Category: Brain

Sleep apnea is a health condition that is commonly found in older adults. During sleep, breathing of a person may stop for 10 or more seconds. It usually occurs several times during the night. Usually, family members notice the symptoms as the person suffering from sleep apnea tends to feel consequences of the condition. Some people try to ignore the problem. However, this is very dangerous especially for older adults who may develop numerous disorders.

The Symptoms

At the same time, it is possible to identify a number of major symptoms: snoring, sleepiness during a day, a dry throat on waking, problems with memory, morning headaches, night sweats, irritability and an increased heart rate (Sleep Apnea n.p.).

Risk Factors

It is important to be specifically cautious for people who are male, older than 60, overweight, smoking, drinking, people having a thick neck, heart disease, neuromuscular disorders, cold and infections, and people having a relative suffering from sleep apnea.

Treatment

Luckily, there are numerous ways to treat this health condition. These ways include lifestyle changes, specific devices, and surgery. Of course, it is important to start with lifestyle changes. Males at the age of 60 should quit smoking and/or drinking, be active, have a healthy diet. They should also focus on their health and avoid infectious disorders. They should get the necessary treatment of heart diseases and neuromuscular disorders

Be attentive to yourself and live a full life!

Works Cited

Sleep Apnea. Web. 2015.

Brain based learning is learning by participation in realistic environments that let learners try new things safely (Brain-based Learning, 1) as opposed to traditional schooling through lectures that inhibits the way the brain naturally learns new things.

Explaining how learning takes place, Lucas says that basically learners extract some type of meaning from all stimuli that that they encounter. A stimulus is anything with which the brain comes into contact through the five senses (sight, sound, touch, taste and smell) (2008, p.4)

This report has two parts: Part one shows how the sense of sight and the sense of sound can be used to help a grade 2 pupil learn how to measure time in a math lesson. Part two focuses on the importance of emotions in the learning process.

To demonstrate how the sense of sight can help in brain-based-learning, the teacher can come with a wall clock and place it where all the pupils can see. Allow the pupils to examine the clock. Ask them to count the calibrations on the clock face (see figure1) explain other visible features like the clock hands, the clock adjusting mechanism and so on so that the pupils have a pretty good perception of the workings of a clock. (Figure 2)

With this background information it is now possible to help pupils learn how to measure time. Make the students observe the seconds hand of the clock making a full revolution explain what that means. Use this same pattern to explain the minutes, and hours hands of the clock. This can form a basis to teach about seconds, hours, days, weeks, months and years. All this learning occurs because the pupils can see an actual clock at work.

The sense of hearing can also help in the learning process. Ensure that the class is so quiet that the ticking of the clock can be distinctly heard by everyone. Ask the students this question: What is time? Then tell them to listen to time as it passes.

The teacher can tell the pupils to close their eyes and count each click. As the clock ticks the teacher can have the students appreciate the interval between seconds as the basic measure of time. Tapping the tops of their desks in rhythm with the ticking of the clock will create a mental impression of time.

The importance of emotions in learning is that emotions are responsible for building academic constructs in the brain and provide a foundation for symbolic thought process, (Hirsh, 2009). Hirsh further explains that symbols are the genesis of learning. Teachers concentrate on helping children to be able to utilize symbols from different disciplines. For example linguistic symbols include letters and words, while mathematical symbols include numbers, patterns and algorithms (2009).

As explained earlier in this paper, learning occurs when the brain responds to stimuli channeled in through one or more of the five senses. How a symbol is encoded in the brain depends on the state of the stimuli or emotion triggered by the teacher. For example contrast between a tense math class and a relaxed history or poetry class.

In the math class scenario, the teacher demands nothing but exact and correct answers. To make matters worse the society associates math with geniuses like engineers and doctors. If a teacher portrays math as a difficult subject, pupils will find it stressful to follow and understand lessons. The appraisal emotions evoked by such an environment will affect retention of symbols and concepts. In future, instead of the learner taking math as a pleasant challenge they will try to avoid it believing that it is stressful.

On the other hand the poetry teacher has a poem read out in a relaxed class environment, and invites learners to say what they think. The learning process will be triggered by positive emotions and retaining of language symbols will not be a challenge. Hirsh recommended positive emotional states such as: joy/pleasure, anticipation/curiosity instead of fear/threat and sadness/disappointment (2009).

References

Brain-based Learning (2010) Funderstanding.

Hirsh, A.R., (2009). The Role of Emotions in the Development of Symbolic Thought, and Its Implications for Curriculum. Web.

Lucas, B., (2008). Engage Your Brain for Learning. USA: ASTD Press, Vol.25, Issue 0808.

