Flesher, S. N., Weiss, J. M., Boninger, M., Collinger, J. L., & Gaunt, R. A. (2021). Perception of microstimulation frequency in human somatosensory cortex. ELife, 10, e65128. Web.

Sawai, H., Kohda, K., & Kurahashi, T. (2019). The effect of temporal adaptation to different temperatures and osmolarities on heat response of TRPV4 in cultured cells. Journal of thermal biology, 85, 102424. Web.

Introduction

The human brain is the most perfect and most mysterious mechanism. It controls everything that happens in the body, and therefore life. Mind is a set of cognitive and analytical abilities of man, due to which the intellect of the individual is formed. There is no standard interpretation of the state of certain abilities in people because the concept of reason is perceived differently in religious, philosophical, and scientific texts. There is a deep tradition of practice in each of these areas.

Therefore, the lack of understanding of what form the mind has and what it is in size gives rise to the hypothesis that the mind is equal to the brain. Thus, people try to explain the nature of the mind in their own way, making it a physical part of the human body. Accordingly, scientists have been trying to find the truth in whether the mind is the same as the brain for a long time. Explaining the system of connections between the mind and the brain is a challenging task that many scientists and philosophers are trying to solve. It is essential to understand whether human consciousness is the result of brain activity since it is consciousness that controls the mind. Two flows of scientists are engaged in the decision of a long-term issue. Dualists and monists argue for and against the connection of the mind with the brain and try to find a consensus.

Arguments that the Mind is Identical to the Brain

Proponents of the theory that the mind and the brain are identical concepts say that there is no non-physical mind. That is, all human actions and feelings are expressed through the brain. Defenders of the approach also compare people to robots. Maintaining that humans live on carbon, an android can become a silicon-based life form (Oakley 134). In this case, if humans and robots learn to perform similar functions and communicate about emotions and beliefs, the community recognizes that the mind is another definition of the brain.

In order to substantiate the theory with arguments, there have been many thoughts in favor of the fact that the mind is corporeal matter. Some psychologists believe that it is possible to explain the behavior of a living creature according to essential physical factors, such as genetic heredity and individual perception of interactions. Thus, there is no meaningful contrast between the operation of the human brain and other mammals. For example, people speak specific sentences in order to express a physical desire (Heil 65). Therefore, it confirms that there is only the brain, as in any other mammal. Human thought is simply a consequence of brain activity; it relates to the surrounding events and their response.

The approach of typical physicalism is a reaction to the failure of behaviorism to present reasonable arguments. These philosophers argued that if mental states are something material, then accordingly, mental states reflect the inner side of the brain (Heil 51). Scientists use the example to explain the psychic nature by physical factors, such as the desire to drink a glass of water by igniting certain neurons in some brain regions. On the other hand, according to symbolic theories of identity, the fact that a certain state of the brain is associated only with the mental state does not mean that there are no other connections between other processes in the human body.

The next trend in the evolution of ideas was functionalism. According to the explanations of the theory, mental manifestations are characterized by their causal links with the general psychological state and factors that affect each persons perception. Functionalism does not explore the physical realization of the psychic state, characterizing it not in terms of mental functional properties but demands. The example of another part of the human body can explain the need for the body to perform specific functions. Thus, the kidney is scientifically necessary to filter the blood and maintain a certain chemical balance. Accordingly, mental characteristics are required for a person to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills. (Heil 65). Thus, the protectors of the theory firmly adhere to two essential beliefs about the relationship between mind and body. The first is that physicalism is accurate, and therefore the mental state is the result of physical factors. Secondly, the mind cannot be reduced only to physical indicators. Thus, intellect and human behavior are also inspired by the environment and ancestral data.

Opinions of Opponents

Opponents that the mind is identical to the brain emphasize the radical difference between spirit and body. Dualists deny that the mind is equal to the brain, and some examples reject that the thought is entirely a product of the brain. The basic principle guides substance dualists according to which the mind and body are made of various substances. They also argue that the mind has only an intellectual function that cannot be measured (Robinson 4). Nor can it be classified as a physical object due to its lack of size, shape, location, hardness, motion, and adherence to the laws of physics.

Although proponents of the separation of the mind from the body unanimously argue that mental abilities do not depend on the extent of the brain, there are differences in theories. One flow of philosophers believes that the mind and body affect each other in the process of functioning of the human. That is, these are two separate substances that help maintain human viability (Robinson 7). The following thesis does not support physical science and rejects the connection between the mind and the brain, so they associate the ability to think with God. Finally, the third flow offers a compromise approach, arguing that the influence of the body can have consequences that affect the mind (Robinson 8). This method confirms that thought and intellect are not equal to the brain, but they are interconnected if they coexist in one person.

In general, three theories advise that the mental state has not yet been completely studied by science. Therefore, dualists believe that psychic manifestations are specific properties of the physical body. For an accurate understanding of the concept, it is worth providing an example. Consciousness can most accurately demonstrate that the human body, which consists of organs, including the brain, has an autonomous element. It is this part that allows each person to acquire certain character features and be individual. Moreover, dualists use Leibnizs Law of Identity to prove their position. According to the explanations of the law, things are completely identical only when in the same period of time they have exactly the equivalent qualities. Also, philosophers try to classify the properties of the mind, which lacks matter (Robinson 11). Thus, the absence of exact shape and location shows that intelligence and emotions are not identical to the brain.

Despite impressive arguments, opponents argue that dualism is irreconcilable with obvious laws or facts of science. For example, the law of thermodynamics cannot confirm the nonexistence of a correlation between the mind and the brain. Competitors also see a lack of logic in the concept. As evidence, they cite the fact that it is impossible to determine the individuality of the mind, just as a person cannot independently understand the relationship between mind and body (Robinson 13). Also, they evaluate the dualists confidence in their arguments as overestimated because everything in the world is relative.

Evaluation of Evidence

Indeed, in the scientific world, there are philosophers who objectively assess the situation and explain that now there are not enough arguments to accurately solve the problem of the connection of mind and brain. It is logical to assume that the human mind and development do not have sufficient data and research to understand how concepts such as mind, intellect, and body correlate. Therefore, they believe that more middling concepts should be followed. According to which the problem of the mind-body cannot be explained on the foundation of modern scientific progress (Oakley 134). In order to find the exact patterns, people need to generate new charts in the future. Although based on the above material, certain conclusions can be drawn. Theories of monism and dualism have many approaches, which are divided into radical and ordinary. Thus, given the lack of evidence, it is impossible to support philosophers radical opinions of both theories. Therefore, it is necessary to stop attention to the flows that are as close as possible to the perception of humans.

Considering the philosophy of monism, it is worth supporting the evidence that the brain is associated with the mind and emotions. Still, at the same time, human perception is affected by many factors. Thus, each persons intelligence is influenced by the environment, time allocated for training, and genetic data (Heil 51). It is these factors that provide the absorption of information and shape the mental state of people. The brain is just a mechanism for generating all components and variables. In some ways, this view is confirmed by non-radical sophists of dualism. (Robinson 4). Philosophers argue that it is not reasonable to describe the mind and brain as one phenomenon. Although, they recognize that the mind and body causally affect each other.