The brain makes decisions based on the experiences and the memories they form. However, emotions play a critical role because they determine what memory is created and where it is stored. Multiple emotions work together to determine the mood and the decision based on which of them prevails over the rest. The list of emotions includes fear, caution, anger, sadness, joy, and disgust. These emotions form two types of memory: short-term memory and core memory. The core memories are developed from super important events in a persons life. For example, childhood of Riley comprises such events as playing hockey and attending fun parks (Docter, 2015).

These events have formed core memories that influence emotions and the decisions made. For example, remembering a happy moment in ones life can determine what the individual will respond to other people or situations. Riley moving to a new place evokes memories of good things left behind and sadness prevails over joy. Therefore, what she says when called upon and how she behaves at home afterward are decisions based on sadness.

The core memories go on to power an aspect of a persons personality. For example, the monkey island makes Riley a happy and cheerful person, while the loss of this memory converts her into a sad and angry person (Docter, 2015). As such, it is the islands of personality that make people who they are and the decisions they make when faced with a situation. Another aspect of brain functioning and decision-making involves a memory dump where memories are lost forever.

When core memories are shut down, the personality is lost. It would take a long train of thought trying to retrieve the memories without certainty of success. Therefore, decisions are made depending on what personality traits are prevailing, which are then the result of core memories influenced by experiences from super important events.

Reference

Docter, P. (Director). (2015). Inside Out [Film]. Lixar, Walt Disney Pictures.

The video concerns the connection between sleep, the brain, and waste disposal. The bodys biological system processes create the problem of waste disposal. A constant supply of nutrients is crucial for all body parts to function. The brain comprises only 2% of the bodys mass but consumes 25% of its energy supply (Iliff). The circulatory system helps the brain to meet this energy demand through constant nutritional supply. All cells release waste after various activities and have the lymphatic system to aid in waste disposal. However, the brain has its system, which only works when a person is asleep. The brain cells shrink and allow waste to pass through the brain and into the circulatory system. Accumulation of waste in the brain may lead to Alzheimers disease, making it essential to get a good nights sleep.

I was amazed at how sleep helps the brain to get rid of its waste. The lymphatic system that works in the rest of the body does not apply to the brain. This observation is outstanding because the brain is highly active, and one would expect it to have a waste management system like the rest of the body; at least, that was what I thought. Instead, the brain has the cerebral spinal fluid surrounding it and providing passage of wastes from the brain to the blood. The brain has a particular plumbing network to facilitate waste disposal because it is confined in a rigid space and cannot accommodate more vessels like the lymphatic system. This information helped me to gain a new perspective on sleep. The more I deny myself sleep, the more waste accumulates in my brain, and I do not want that. At the end of the video, I was more committed to getting a good nights sleep.

Works Cited

Iliff, Jeff. One More Reason to Get a Good Nights Sleep. TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, 2014, Web.

The change in the host behavior, which parasites are allegedly responsible for according to the tenets of the behavioral manipulation theory (Lim et al. 2012), can be seen when observing rats. According to the principal concepts of the theoretical framework, parasites, in general, and Toxoplasma gondii, in particular, are capable of influencing the phenotype by altering it and gradually producing a new one that exists outside of the parasites soma. To be more accurate, the change in the behavior implies that the host (i.e., rats in the case in point) change their traditional behavioral patterns, for instance, the ones involving the recognition of a threat (e.g., a predator, such as a cat) and the further response to the threat.

Several studies point to the possibility of the phenomenon under analysis being triggered by the location of the parasites (Swierzy et al. 2014). Particularly, the effects on certain brain areas may be the reason for Toxoplasma gondii to alter the behavioral patterns of the host to the point where the latter disregards its intrinsic habits dictated by its instincts, such as the instinct of survival. As a result, rats are incapable of recognizing the immediate threat to their life. In the theory under analysis, the brain endothelial cells are typically viewed as the conductors of the toxoplasma into the corresponding areas of the brain. As soon as the parasite enters the corresponding area of the brain, it ejects tissue with bradyzoite cysts that can be characterized by their propensity to recrudesce numerous times.

Indeed, there is sufficient evidence of the link between the locations of Toxoplasma gondii in particular brain areas and the further effects that the subject matter has on the rats processing of fear. The reasons behind the assumptions mentioned above are quite simple; as a study by McConkey (2013) explains, the amygdala is responsible for the analysis of the sensory inputs received from contact with the environment and its elements. Experiments on rats show that there is a direct correlation between the operation of the amygdala and the production of fear-related responses such as fight-or-flight and freezing behavior patterns. Upon a contraction of Toxoplasma gondii, the latter develops tropism toward the amygdala, which can be proven by testing the density of the area. As soon as cysts develop under the influence of Toxoplasma gondii, the olfactory abilities of the host are reduced significantly, and the behavioral patterns of the host change gradually (McConkey et al. 2013).

Researches show that there is a tendency for Toxoplasma gondii to choose specific areas of the brain as its further location. As a result, one can obtain a better insight into the host behavior. At present, there is strong evidence that tropism of Toxoplasma gondii extends to the following regions of the brain: nucleus accumbens, ventromedial hypothalamus, or amygdala (Vyas 2015, p. e1004935).

However, some of the studies indicate that the cyst tissue in rats has the propensity of spreading to all regions of the brain. For instance, recent research indicated that Toxoplasma gondii was found in all essential regions after careful analysis and the subsequent assessment of the disease progress: Tissue cysts were found in all regions of the brain in chronically infected rats (Dubey et al. 2016). Furthermore, the study indicates high variability rates as far as the location of the cyst tissue was concerned, therefore, making it evident that Toxoplasma gondii may affect all areas to an equally deplorable extent. One must admit that the research mentioned Colliculus as the most infected part of the brain. Seeing that the amygdala connects to the thalamus, creating the amygdaloidal pathway, it will be reasonable to assume that there is a connection between the location of Toxoplasma gondii and the further progress of the disease, particularly, the progressing control of the fear-related functions in rats.

Other studies also indicate a rapid change in the core of the nucleus accumbens as the primary tool for Toxoplasma gondii to alter the behavioral patterns of the host (rats in the case in point). For instance, Tan et al. (2015) state explicitly that there is a direct correlation between the effects that Toxoplasma gondii have on rats amygdala and the subsequent changes in their behavior. Tan et al. (2015) also attribute the identified effect to the reduction in the rats ability to identify the smell of the predator. However, the authors of the study go a bit further by mentioning that the host behavior is altered by postponing the aversion effect and, therefore, slackening the pace of the reaction. In other words, the research points to the fact that it is not the absence of fear but the delay in the reaction that can be defined as the primary effect of the Toxoplasma gondiis influence.

However, the fact that the delay is caused by the bacteria remains doubtless. The dendritic retraction of neurons, which rats experience as the Toxoplasma gondii impacts their brain functions, primarily, the sensory system, reducing the rates of corticosterone (Mitra, Sapolsky, & Vyas 2013). The latter, in its turn, performs the functions related to energy production and regulation, as well as the provision of the responses necessary to regulate the stress levels in the rat. As a result, rats become resilient to fear, the latter being inhibited as the hormone that reacts with the basolateral amygdala is not produced in the required amount, and its levels become insufficient for recognizing the danger to the rats life to provide the necessary response and evade the threat.

A closer look at the subject matter will show that Toxoplasma gondii affects not only the fear-related instincts in rats but also their cognitive functions, therefore, reducing their ability to remember certain behavioral patterns and use the acquired knowledge to their advantage. Consequently, rats become incapacitated to perform the essential cognitive functions that allow them to analyze the environment efficiently and detect the elements that pose an immediate threat to their wellbeing (Daniel, Sestito, & Rouse 2015).

As stressed above, the distribution of cysts across the brain can be defined as stochastic and comparatively even. Thus, the effects that Toxoplasma gondii has on the rats functions, including both sensory and mental ones, are immediate and irreversible. More importantly, the changes in the rats behavior are aggravated by the anxiety issues that the animals develop as a result of the Toxoplasma gondiis effects (Evans et al. 2014). Although several types of a research register the progress of Toxoplasma gondii in the forebrain areas of rats (Parlog, Schlüter & Dunay 2015), the evidence concerning the bacterias impact on the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens can be considered confirmed. Further studies, therefore, will have to focus on detecting the factors that affect the behavior of Toxoplasma gondii in the host body and its choice of target locations.

References

Daniel, P B, Sestito, S R, & Rouse, S T 2015, An expanded task battery in the Morris water maze reveals effects of Toxoplasma gondii infection on learning and memory in rats, Parasitology International, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 512.

Dubey, J P, Ferreira, L R, Alsaad, M, Verma, S K, Alves, D A, Holland, G A, & McConkey, G A 2016, Experimental toxoplasmosis in rats induced orally with eleven strains of Toxoplasma gondii of seven genotypes: Tissue tropism, tissue cyst size, neural lesions, tissue cyst rupture without reactivation, and ocular lesions, PLoS ONE, vol. 11, no. 5, e0156255.