Therefore, it is crucial to follow the symbiosis of the two approaches. According to which the mind, feelings, emotions launch the mechanism of the brain. Thus, the brain affects the speed and perception of certain events, although consciousness and intelligence depend on other factors. A persons effort to acquire knowledge, environment, and previous experience empowers people to form a unique point of view on any situation. That is, peoples capacity to think based on individual experience confirms this theory.

Conclusion

Humans are living individuals, so the natural sciences try to investigate the origin and connection of body and mind. Since the modern level of development of technology and methods is insufficient to provide comprehensive evidence to confirm any of the theories, scientists need to find the middle. There are two approaches that try to explain the philosophy of reason. Monism and dualism provide many arguments that are created through imagination rather than authentic facts. Thus, the truth is at the intersection of ideas. Emotions and consciousness should not be seen as a physical state identical to the brain. The brain needs to be considered a mechanism for launch consciousness because the brain combines all the factors and creates the reaction.

Works Cited

Heil, John. Philosophy of Mind. Routledge, 2019.

Oakley, David. Brain and Mind. Routledge, 2020.

Robinson, William. Dualism. The Routledge Handbook of Consciousness, edited by Rocco Gennaro, Routledge, 2018, pp. 1-13.

Brain and Language Production

Parts of brain

There are four parts of the brain, which are the Brocas area, the Wernickes area, the areas known as the motor cortex and the accurate fasciculus (Yule, 2010, p. 139).

Localization view

The ability of the human brain to correlate different aspects of language ability with specific locations in it can be defined as a localization view (Geschwind, 2970, p. 79). Therefore, when hearing a certain word, the human brain will follow a specific pattern of identifying, defining and pronouncing the word (Yule, 2010, p. 139).

Two types of aphasia

Defined as a disorder leading to the inability to relate the meaning of the word with its pronunciation (Yule, 2010, p. 142), aphasia is split into two types, i.e., Brocas aphasia and Wernickes aphasia (Geschwind, 1970, p. 79). Brocas aphasia is characterized by reduced speech, whereas Wernickes aphasia is defined by lack of logical coherence in speech (Yule, 2010, p. 142143).

Critical period

Critical period is defined as the stage in a childs development when the brain is capable of receiving input (Yule, 2010, p. 145) in vast amounts and acquiring language skills and the related information very fast and efficiently. Once the critical period passes, there will never be a way for a child to learn the language fully, as Genies case shows (Yule, 2010, p. 145).

Language production

Seeing how the Brocas area is locate next to the motor cortex, which controls the muscles (Yule, 2010, p. 140), the neurons from the Brocas area are sent to the motor areas of the larynx and tongue, thus, facilitating the speech process (Geschwind, 1970, p. 79).

Acquisition of Language Skills

The 1957 publication

Chomskys 1957 publication literally reinvented the field of linguistics, resulting in the creation of the transformational grammar (Moskowitz, 1978, p. 94). Chomsky studied the language from a physiological perspective, therefore, revealing the connection between grammar and language producing process (Moskowitz, 1978, p. 94).

Prerequisites of language

According to Moscowitz, there are several key language prerequisites, unceasing communication with others being the key one. It is imperative that the child should talk to family members; as Moscowitz stresses, television cannot perform the function of a language prerequisite (Moscowitz, 1978, p. 94).

Correction of a childs language

In the process of language acquisition, a child may have a wrong idea about a particular language pattern or words usage. Therefore, the need to correct the childs language arises. Language skills can be corrected by creating the environment, in which the correct language patterns are reiterated on a regular basis (Moscowitz, 1978, p. 94B).

Telegraphic speech

After the two-word stage in a child development, children start producing short sentences. There is no three-word phase (Moscowitz, 1978, p. 96).  children have to learn to construct short sentences afterwards.

Acquisition of plurals

The process is split into six stages, i.e., the number determination, the use of irregular plurals, the inability to use plurals of words ending in s or z, handling the s and z endings, the training of irregular plurals and their efficient use (Moscovitz, , pp. 103104).

Acquisition of semantics

The period of rampant overgeneralization (Moscovitz, 1978, p. 106) allows children to learn the meaning of words in a very fast manner. The overgeneralization often leads to misinterpretations of the word meaning. The process of meaning construction is hard to analyze due to the inability to determine the precise meaning that a child constructs of a specific word.

Acquisition of phonetics

Due to overgeneralization process, children tend to replace the sounds that they have not yet learned with the ones that they have been taught to use. According to Moscovitz, children do not learn sounds in an orderly fashion, but spot and use distinctive features of a sound (Moscovitz, 1978, p. 106A).

Reference List

Geschwind , N. (1970). The organization of language and the brain. Science, New Series, 170(3961), 79.

Moscowitz, B. A. (1978). The acquisition of language. Scientific American , 239(5), 92-108.

Yule, G. (2010). The study of language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Abstract

The early discovery, classification, and treatment of neurophysiological conditions are vital clinical bolster errands for medical specialists in tweaking quiet treatment projects to better deal with the advancement and the movement of these maladies. Endeavours are being made to analyse these neurodegenerative issues before its complications. For sure, early finding helps patients to get effective treatment advantage before critical mental decrease happens. Brain stimulation development was noted in the examination enthusiasm for EEG, as the full examination of neuro-dynamic time-touchy biomarker that aids in distinguishing cortical variations from the norm related neurophysiological disorders. An EEG marker would be a noninvasive technique that may have the affectability to recognise neurophysiological conditions early and even characterise the level of its seriousness at a lower cost for mass screening. EEG is accessible and speedier to use than other imaging gadgets. Thus, we analysed different mythologies in collective brain signals. This survey has concentrated on utilising EEG as a researching apparatus and physiological biomarker to distinguish neurophysiological disorders and arrange the level of its seriousness by flag preparing and examination. The survey is intended to uncover unobtrusive changes that may characterise markers for the early recognition that will help restorative specialists and clinicians in arranging and giving a more dependable expectation of the course of the infection notwithstanding the ideal remedial program to give patients extra years of a higher personal satisfaction.

Introduction

A developing assemblage of proof proposes that EEG examinations, including resting state related incitement conventions, might be valuable in the advancement of Biomarkers for various neurological issues and vary from the norm (Baird, Smallwood, Lutz, & Schooler, 2014). Neurophysiological conditions are infections of the mind, spine, and the nerves that associate them (Blennow, de Leon, & Zetterberg, 2006). There are more than 700 illnesses of the sensory system, for example, mind tumours, epilepsy, Parkinsons malady, stroke, and additionally less commonplace ones, for example, dementia (Boksem, Meijman, & Lorist, 2005). Neurophysiological disorders are maladies of the focus and fringe sensory system (Cedazo-Minguez, & Winblad, 2010).