Evans, A K, Strassmann, P S, Lee, I P, & Sapolsky, R M 2014, Patterns of Toxoplasma gondii cyst distribution in the forebrain associate with individual variation in predator odor avoidance and anxiety-related behaviour in male Long-Evans rats, Brain, Behaviour, and Immunity, vol. 37, no.1 , pp. 122-133.

Lim, A, Kumar, V, Dass, S A H D, & Vya S, A 2012, Toxoplasma gondii infection enhances testicular steroidogenesis in rats, Molecular Ecology, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 102110.

McConkey, G A, Martin, H L Bristow, G C, & Webster, J P 2013, Toxoplasma gondii infection and behaviour  location, location, location?, The Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 216, no. 1, pp. 113-119.

Mitra, R, Sapolsky, R M. & Vyas, A 2013, Toxoplasma gondii infection induces dendritic retraction in basolateral amygdala accompanied by reduced corticosterone secretion, Disease Models & Mechanisms, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 516-520.

Parlog, A, Schlüter. D & Dunay, J R 2015, Toxoplasma gondii-induced neuronal alterations, Parasite Immunology, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 159-170.

Swierzy, T, Muhammad, M, Kroll, J, Abelmann, A, Tenter, A B, Lüder, K J K 2014, Toxoplasma gondii within skeletal muscle cells: a critical interplay for food-borne parasite transmission, International Journal for Parasitology, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 9198.

Tan, D, Soh, L J T, Lim, L W, & Daniel. T C D 2015, Infection of male rats with Toxoplasma gondii results in enhanced delay aversion and neural changes in the nucleus accumbens core, Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 8, no. 282, pp. 1-8.

Vyas, A 2015, Mechanisms of Host Behavioural Change in Toxoplasma gondii Rodent Association, PLoS Pathogens, vol. 11, no. 7, pp. e1004953.

Nowadays, the significant progress of health and medicine science leads to the disclosure of the new chapter of humans knowledge about themselves. However, some advancements are so unbelievable that scientists do not know how to interpret the information and implement it into future studies. In this case, the authors of the experiment found 52 genomes connected with intelligence. Even though this disclosure is critical for humanity, scientists cannot apply this information to the present. On the other hand, when it comes to future perspectives, advances in intelligent studies allow specialists to succeed in developing a deeper knowledge base. Consequently, human beings would be more informed about their body and intellect.

Turning to the articles importance for the initial disclosure of intelligent genomes, scientists state that the number 52 is not significant for developing a determined opinion. On the other hand, the biological disclosure of intelligent cells existence made a serious advance in future brain studies. Previously, scientists were providing their experiments with psychological experiments throughout the whole history of intelligence analysis.

To be more specific, they included imagination of objects rotation in the space, determining the right shapes for the task, and reaction games (Zimmer, 2017). Moreover, the tests were provided for different aspects s of the human brain and activity. However, when a specific person failed the test in one field, there would be a high probability of gaining a low mark during another test. The same patterns occurred with successful people passing intelligent tests: they were more likely to finalize the estimation with a high mark due to their previous experience.

However, one of the scientists at Vrije University Amsterdam, Danielle Posthuma, had a great amount of interest in understanding how intelligence works on the genome level. Started initially by twins experiments due to their DNA similarity, the doctor found that Identical twins tended to have more similar intelligence test scores than fraternal twins (2). On the other hand, the main obstacle standing in front of the scientists was that they were forced to combine the tests results due to the circumstances. As a result, the effects of the genes studied were shadowed owing to the overlapping effect.

Failed to find intelligent genomes initially, the genome-study association of scientists decided to create a merged database of 13 previous studies derived from genetic experiments and intelligent tests. Eventually, even though Dr. Posthuma did not believe that the chosen approach will provide scientists with interesting results. On the contrary, the group found 40 new genes that directly influence intelligent development and functioning, while 12 others were familiar. Even though the number of genes is too small, the scientists team is content with the results: We cannot do it overnight, but it is something I hope to be able to do in the future (6).

To my way of thinking, a genome experiment is a great possibility to develop a cutting-edge technology that enables a person to change anything in another individuals brain. On the other hand, the studies connected with human intelligence might be as dangerous as the invention of dynamite: some people might use it to take the coal from the cave, others would throw it in the crowd to kill hundreds of people. Consequently, if the technological advance in this field will be under genome association control, and no information is given to political power representatives, then the intelligent genomes have a great chance to impact our development level.

Reference

Zimmer, C. (2017). In Enormous Success, Scientists Tie 52 Genes to Human Intelligence. The New York Times. Web.