The points of disorders include the cerebrum, spinal line, cranial nerves, fringe nerves, nerve roots, autonomic anxious framework, neuromuscular intersection, and muscles (Coyle, Price, & DeLong, 1983). Thus, this paper will examine techniques in brain stimulation. By implication, we will evaluate alternative methodologies for the monitoring and stimulation of transient EEG biomarkers for a number of neurophysiological conditions (deBettencourt, Cohen, Lee, Norman, & Turk-Browne, 2015). Criticism control of profound cerebrum incitement (DBS) in Parkinsons sickness has incredible potential to enhance viability, lessen symptoms, and decline the cost of treatment. Thus, the planning and power of incitement are titrated by biomarkers that catch current clinical state. Incitement might be of standard high recurrence or wisely designed to alter particular neurotic rhythms (DeKosky, & Marek, 2003). The scan and approval of suitable input signals are critical to neurophysiological conditions. The signals recorded from the DBS anode presently have all the earmarks of being the most encouraging wellspring of input (Gorelick, 1997).

The scan for neural biomarkers of execution remains a test in development science. The non-obtrusive nature of high-thickness electroencephalography (EEG) recording has made it a most encouraging road for giving quantitative criticism to specialists (Hart, Schmidet, Klein-Harmeyer, & Einhauser, 2013). Implication, we will audit the present importance of the principal sorts of EEG motions with a specific goal to follow a viewpoint for future common sense uses of EEG and occasional related possibilities (Hughes, Berg, & Danziger, 1982). Current clinical parameters utilised for analysis and phenotypic meanings of psychopathology are both exceptionally factor and subjective (Jackson, & Snyder, 2008). While biomarker inquirer in neurophysiological disorders has concentrated largely on practical neuroimaging techniques for distinguishing the neural capacities that connect with psychopathology, scalp electroencephalography (EEG) has been seen, generally, as offering minimal particular cerebrum source data, as scalp appearance just inexactly corresponds to its cerebrum source elements (Jeong, 2004).

In any case, continuous advances in motion preparing of EEG information can now convey useful EEG mind imaging with unmistakably enhanced spatial and fine tenacity. An alternative technique in monitoring non-evasive brain stimulation is called an independent component examination (ICE). ICE deterioration can be used to recognise unmistakable cortical source exercises that are delicate and particularly to the pathophysiology of neurophysiological conditions. Given its useful research points of interest, moderately easy, and convenience, EEG imaging is presently both attainable and alluring, specifically for studies, including the expansive tests required by hereditarily enlightening plans to describe causal pathways to psychopathology (Jeong, Chae, Kim, & Han, 2001). The very non-obtrusive nature of EEG information procurement, coupled with progressing propels in dry, remote, and wearable EEG innovation, makes EEG imaging progressively alluring and proper for psychiatric research, including the investigation of formatively youthful specimens (John, Prichep, Fridman, & Easton, 1988).

Connected to substantial, hereditarily and formatively instructive specimens, EEG imaging can propel the look for vigorous analytic biomarkers and phenotypes in neurophysiological conditions. Profound cerebral stimulation (DBS) has been in routine clinical use for over 12 years and gives an exceedingly profitable treatment methodology for patients with Parkinsons malady (PD) in the administration of uncontrolled engine indications. DBS fundamentally enhance engine control, and enhance personal satisfaction over best restorative treatment. As a neurophysiological biomarker, EEG can portray diverse physiological and neurotic conditions, for example, dementia impacts on cortical capacity dispersion. EEG could be utilised as a clinical finding apparatus, as well as a device for foreseeing the phases of dementia (Kam et al., 2010). Various reviews have been directed to manage EEG changes related to dementia and to recognise the level of seriousness of dementia, and a few reviews bolster the likelihood for EEG to distinguish dementia in the early stages. They demonstrated the likelihood of utilising EEG as a marker for AD (Kam, & Handy, 2013). EEG may assume an essential part in recognising and ordering dementia because of its critical impact on the dementia variance from the norm as far as beat movement (Klimesch, 1999). EEG is helpful for clinical assessment because of its convenience, non-invasiveness, and ability to separate forms and seriousness of dementia at a cost lower than that of other neuroimaging methods (Kovacevic, & McIntosh, 2007).

Traumatic cerebrum harm (TBI) remains the fundamental driver of handicap and an open medical noteworthy issue around the world. This survey concentrates on the neurophysiology of TBI, the basis and current condition of proof of clinical use of brain stimulation to advance TBI recuperation, especially on cognizance, intellectual capacity, engine impedances, and psychiatric conditions. We talk about the instruments of various brain stimulations systems including major noninvasive and intrusive incitements. Up to this point, most noninvasive cerebrum incitement mediations have been non-targeted and centred on the perpetual period of recuperation after TBI. In the intense stages, there is restricted proof of the viability and wellbeing of cerebrum incitement to enhance practical results. Looking at the reviews crosswise over various procedures, transcranial coordinate stimulation is the intercession that right now has the highest number of legitimately composed clinical trials, however adding to the number is still less. We perceive the requirement for bigger reviews with a target neuroplasticity tweak to investigate the advantages of cerebrum incitement to influence TBI recuperation amid various phases of recuperation.

Research Aims

The aim of the research focuses on alternative methodologies in monitoring and stimulating transient EEG in neurophysiological disorders. By implication, alternative measures will support nurses and caregivers to provide precise and effective treatment.

Secondly, the research evaluates these methodologies to ascertain cost efficient and easy source of data retrieval for patients with neurophysiological conditions. Thirdly, the research will assist caregivers to improve the quality of life in patients with neurophysiological disorders.

Literature Review

This section examines previous literatures on brain stimulation and neurophysiological disorders. Trevisan Adrian, Cavallari Paolo, and Attard Frederick (2013), investigated the feedback therapy for patients with autism disorder. The authors studied children with autism spectrum conditions (ASD). The literature recommended that kids determined to have ASD have diverse cerebrum action levels when contrasted with ordinary youngsters. As a result, the authors tested 50 kids (27 determined to have ASD and 23 controls samples) inferred that youngsters with ASD have larger amounts of ´ waves among different variations from the norm which bolster the lopsidedness of neural excitation in an autistic cerebrum. Neurofeedback has now been utilised for quite a long in research, clinical trials and as treatment for a few conditions and psychiatric disorders. Thus, neurofeedback makes utilisation of the clients EEG assembled information to adjust the neurophysiological and neurological framework for a number of neurological based issues (Lal, & Craig, 2001). The study turned out to be useful for various neurological conditions. The authors revealed that tests performed on patients determined to have ASD demonstrated that enhancements in social conduct and electrophysiological conduct are gotten in some cases.

However, similar research on Sonified therapy suggested that neurofeedback has no or little impact in treating ASD (Luu et al., 2001). As a prelude to the examination of acquired outcomes, a general presentation of the two-channel EEG gadget headband and the BMS was displayed (Maillet, & Rajah, 2016). The two-channel EEG gadget headband is a convenient two cathode EEG flags obtaining gadget that utilises an altered form of the low determination cerebrum electromagnetic tomography (LORETA) to get assessments of subcortical action (Maillet, & Schacter, 2016). This gadget can interface with a PC by means of Bluetooth to such an extent that it can be interfaced to the BMS application running on a similar machine. The BMS is a product application that uses Sonified Neurofeedback to change the EEG signals acquired from the headband into Sonified signals. The result demonstrated an important ´ wave concealment plainly showing that kids subjected to this review made huge advances in overseeing side effects related to ASD. This was affirmed by criticism from the guardians of the individual subjects. Consequently, the research was consistent with previous literatures on brain music system (McVeigh, & Passmore, 2006).

Another literature by Trevisan Adrian and Jones Lewis (2011) examined an institutionalised restorative treatment utilising the Brain Music System, a framework that uses Sonified neurofeedback precisely and cost adequately to change brainwaves into a melodic sound utilising Digital Signal handling calculations. The researchers performed a standard course of Sonified neurofeedback treatment (for instance 15 sessions), custom-made particularly for patients experiencing various neurological conditions. Autism Spectrum Disorder is a reasonable plausibility due to the modest and convenient nature of the framework, and could be utilised both inside and even outside a customary clinical setting for subjects enduring from a wide exhibit of mental and neurological conditions. In the pilot study to test the calculations and yield of the Brain Music System, the dispersion of the Alpha, Beta, and Theta waves in ordinary subjects was consistent with reviews utilising standard top of the line gear (restricted to costly clinical setups). These outcomes permit the Brain Music System to adjust its convention to practice benchmarks, and to better relate standard algorithmic errands to each of the three brainwaves (Petersen, 2004).

Trevisan Adrian (2012) described music-production with manual action separated from the imaginative cortical action (for instance, playing the piano, or holding a guitar both needs the utilisation of hands). Clinical gear, for example, Electroencephalography (EEG), made biofeedback a probability for music-producers yet confined its utilisation to the couple of artists that could bear such a costly gadget. The paper portrayed a framework named Mind Music System which is a unique, reasonable, and capable framework that can produce melodic yields in light of data gathered through an EEG gathering gadget. The research was based on the architecture where distinctive recurrent groups trigger comparing piano notes and the multifaceted nature of the flag to the beat of the sound. The precision of the melodic change has been built up through exploratory work, where information about members of a pilot sample was accumulated and broken down with a specific goal to decide which melodic properties ought to be related to the right brainwave type. By implication, the result revealed its influence on individuals with manual inabilities in music production (Pond, 2012).

Trevisan Adrian and Jones Lewis (2010) investigated the low-end technique of EEG conversion. This examination gave a straightforward and compact framework that can produce MIDI yield based information gathered through an EEG gadget. The employments of such a gadget is useful in numerous ways, where the restorative impacts of tuning in to the music made by the cerebrum wave record many cases of treating medical issues. The approach is impacted by the interface several literatures where distinctive recurrent groups trigger comparing piano notes through and the intricacy of the flag speak to the beat of the sound. The correspondence of sound and the notes has been built up through test work, where information about members of a test gathering was accumulated and investigated, putting interims for mind frequencies for various notes.

The review is a dynamic commitment to the field of the neurofeedback by giving criteria devices for evaluation. Feusner Jamie, Madsen Sarah, Moody Teena, Bohon Cara, Hembacher Emily, Bookheimer Susan, and Bystritsky Alexander (2012) investigated the influence of the effects of cranial electrotherapy stimulation. The objective of the study was to describe the intense impacts of CES on the patients brain action. Consequently, the researchers speculated that CES would bring about deactivation in cortical and subcortical districts. Eleven sound samples were used for the experiment. The samples were given CES, connected to the ear cartilage at sub-sensory limits while being examined with utilitarian attractive reverberation imaging in the resting state. The result revealed that CES influenced cortical cerebrum deactivation, with a comparative example for high-and low-recurrence incitement, and adjusts network in the DMN. This impact is influenced by impedance from high-or low-recurrence commotion. Little agitations of mind motions may consequently affect ordinary resting state cerebrum action. These outcomes give understanding into the system of activity of CES, and may aid future improvement of ideal parameters for successful treatment.

Methodology

The proposed inquiry identifies alternative methodologies in the monitoring and stimulation of transient EEG biomarkers in neurophysiological conditions (Román, 2002). By implication, we will recognise, examine, and assess diverse methods of retrieving brain data using Non-intrusive and obtrusive therapies. We will recognise a biomarker, inward vacillations in consideration that can dependably foresee regardless of whether data will be held after some time. While earlier research has connected with times of inconsideration, regarding quick slips in performance (e.g., slower or less exact in-the-minute choices). We will distinguish a biomarker of absent-mindedness that predicts consequent passes in execution. The methodologies incorporate non-intrusive expectation framework for epilepsy, EEG sound textures for ASD patients, a cloud-based biological system, cranial electrotherapy incitement, Sonified neurofeedback to mention a few. We analyse the speculation blunders of different mixes of levels of a few variables: number of components, preparing a test estimate, natural variety, trial variety, impact size, replication, and the connection between elements.

Summary and Conclusion

Resent innovation, cross-examination in neuroimaging and other high-throughput advances has prompted to a blast of high-dimensional information requiring improvement of novel strategies or change of existing facts and machine-learning procedures to boost the data pick up from such information (Román, 2003). An expansion in the quantity of accessible techniques has consistently required strategy examinations, keeping in mind the goal to locate the best one in a specific circumstance bringing about various productions concentrating on similar reviews in the current bioinformatics and computational science writing (Ruitenberg, Ott, van Swieten, Hofman, & Breteler, 2001). A substantial assortment of such reviews has looked at administered measurable and machine strategies for subject grouping overwhelmingly in view of microarray quality expression or high-dimensional mass spectrometry information (Shou, & Ding, 2013). Thus, caregivers can effectively administer specific treatment during emergencies (Shou, Ding, & Dasari, 2012). As a result, nurses and caregivers can improve the quality of life using different brain stimulation techniques (Smallwood, Beach, Schooler, & Handy, 2008).

Previous literatures regarding brain stimulation in neurophysiological conditions have exposed the lack of bias, the absence of prejudice, utility and the routes a large portion of these correlations are executed as there is little accord between the discoveries of such reviews (Snyder, Hall, Cornwell, & Falk, 2011). The literatures show relative reviews to exhibit the predominance of a specific strategy for utilising datasets favouring the picked method. Due to the way that executive evaluations are liable to experimental fluctuation, the best execution in one or a couple occurrences does not infer so on a normal or a populace level. Neural changes related to neurophysiological disorders can distinguish with clinical biomarkers, for example, EEG, quantitative electroencephalography, the occasion related potential, transcranial attractive incitement, Non-invasive technique, Sonified neurofeedback and Vagus nerve incitement (Terry, & Buccafusco, 2003). EEG is a neurosignal that tracks data handling with millisecond accuracy. It has been subjected to translation by the clinician visual assessment that marks satisfactory and effective result (Willems, Hah, & Schulz, 2010). EEG biomarkers give high transient determination and it is consequently essential for examining mind movement (Wilson, & Russell, 2003). Thus, the translation of the level of EEG irregularity and seriousness of neurophysiological disorders is the advantages of flag handling and examination of EEG. EEG flag examination gives an exact confinement of electrical movement sources by following the various levelled availability of neurons in the recording place. EEG may provide a helpful sign of the examples of cerebrum movement if incorporated with different biomarkers, for example, basic and practical neuroimaging.