A brain tumor is an incompletely studied disease, which, nevertheless, is dangerous for people. The tumor itself represents the formation of cancerous cells inside the brain (Kivi & Leonard, 2017). Since Mr. Mateos list of signs contains impaired vision, it can be assumed that the cancer is in the occipital or parietal lobe (Brain tumor symptoms, n.d.). The first part is responsible for processing all the information coming from the eyes. Because the patient has symptoms, other than vision problems, swelling in the parietal lobe is more apparent.

Cancer in this part of the grey matter disrupts coordination, making it difficult to determine the distance to objects. In the normal state, this part of the brain manages the control of somatic functions, such as processing information from various sensory organs (The nervous system, 2019). Although headaches may be a symptom of a brain tumor, their presence does not guarantee disease (Kivi & Leonard, 2017). Therefore, a headache may well be prompted by other factors, for example, lack of sleep. Since the tumor causes are unknown, it is difficult to say what could be done to prevent this condition. In addition to natural aging, the risk factors for this disease are the presence of another type of cancer, as well as smoking and working with the elements that cause tumors (Kivi & Leonard, 2017). Since none of these factors were mentioned in the text, a lifestyle change could be the only recommendation for cancer prevention.

At the moment, Mr. Mateo expects treatment, and, in the worst case, surgery. However, many procedures are involved in brain surgery, as there are different approaches (Krans, 2017). It can be either minimally invasive treatment or craniotomy, which involves opening the skull to remove the tumor. Brain surgeries are extremely risky because, in case of an error, the consequences can be catastrophic  from memory problems to coma (Krans, 2017). However, brain cancer is an extremely fast-growing tumor, so operation is often the only reliable method to combat it. An alternative is the complexes of radio and chemotherapy, but their duration is exceedingly long, and they are also much more painful. Although the operation is a dangerous procedure, in the hands of an experienced specialist, it represents a much faster and more reliable cancer disposal than other methods.

References

Kivi, R., & Leonard, M. (2017). Brain cancer. 

Brain tumour symptoms: Changes in vision. (n.d.).

Krans, B. (2017). Brain surgery. 

The nervous system. (2019).

Introduction

Brain plasticity, also referred to as neuroplasticity or neural plasticity, has been researched for many decades and various discoveries have led to the development of effective methods and strategies to treat numerous disorders. Interest in this phenomenon was sparked at the end of the 19^th century and scientists promoted the idea that peoples brains were adaptable in a certain way (Denes 2015).

At the time, the idea was rather revolutionary, as it was supposed that the morphology of the brain was static. Modern researchers have explored the concept and come up with new strategies to treat numerous conditions that have adverse effects on the quality of patients lives. Although new evidence of neuroplasticity appears regularly, some sceptics still doubt it exists beyond certain stages of mammalian development. This paper examines some of the recent findings that demonstrate the healing power of the brain known as brain plasticity.

Defining Neuroplasticity

When defining the phenomenon, scientists address several aspects, including the concepts of change and peoples age, environment, learning, and behaviour, among others. Neural plasticity can be defined as the capacity of neurons and of neural circuits in the brain to change, structurally and functionally, in response to experience (Sale, Berardi & Maffei 2014, p. 190). In more specific terms, neuroplasticity is the ability of the nervous system to change the anatomy and organisation of structures and their functions due to experience, injury, or learning (Cai et al. 2014).

Merzenich, Van Vleet, and Nahum (2014) stress that researchers used to see neuroplasticity as a process that could take place in the prenatal and early childhood periods only. Many studies conducted in the 20^th century and more recent findings suggest that the brain can remain plastic to any age. Cai et al. (2014, p. 2), for instance, define brain plasticity as an inherent characteristic or ability for lifelong skills learning and relearning. The researchers emphasise that the adaptability of the brain does not depend on peoples age, although its peak is still during the prenatal and early childhood periods.

Stem Cells and Neural Plasticity

As mentioned above, the first major steps toward an understanding of brain plasticity were made in the 19^th century. William James is seen as one of the central figures in this process, although he was not the first researcher to explore this phenomenon. However, his input into the development of the theory based on the capacity of the nervous system can hardly be overestimated (Denes 2015). James emphasised that brain plasticity involved the emergence of new neural components and new brain paths. These assumptions and the theory built on them became the basis of ensuing research that enabled scientists to dig deeper into the nature of neuroplasticity.

The development of new neural components, and thus brain plasticity, is supported by recent findings involving the functioning of stem cells. It was believed that these cells evolve exclusively during embryonic development. One of the most remarkable properties of neural cells is their capacity to evolve into different types of cells (Denes 2015). These new neural components integrate into networks that already exist, making brain adaptability possible.