References

Baird, B., Smallwood, J., Lutz, A., & Schooler, W. (2014). The decoupled mind: Mind-wandering disrupts cortical phase locking to perceptual events. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 26(4), 25962607.

Blennow, K., de Leon, M., & Zetterberg, H. (2006). Alzheimers disease. The Lancet, 368(9533), 387403.

Boksem, A., Meijman, F., & Lorist, M. (2005). Effects of mental fatigue on attention: An ERP study. Cogn. Brain. Res, 25(1), 107116.

Cedazo-Minguez, A., & Winblad, B. (2010). Biomarkers for Alzheimers disease and other forms of dementia: Clinical needs, limitations and future aspects. Experimental Gerontology, 45(1), 514.

Coyle, J., Price, D., & DeLong, M. (1983). Alzheimers disease: A disorder of cortical cholinergic innervation. Science, 219(4589), 11841190.

deBettencourt, M.T., Cohen, J.D., Lee, R.F., Norman, K.A, & Turk-Browne, B. (2015). Closed-loop training of attention with real-time brain imaging. Nature Neuroscience, 18(5), 470  475.

DeKosky, S., & Marek, K. (2003). Looking backward to move forward: Early detection of neurodegenerative disorders. Science, 302(5646), 830834.

Feusner, J., Madsen, S., Moody, T., Bohon, C., Hembacher, E., Bookheimer, S., & Bystritsky, A. (2012). Effects of cranial electrotherapy stimulation on resting state brain activity. Brain Behav, 2(3), 211220.

Gorelick, P. (1997). Status of risk factors for dementia associated with stroke. Stroke, 28(2), 459463.

Hart, B.M., Schmidet., H.C., Klein-Harmeyer, I., & Einhauser, W. (2013). Attention in natural scenes: contrast affects rapid visual processing and fixations alike. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci., 6(1), 23-56.

Hughes, C., Berg, L., & Danziger, W. (1982). A new clinical scale for the staging of dementia. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 140(6), 566572.

Jackson, C., & Snyder, P. (2008). Electroencephalography and event-related potentials as biomarkers of mild cognitive impairment and mild Alzheimers disease. Alzheimers and Dementia, 4(1), S137S143.

Jeong, J. (2004). EEG dynamics in patients with Alzheimers disease. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115(7), 14901505.

Jeong, J., Chae, J., Kim, S., & Han, S. (2001). Nonlinear dynamic analysis of the EEG in patients with Alzheimers disease and vascular dementia. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 18(2), 5867.

John, E., Prichep, L., Fridman, J., & Easton, P. (1988). Neurometrics: Computer-assisted differential diagnosis of brain dysfunctions. Science, 239(4836). 162169.

Kam, J. W. Y., Dao, E., Farley, J., Fitzpatrick, K., Smallwood, J., Schooler, J. W. (2010). Slow fluctuations in intentional control of sensory cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(2), 460470.

Kam, J.W.Y., & Handy, T.C. (2013). The neurocognitive consequences of the wandering mind: A mechanistic account of sensory-motor decoupling. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(2), 725-730.

Klimesch, W. (1999). EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory performance: A review and analysis. Brain Res. Rev. 29(2), 169195.

Kovacevic, N., & McIntosh, R. (2007). Groupwise independent component decomposition of EEG data and partial least square analysis. Neuroimage, 35(3), 11031112.

Lal, K., & Craig, A. (2001). A critical review of the psychophysiology of driver fatigue. Biol. Psychol. 55(3), 173194.

Luu, P., Tucker, D., Englander, R., Lockfeld, A., Lutsep, H., & Oken, B. (2001). Localizing acute stroke-related EEG changes: Assessing the effects of spatial under sampling. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 18(4), 302317.

Maillet, D. & Rajah, M. N. (2016). Assessing the neural correlates of task-unrelated thoughts during episodic encoding and their association with subsequent memory in young and older adults. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28(1), 826-841.

Maillet, D. & Schacter, D.L. (2016). When the mind wanders: Distinguishing stimulus-dependent from stimulus-independent thoughts during incidental encoding in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 31(3), 370-9.

McVeigh, C., & Passmore, P. (2006). Vascular dementia: prevention and treatment. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 1(3), 229235.

Petersen, R. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 183194.

Pond, D. (2012). Dementia an update on management. Australian Family Physician, 41(12), 936939.

Román, G. (2002). Vascular dementia may be the most common form of dementia in the elderly. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 204(1), 710.

Román, G. (2003). Vascular dementia: distinguishing characteristics, treatment, and prevention. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 51(5), S296S304.

Ruitenberg, A., Ott, A., van Swieten, J., Hofman, A., & Breteler, M. (2001). Incidence of dementia: Does gender make a difference? Neurobiology of Aging, 22(4), 575580.

Shou, G., & Ding, L. (2013). Ongoing EEG oscillatory dynamics suggesting evolution of mental fatigue in a color-word matching Stroop task. IEEE, 2(1). 15-112.

Shou, G., Ding, L., & Dasari, D. (2012). Probing neural activations from continuous EEG in a real-world task: time-frequency independent component analysis. J. Neurosci. Methods, 209(1), 2234.

Smallwood, J., Beach, E., Schooler, J. W., & Handy, T. C. (2008). Going AWOL in the brain: Mind wandering reduces cortical analysis of external events. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(2), 458469.

Snyder, S., Hall, J., Cornwell, S., & Falk, J. (2011). Addition of EEG improves accuracy of a logistic model that uses neuropsychological and cardiovascular factors to identify dementia and MCI. Psychiatry Research, 186(2). 97102.

Terry, A., & Buccafusco, J. (2003). The cholinergic hypothesis of age and Alzheimers disease-related cognitive deficits: recent challenges and their implications for novel drug development. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 306(3), 821827.

Trevisan, A. (2012). Brain music system: Standardized brain music therapy. Audio Engineering Society, 1(2), 3-19.

Trevisan, A., & Jones, L. (2010). A low-end device to convert EEG waves to music. Audio Engineering Society, 5(1). 1-7.

Trevisan, A., & Jones, L. (2011). Brain music system: Brain music therapy based on real-time sonified brain signals. J Neurol Disord, 2(1), 23-78.

Trevisan, A., Cavallari, P., & Attard, F. (2013). A portable sonified neurofeedback therapy for autism spectrum disorder patients-an initial evaluation. J Neurol Disord, 1(4), 1-15.

Willems, B., Hah, S., & Schulz, K. (2010). En route data communications: Experimental human factors evaluation. Neurosci. Methods, 2(1), 45-56.

Wilson, F., & Russell, A. (2003). Operator functional state classification using multiple psychophysiological features in an air traffic control task. J. Ergon. Soc, 45(3), 381389.

The human brain consists of neurons, which are cells that transmit information throughout the body. Plasticity is the ability of an object to take any shape or form. Therefore, brain plasticity presupposes the quality of the brain to force its neurons to modify the strength of their transmissions (Mateos-Aparicio, & Rodríguez-Moreno, 2019). In order for the brain to be able to relay large volumes or information to body cells, it needs a sufficient number of neurons. Subsequently, neurogenesis is the ability of the human brain to form new neurons. Usually, it happens while a child grows and the brain develops. Nevertheless, some evidence supporting neurogenesis in adults also exists (Kumar et al., 2019).

The knowledge of brain plasticity and neurogenesis allows one to educate oneself on the learning process. Understanding that the brain reacts to stimulus, which, in its turn, sends neurons to instigate a particulate behavior can improve memory. By subjecting the brain to a certain sensory input, it will force the cells to transmit the needed information. In practice, it means that it is possible to train oneself to learn more while referencing basic knowledge. The key is repetition since the more a learner repeats something, whether physically or mentally, the better they will memorize it. For instance, knowing what brain plasticity entails enables the person to delve into the neural circuits, which are essential in understanding how brain networks work.

Neurogenesis allows the adult organism to repair the damage done to brain cells. Understanding that neurons grow as the person develops allows them to embrace more difficult areas of knowledge that were previously unavailable. Moreover, until recently, it was believed that the adult brain does not generate new neurons (Kumar et al., 2019). Knowing that the reverse is true allows one to consider how people can regain lost memories. The subsequent academic experience is the ability to view brain damage as reversible and memories as reclaimable.

References

Kumar, A., Pareek, V., Faiq, M. A., Ghosh, S. K., & Kumari, C. (2019). Adult neurogenesis in humans: A review of basic concepts, history, current research, and clinical implications. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 16(5-6), 3037.

Mateos-Aparicio, P., & Rodríguez-Moreno, A. (2019). The impact of studying brain plasticity. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 13, 66. Web.

Introduction

The YouTube blog November 30  Dopamine and Serotonin and Us is dedicated to the topic of neurodiversity and the influence of neuromodulators on the human brain. One such neuromodulatory molecule released during a reward-giving action (for example, sex or food intake) is dopamine. Lauren Theresa McCarthy Debiak describes dopamine in her video as a feel-good chemical responsible for providing people with a sense of achievement, improving mood, and boosting their motivation and focus (McCarthy Debiak 00:01:17-00:01:50). Interestingly enough, this biochemical can also modulate our future behavior based on learned experiences.

Discussion

Dopamine is responsible for a phenomenon called a positive prediction error. This is the disparity between an actual and expected reward that is essential for fundamental types of learning about rewards and motivating humans to seek greater rewards (Schultz 23). A typical example of a positive prediction error is when a person assumes they will hate a particular food but ends up enjoying it. Dopamine takes part in this process and changes the persons behavior so that they are less reluctant in the future. In the same way, dopamine communicates a negative prediction error in a persons brain when the reward outcome is poorer than predicted (Schultz 24). This might also influence the persons future behavior and make them seek another way to attain the desired reward outcome. Thus, human behavioral patterns may be completely altered and potentially revolutionized.

Conclusion

To sum up, dopamine effects are interrelated with our life experiences and the rewards we gain from these experiences. This process has been beneficially impacting humankinds traits for centuries. As a result, the neuromodulator has the power to change our behavior and attitude toward certain subjects and objects over time.

Works Cited

Schultz, Wolfram. Dopamine reward prediction error coding. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, vol. 18, no. 1, 2022, pp. 23-32.

November 30  Dopamine and Serotonin and Us. YouTube, uploaded by Lauren Theresa McCarthy Debiak, Web.

The human sleep structure includes two phases: non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. During the sleep period, these phases are in rotation and replace each other several times (Hassan & Subasi, 2017). Sleep phases changes primarily are characterized by different brain waves, which are recorded using electroencephalography (EEG). Each stage of sleep has its features and gets operated by a different set of neurons.

NREM includes three stages; the first one begins immediately after the person falls asleep and lasts about ten minutes. Sleep is characterized by a decrease in alpha rhythms and the appearance of low-amplitude theta rhythms. The second stage lasts from 20 to 40 minutes, during which theta wave activity begins to appear on the EEG readings. During the third stage, delta oscillations of a frequency begin to predominate in brain activity.

REM starts after about 80 minutes from the moment a person falls asleep and lasts about 10-15 minutes. Muscle activity is minimal, and the person is in a state of complete immobility. At the same time, eyeballs often make sharp movements. According to EEG, the brain has the same activity level as during the first stage of NREM. During sleep, the duration of REM periods increases, and in the morning, it can reach up to 30-40 minutes.

There are three types of clusters of neurons, the excitation of which causes a change in sleep cycles. Sleep begins with the activation of the anterior hypothalamus. Sleep-promoting neurons suppress wakefulness neurons at the onset and during sleep. The development of non-rapid eye movement is ensured by the functioning of nonspecific thalamic nuclei and suture nuclei containing an inhibitory mediator. The second structure of neurons regulates REM. They include the locus coeruleus or blue space, the vestibular nuclei of the medulla oblongata, as well as the upper tubercles or upper hills. The third structure of neurons appears to be the centers that regulate the sleep cycle. These include the blue space, which controls the process of falling asleep and waking up and certain areas of the cerebral cortex.

To sum up, there are two sleep stages: non-rapid eye movement sleep and rapid eye movement sleep. Despite the EEG readings accuracy, the relationship between brain waves and dream structure has not been fully articulated. Three different categories of neurons operate sleep inside the human body.

Reference

Hassan, A. R., & Subasi, A. (2017). A decision support system for automated identification of sleep stages from single-channel EEG signals. Knowledge-Based Systems, 128, 115-124. Web.

Medical error is a substantial issue affecting thousands of patients and parties related to the healthcare system. According to approximate estimations, medical error is counted as the third leading cause of death in the United States (Makary & Daniel, 2016). In particular, between 210,00 to 400,00 patients die each year because of medical error, compared to about 600,000 annual deaths due to heart disease or cancer (Makary & Daniel, 2016). While certain lethal cases can be counted, the estimations of adverse effects on health appear rather challenging. The case of a 51-year-old man who suffered from a brain damage is one of those where the medical error was recognized due to the jurys decision in a related suit. All of the parties, including the hospital, the health provider, and the anesthesiologist, were found liable for conducting a medical error that caused a severe negative impact on the mans health and life.

The details regarding the mentioned case are critical to understanding the complex environment prone to errors. Initially, a team of medical professionals was performing heart surgery on a 51-year-old man (Capozzola, 2016). At a particular point, the patient suffered a ventricular fibrillation complication, which required resuscitating procedures (Capozzola, 2016). In addition to cardioversion, giving shocks to restore the mans heart rhythm, the surgeon ordered medication needed to stabilize heart rhythm so that the surgery could be finished. The medication ordered was amiodarone, in the dosage of 150 mg (Capozzola, 2016). The anesthesiologist followed the instruction and administered three vials of what he believed to be 50 mg of amiodarone (Capozzola, 2016). Although the heart surgery was finished, the patient had ventricular fibrillation for the second time, which affected the function of his heart and prevented blood and oxygen from being delivered to the mans brain. This situation led to permanent brain damage, meaning that the man would not be able to function adequately and would require medical services throughout his life (Capozzola, 2016). Consequently, the brain damage was alleged to occur due to an amiodarone overdose because the contents of the vials significantly exceeded the expected dosage, which was the result of the hospital pharmacys error.