The idea of stem cells ability to be differentiated dates back to 1893, when August Weismann identified two types of cells in the process of embryogenesis, germ and somatic cells (Sánchez Alvarado & Yamanaka, 2014). These early theories were later crystallised into theories based on the notion of cells reprogramming. Researchers conducted numerous experiments involving various species and found that stem cells could be reprogrammed if the environment changed. Chemical, physical, or thermal stress could boost cells reprogramming process.

The exploration of stem cells in the human body led to the development of cell therapies that involve the introduction of stem cells into the injured tissue. The results are more than promising, since such treatment has proved to be effective with patients diagnosed with Parkinsons and Alzheimers diseases or those who had spinal cord injuries, and many other serious health issues (Sánchez Alvarado & Yamanaka 2014; Copland & Angwin 2014; Hampstead & Sathian 2014). Stem cells integrate into existing neural networks and perform the functions of the cells that have been damaged.

Injury and Neuroplasticity

The brains capacity to adapt in response to different kinds of injuries can be regarded as solid evidence for the existence of such phenomena as neural plasticity. As mentioned above, it was accepted that each area of the brain had various functions, and that damage to any part of the central nervous system led to the loss of certain abilities (Denes 2015). However, this assumption was questioned, as many people could recover some functions, even though their brains had been severely damaged. For instance, post-stroke patients or those whose brains have been injured often learn how to see, walk, and speak again, although the corresponding areas of the brain do not function properly (Nadeau 2014).

Scientists explain that the central nervous system is able to produce new neural cells and synapses, which ensures continuous learning. Cases where patients had a part of their brain removed and still regained an ability to perform some tasks illustrate the way brain plasticity works.

Modern scientists have used these findings to develop pharmacological and nonpharmacological therapies to address various disorders and other health issues. For example, noradrenergic agonists are utilised to improve M1 excitability (Di Pino et al. 2014). Training and simulations are common nonpharmacological therapies that have proved to be effective in motor learning and treating cognitive impairments (Cai et al. 2014). It is noteworthy that the balance between training and sleep is instrumental in achieving significant progress when addressing the issues post-stroke patients have to face. Peoples exposure to new environments also leads to a change in the morphology of the brain.

Phantom Limbs and Brain Plasticity

Additional evidence of brain plasticity is provided by researchers investigating phantom limbs. It is necessary to note that this phenomenon is associated with both positive and negative effects on peoples quality of life. As an example of an adverse influence of neuroplasticity on the lives of people with amputated limbs, up to 85% of these people report feeling phantom limb pain (Kuffler 2017). Substantial research in this area suggests that phantom sensations are an outcome of maladaptive brain plasticity. The origin of this phenomenon is linked to the functioning of the somatosensory neural network and brains misinterpretation of activity among the networks components (Denes 2015).

Experimental evidence for this assumption has been provided since the 1990s. In one of the studies on the nature of phantom limb pain, participants reported the disappearance of phantom sensations following a cerebral lesion associated with the representation of the amputated limb (Denes 2015). The use of magnetoencephalography (MEG) also sheds light on the origin of the phenomenon, as recorded somatosensory maps show that certain brain areas could be activated when touching a limb above the amputation line.

Chronic pain can be regarded as a phenomenon similar to phantom limb pain. When tissue is damaged, stimuli sent from the periphery to the central nervous system lead to morphological changes in the brain and somatotopic reorganisation (Denes 2015). Chronic pain is found to lead to the reduction of grey matter volume, but this effect is reversible when the pain is eliminated (Ray 2014). Hence, chronic pain and its impact on peoples health can be regarded as evidence for brain plasticity.

Apart from phantom pain, neuroplasticity can be associated with positive influences on the lives of people whose limbs are missing. Tyler (2015) stresses that patients with prosthetic limbs report significant improvements with the use of their prostheses.

The stimulation of certain areas activates somatosensory perception of the missing limb. Patients start feeling their phantom limbs, which improves the quality of their lives as they manage to use prostheses more effectively. Some people found it just as important to feel when their loved ones touched their phantom hand (Tyler 2015). Importantly, therapy involving stimulation also led to the complete elimination of phantom limb pain. Therefore, a phenomenon that is often regarded as maladaptive plasticity can be properly managed.

Conclusion

To sum up, it is possible to state that the notion of neuroplasticity has been researched for decades and many discoveries in this area have led to the improvement of peoples health conditions. An understanding of the nature of this phenomenon has enabled scientists and practitioners to develop therapies that are effective in treating various disorders that used to be seen as incurable. Research related to stem cells, phantom limbs, chronic pain, and stroke recovery has provided many insights into this phenomenon.