In the suit against the hospital, the anesthesiologist, and the healthcare provider for whom the anesthesiologist worked, the court decided that all three parties were liable in the case. In particular, the man was awarded $12.2 million, and the hospital was determined 60% liable, the anesthesiologist 25% liable, and the healthcare provider 15% liable (Capozzola, 2016). The hospital was partially liable because the overdose of amiodarone happened as a result of the hospitals pharmacys misdeed. Instead of 50 mg in each of the three vials, there was 900 mg of medication, meaning the patient received an 18 times higher dose than needed (Capozzola, 2016). In this case, organizational liability assumes vicarious responsibility of the superior party (hospital) for their employer (pharmacy) (Edwards, 2022). Since there are various forms of liability, including disciplinary, administrative, civil, and criminal, the hospital took civil liability for its personnels mistake.

The jury decided that the patient should be awarded based on the cost of medical services and experienced pain. All three parties shared joint responsibility, meaning they have to pay satisfaction according to the proportion of their liability (Edwards, 2022). In addition, the healthcare provider for whom the anesthesiologist worked could be indicated as vicariously liable. Since the anesthesiologist failed to double-check the dose of medication, his employer could be considered liable for lack of training or instruction provided to their employees.

Hospitals should ensure proper personnel training and the safety of their internal medication-serving systems in order to reduce the risk of similar errors in the future. Foremost, the staff should follow the medication administration rules, checking if the right medication is given to the right patient in the right dose (Capozzola, 2016). Hence, such high-risk medications as amiodarone should be labeled appropriately. The error, in this case, occurred because both surgeon and the anesthesiologist assumed the minimal dosages in the vials (Capozzola, 2016). Although this is a common practice in hospitals, the pharmacys mistake occurred, and higher dosages were contented in the vials.

Accordingly, Makary & Daniels (2016) suggest three steps to reduce the risk of medical errors, such as making errors more visible, responding to them, and making them less frequent. Healthcare institutions need to recognize their responsibilities to foster a safety culture, develop error prevention algorithms, and facilitate the speak-up culture, among others proactive measures (Makary & Daniels, 2016). Accordingly, healthcare professionals should be educated regarding their role in reducing possible errors and contribute to transparency and safety measures to conquer the error issue. As a result, many risks could be prevented, and the hospitals could reduce liability risks in a range of complex cases.

Overall, medical errors affect patients lives and health and lead to severe consequences for hospitals and healthcare practitioners. Many errors can be prevented by such simple steps as double-checking or putting a proper label on the medication. Therefore, hospitals should consider implementing efficient measures to reduce the risk of medical errors, which would contribute to their success and the well-being of their patients.

References

Capozzola, D. D. (2016). Medication mix-up leaves 51-year-old patient with permanent brain damage after heart surgery. Healthcare Risk Management, 38(1). Retrieved from the Trident Online Library.

Edwards, J. S. (2022). Tort law. Cengage.

Makary, M., & Daniel, M. (2016). Medical error  the third leading cause of death in the US. BMJ, 353.

Issue

Brain drain is an inevitable and serious problem (as seen by officials, employers, analysts, and so on) that will undermine Canadas international competitiveness. In the 1990s, up to 2% of the Canadian population left the country each year to find employment elsewhere (mainly the USA), and researchers note that such figures may become a reality (Boudarbat and Connolly 8). It is believed that the existing educational and healthcare policies, a solid financial regulatory system, an increased focus on the development of the infrastructure have been successful, but the Canadian tax policies and the currency rate can contribute to the increase in the brain drain (Mintz par. 9).

Background

• Canada is the 5^th country on the list of states losing their inventors with 6.4% of the worlds inventor emigration (Clarke par.4). Canada follows such countries as China, India, Germany, and the UK. More than 13 thousand inventors left Canada between 2006 and 2010.
• In 2005, 12% of Ph.D. graduates lived and worked in the USA two years after graduation (Boudarbat and Connolly 9).
• Almost 60% of Canadian emigrants are adults aged between 20 and 44 (Mintz par. 5).
• Almost 60 % of Canadian emigrants are managers, business people, scientists (Mintz par. 5).
• The Canadian government plans to address the problem of the brain drain through the extensive investment in innovation and infrastructure, improved immigration policies, and the attraction of foreign investors (Wells Justin Trudeaus Summer Homework par. 11).
• Some Canadian enterprises, non-governmental organizations, and (rather occasionally) the countrys federal government, come up with incentives (significant investments to attract top talent) that have resulted in reverse brain drain as US top talents have come to Canada to live and work in such areas as business, education, and science (Allen par. 11).
• The major reasons for the brain drain are the Canadian currency rate and the countrys taxation (Yakabuski par. 3).
• It is also believed that high-quality higher education (with rather high prices) is another reason contributing to the increase in the brain drain (Butler par. 8).

Economic Analysis

• Almost two-thirds of the Canadian emigrants are skilled employees (often with higher education) engaged in areas contributing to the financial growth of the country who potentially create jobs (Mintz par. 5value).
• When the Canadian dollar rose in value, the brain drain was minimal (Mintz par. 4).
• High taxes contribute to the problem as people choose the USA where tax policies are more attractive (Yakabuski par. 5).
• Some researchers see the brain drain as a positive trend that facilitates the development of human society as people share their knowledge and contribute to the development of the host countries (Pécoud 96). More so, many people turn back to their native countries, which has a positive impact on the development of their economies as the returners are equipped with valuable knowledge and experience.
• Nonetheless, at the level of the country, brain drain is regarded as a negative and hazardous trend that hurts the development of the country. The brain drain is associated with a lack of innovation and new jobs in the country that loses high skilled workers (Pécoud 91).

A reform in the sphere of education, taxation, and immigration can address the issues mentioned above in several ways:

• Highly skilled workers will be encouraged to remain in Canada if the currency rate increases.
• Canadians will be satisfied with the educational services their children receive will be eager to remain in the country.
• These workers will stay in Canada if taxes become lower since they will not need to earn more to cover their expenses.
• Immigrants will satisfy the needs of the Canadian labor market, which will lead to economic growth, which, in turn, will decrease the rate of the brain drain.
• Keeping the educational system at the same high level will provide the country with highly skilled workers who will contribute to the economic growth of the country.

Risk Analysis

• If Canada fails to implement the change, the economy will stop developing or even start declining, which will contribute significantly to the brain drain.
• The reduction of taxes is unlikely to be approved by the countrys federal and state governments as they need to fill in their tightened budgets.

Option Analysis

• Immigration policies should be aligned with social development policies (Is Migration Good for the Economy 1). For instance, it has been found that a large portion of South African immigrants to Canada often move to the USA due to the inability to integrate into Canadian society (Cohen par. 6). Substantial investment in diaspora community development projects can be beneficial. More so, immigrants coming to Canada often create jobs and invest heavily in the development of the countrys economy, which is beneficial in the long run (Friesen par. 6).
• It has been acknowledged that the development and alignment of brain drain policies with taxation, educational, and immigration policies have a positive effect on productive human capital and the overall development of Canada (Schiff 15).
• Canadas participation in an international study revealed certain gaps in the educational system. It is found that Canadian students show insufficient results when it comes to math and science (Canadas Students Slipping in Math and Science par. 6). Therefore, it is important to focus on these areas as they are associated with innovation that is the core goal of the Canadian government (Wells par. 11).

Assessment of the Proposal

Strengths

• The suggestions to increase investment in innovation and infrastructure are effective as these spheres are elements of a countrys international competitiveness (Brücker et al. 66). The focus on short-term gains associated with the low Canadian dollar would have rather an adverse effect on the economy potentially turning it into an industrial rather innovative state. This shift will be erroneous as the future is associated with information, innovation, and advanced technology rather than the production of some materials, resources, or consumer products.
• The economic growth will contribute to the strengthening of the national currency which will encourage Canadians to remain in their home country rather than seek opportunities in a new land. The author draws peoples attention to this issue, which is an important step towards finding the best solution to the problem.
• Keeping taxes at the same level, and lowering them down in some areas could also reduce the brain drain as people will not see better prospects in such countries as the USA and will stay in Canada where living standards are high.

Weaknesses

• The author claims that the Canadian educational system does not need any changes as it has been effective so far. At that, Canadian students lag behind other nations in such important areas as science and math (Canadas Students Slipping in Math and Science par. 6). This can be regarded as a sign of starting problems in the system that should be addressed as the failure to raise a generation of innovators can threaten the development of the entire nation (Wells par. 17). More so, there is a lasting debate on the effectiveness of the approach used and the attempts to employ the so-called Finlands paradigm, which is the focus on trust rather than accountability (Hancock par. 2).
• The author suggests reducing taxes but does not provide a strategy to fill in federal and state budgets. Mintz mentions the problems the country is facing with its aging population and the need to address this issue (par. 18). Nonetheless, this suggestion is rather protectionist (serving the business world rather than communities) and seems irrelevant. The author also fails to mention that the high taxes were central to the development of such spheres as education, health care, and infrastructure. The authors comparison of the Canadian and US taxation is rather limited.
• The author fails to mention the impact immigration can have on the level of the brain drain as well as the overall development of a host country. At that, immigrants invest in the economy, create jobs, share innovative ideas, and see the existing issues in Canadian society from another perspective. Thus, the authors suggestions lack the necessary depth and comprehensiveness.

Personal Recommendations

• Canadian taxation policies need certain changes. The reduction will result in a deficit in budgets, so a more thoughtful approach is needed. It is possible to reduce taxes for graduates who choose to work at Canadian companies. Some recommend asking US multinationals for certain reimbursement, which could also be an option (Butler par. 10). However, it could be implemented at the organizational level rather than country-wide policies. In other words, such reimbursement could take a form of launching projects in Canada, setting subsidiaries in this country, and so on.
• The educational system should also undergo some changes. The curriculum can be slightly changed, and it can be effective to start several projects encouraging students to choose such spheres as science, mathematics, and so on as their career paths. The debate concerning the choice between accountability and trust should also come to an end. It can be beneficial for the country to find the balance between these paradigms and provide more freedom to students but help them progress through regular assessment.
• Immigration policies should also be improved to address the brain drain problem. The Canadian government is planning to increase the number of immigrants accepted (Canada May Aggravate Asian Brain Drain par. 4). This is a positive incentive as immigrants contribute significantly to the growth of the host countrys economy (Pécoud 96). At that, it is possible to change the way immigrants are accepted. The points system has proved to be effective, but it still has some shortcomings (Schiff 15). It is necessary to change the way the education of applicants is evaluated as the quality of education in different countries differs considerably. Therefore, it is important to provide some additional points to applicants who received education in countries where education quality is higher, while giving fewer points if the applicants education is not regarded as sufficient.

Works Cited

Allen, Kate. How Canada Reversed the Brain Drain. The Star. 2015. Web.

Boudarbat, Brahim, and Marie Connolly. Brain Drain: Why Do Some Post-Secondary Graduates Choose to Work in the United States. 2013. Web.

Brücker, Herbert, Simone Bertoli, Giovanni Facchini, Anna Maria Mayda, and Giovanni Peri. Understanding Highly Skilled Migration in Developed Countries: The upcoming Battle for Brains. Brain Drain and Brain Gain: The Global Competition to Attract High-Skilled Migrants. Ed. Tito Boeri. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2012. 15-209. Print.

Butler, Collin. Brain Drain: U.S. Firms Should Pay Canada for Top Talent, tech CEO Says. CBC News. 2016. Web. .

Canada May Aggravate Asian Brain Drain. Asian Pacific Post. 2016. Web.

Canadas Students Slipping in Math and Science, OECD Finds. CBC News Canada. 2013. Web.

Clarke, Warren. Brain Drain? The Issue of Inventor Mobility in Canada. 2014.

Cohen, Tobi. Mitigate Brain Drain by Investing in Diaspora-Led Development Projects, Study Urges Canadian Government. 2013. Web.

Friesen, Joe. Why Canada Needs a Flood of Immigrants. The Globe and Mail. 2013. Web.

Hancock, LynNell. Educating Americans for the 21^st Century: Why Are Finlands Schools Successful. Smithsonian Magazine. 2011. Web.

Is Migration Good for the Economy. 2014.

Mintz, Jack M. Jack M. Mintz: Living with the Low Canadian Brain-Drain Dollar (Part 2). Financial Post. 2016. Web.

Pécoud, Antoine. Depoliticising Migration: Global Governance and International Migration Narratives. London: Springer, 2014. Print.

Schiff, Maurice. Brain Drain, Educational Quality and Immigration Policy: Impact on Productive Human Capital in Source and Host Countries, with Canada as a Case Study. 2014. Web.

Wells, Paul. Adding up the Ways Were Falling Behind in Education. MACLEANS. 2013. Web.

. Justin Trudeaus Summer Homework: Easing Canadas Brain Drain: Paul Wells. The Star. 2016. Web.

Yakabuski, Konrad. If the Dollar Goes South, Brains Will Follow. The Globe and Mail. 2016. Web.

The is s long-going debate whether cellphones may contribute to the development of brain tumors in those who use them for prolonged periods, but scientific evidence is so far inconclusive on this matter. The reason for the worries is that cellphones emit RF energy that contains both electric and magnetic energy, and exposure to it may be unhealthy for a human being. While any radio equipment does the same thing, and there are industry standards that regulate explosion to RF energy, cellphones are different because people keep them so close to themselves and use them for many hours on a regular basis. In 2012, the Supreme Court of Italy ruling stated that a man’s cellphone was the cause of his tumor – and, more importantly, even the World Health Organization issued a warning that “cell phone usage may cause the development of glioma, a type of tumor that starts in the brain or spine” (Loki, 2018, p. 603). Yet one should also remember that cellphones have been around since the 1980s and were already quite popular by the 1990s. Humanity now has three decades worth of experience in using cellphones, and if their effects on brain tumors had been pronounced, it would have been more noticeable. As of now, there is lingering suspicion about the causal connection between cellphones and cancer, but firm scientific evidence on the subject remains elusive.

Reference

Loki. R. (2018). Do cellphones cause brain cancer? In R. Johnson-Sheenan & C. Paine, Writing today (4^th ed.) (pp. 600-607).