Today it is widely accepted that the human brain can adapt effectively to new environments, and this capacity can and should be utilised properly. Brain plasticity is the key to peoples recoveries from injuries of various types. Neural plasticity is also instrumental in managing health issues associated with aging, which is specifically relevant for many countries whose populations are aging rapidly.

Reference List

Cai, L, Chan, JSY, Yan, JH & Peng, K 2014, Brain plasticity and motor practice in cognitive aging, Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, vol. 6, pp. 1-12.

Copland, DA & Angwin, A 2014, Cognitive plasticity in Parkinsons disease, in J Tracy, B Hampstead & K Sathian (eds.), Cognitive plasticity in neurologic disorders, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp. 85-107.

Denes, G 2015, Neural plasticity across the lifespan: how the brain can change, Psychology Press, New York, NY.

Di Pino, G, Maravita, A, Zollo, L, Guglielmelli, E & Di Lazzaro, V 2014, Augmentation-related brain plasticity, Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, vol. 8, pp. 1-22.

Hampstead, B & Sathian, K 2014, Cognitive plasticity in healthy older adults, mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimers disease: contributory factors and treatment responses, in J Tracy, B Hampstead & K Sathian (eds.), Cognitive plasticity in neurologic disorders, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp. 197-226.

Kuffler, DP 2017, Coping with phantom limb pain, Molecular Neurobiology, vol. 55, no. 1, pp.70-84.

Merzenich, MM, Van Vleet, TM & Nahum, M 2014, Brain plasticity-based therapeutics, Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, vol. 8, pp. 1-16.

Nadeau, SE 2014, Neuroplastic mechanisms of language recovery after stroke, in J Tracy, B Hampstead & K Sathian (eds.), Cognitive plasticity in neurologic disorders, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp.61-85.

Ray, AL 2014, Neuroplasticity, sensitization, and pain, in TR Deer, MS Leong & AL Ray (eds.), Treatment of chronic pain by integrative approaches: the American Academy of Pain Medicine textbook on patient management, Springer, Stanford, CA, pp. 15-23.

Sale, A, Berardi, N & Maffei, L 2014, Environment and brain plasticity: towards an endogenous pharmacotherapy, Physiological Reviews, vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 189-234.

Sánchez Alvarado, A & Yamanaka, S 2014, Rethinking differentiation: stem cells, regeneration, and plasticity, Cell, vol. 157, no. 1, pp. 110-119.

Tyler, DJ 2015, Neural interfaces for somatosensory feedback, Current Opinion in Neurology, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 574-581.

Introduction

The three main components of memory are sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. In this essay, I shall concentrate on how the information travels in the three components and on how the brain process this information. I will as well discuss the prototype theory of categorization analyze some of the limitations that are associated with this theory and explain the pandemonium model of word recognition. This paper will generally observe the concept of the brain component and how the brain works. The essay will also evaluate the mentioned prototype theory to understand the functioning of the brain in a more detailed way. Further, the paper shall also discuss the pandemonium model and how it is constructed using the units called the demons.

The concept of memory using multi-store and the working memory models

Gross (2001) indicated that the sensory register is where unprocessed information goes. This part of the brain has a large capacity but the information is stored there for a short time. This is where the information is recorded first. They are different types of memory that pass through the sensory memory. An example is an iconic memory which is the brief visual information interpreted by the visual system. The other one is the echoic memory which is a mental eco that is recorded after it is heard. Since this information is stored for a short time, for it to be remembered it must be passed to the working memory.

Working memory is also known as short-term memory. According to Gregory (1987) information stays in this memory as it is being processed. The short term memory does not hold information for a long time because it has limited capacity. Attention is very important in this component since it is very hard for someone to remember something if he/she has not paid attention to it. It contains a category known as maintenance rehearsal this is whereby the information is repeated for some time thus it will be kept fresh in ones memory.

After the information passes through the working memory it now passes to the final component of the brain that is the long-term memory. This part has a very huge capacity for storing the information and the information can be stored for a long time usually indefinite. It is made use of when one connects the information with something he already knows.

How the Brain Attends To and Processes Information

The brain after receiving information needs to attend to it and process it. The human brain contains very many nerve cells also known as neurons. Each neuron is connected to other neurons by synapses. This network of neurons is what forms an information processing system. When the brain is aroused it realizes the nitric oxide that helps the brain to perform the more complex operation at the first step of processing the information. Sensory information that is received from the ears, eyes, or skin first goes to the thalamus which acts as the gate, and then the information flows to the cortex the thinking part of the brain. The information that is sent to the thalamus has got two inputs: the input from the eyes and the feedback from the cortex.

Prototype Theory of Categorization

The prototype theory emerged in the 1970s and it tried to explain the lexical concept C. it stated that the lexical C does not have a definite structure but has a probabilistic one. If something falls under C it should have enough properties of the Cs constituents. Sternberg (2002) stated that the prototype theory has its philosophical roots in Wittgensteins view that everything that is covered by a term usually shares a family resemblance. On the prototype, theory categorization is taken as a similar comparison process. The two have several constitutes that they hold in common. This theory has explained several psychological phenomena and explains why definitions are too hard to produce.

The prototype theory of categorization has got several limitations. In this essay, some of these limitations are discussed. One of the limitations is that the analysis of categorization is effective for quick and unreflective judgment. For example, if a dog undertakes surgery and is made to look like a raccoon then people are asked if its a dog or a raccoon they will always answer it is a dog. The other limitation is that these structures are more concerned with composition. It was observed that when the prototype structures have got emergent properties rather than those of the prototype property an example here is the pet fish which has got bright colors that are no basis in the prototype structure for either pet or fish.

The Pandemonium Model for Word Recognition

The pandemonium model of word recognition was discovered as the psychologist tried to come up with a model that will allow interaction of information from different sources that included word meaning, letter shape, and letter structure. This model was discovered by Selfridges. He explained that letters are identified using their component features. It assumed several units known as demons and each had its detection task. Selfridges concluded that all the units could be combined to come up with a working pattern of the recognition device.

A good example is when one is reading a word. The lowest level of the demon will concentrate on knowing the strokes that make up the letters. This demon then gives the message to the demon above it which then recognizes different types of strokes and then comes up with the full letter. This demon may be at that time recognizing only the vertical and horizontal strokes. If the diagonal or circular stroke appears then this demon will be interrupted. Once it recognizes the letter it now shouts higher to the demon that is of the higher level that would represent the known words.

Gross (2001) explains further that the model tries to explain how one can recognize letters and come up with the words that are made up from these letters. By understanding various strokes that make up these letters the person can distinguish the letters. Like letters H and A, the demons have to understand the vertical strokes and the horizontal, those that face right and those that face left.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the brain is a very active part of a human being. The brain has got various components that the information passes through so that the information can be recorded and interpolated. It passes through the three components the sensory, the short memory, and the large memory. This information is then processed by the same brain and then inter-plated. The most interesting part about the brain is how it can interpolate the information and give an explanation. Using the prototype theory we have seen how it works and also the pandemonium model explains how the brain recognizes several items and words.

Bibliography

Gregory, R 1987, (Ed). , The Oxford Companion to the mind, Oxford University Press, London.

Gross, R, 2001, (Ed) Psychology: The science of mind and behavior, Holder Arnold Publisher, New York.

Sternberg, R, 2002 Cognitive Psychology, Wadsworth Publishing, London.

In Your Childs Brain Development: Age One, Gross touches on several topics related to the upbringing of babies. For example, she explains concisely and straightforwardly to future and new parents how infants brains work in terms of biology, neurology, and behavior (Gross, 2015). Gross (2015) also reveals to them and other interested readers the nature of the drivers, triggers, and motivations for specific actions of infants. Moreover, this expert in psychology, sociology, and education gives her readers advice on how to make their childrens cognitive and socio-mental development safer and more efficient (Gross, 2015). She does all this through the lens of the four phases of cognitive development conceptualized and defined by Jean Piaget.

Your Childs Brain Development: Age One contains several hints that its author is a proponent of Piagets perspective on the process and mechanisms of human mental growth. The first clear sign is Grosss focus on explaining babies brain activity and cognitive function. Piagets concept is known for focusing on the nature of intelligence more than any other lifespan theories (Cherry, 2022, para. 1). Throughout the second part of the article; it is clearly seen that Gross tries to teach her audience that infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects (Cherry, 2022, para. 11). The legendary Swiss psychologist was the first to propose this idea. The first paragraph of the section titled Social and Cognitive Learning explains and extends this inference of Piaget (Gross, 2015). In addition, both Gross and Piaget believe that toddlers use concrete concepts and terms to think, learn, and interpret. Simply put, Gross partially retells and adds to what is known about Piagets sensorimotor stage in her digital work.

References

Cherry, K. (2022). Piagets 4 stages of cognitive development are explained. Verywell Mind. Web.

Gross, G. (2015). Your childs brain development: Age one. HuffPost. Web.