Category: Brain

Discussion

In her article, Semrud-Clikeman (n.d.) explains the importance of understanding the differences in children’s brain development. The author emphasizes that if a teacher underestimates these divergences, they will never succeed in providing their students with the most efficient instruction.

As a result, learners will not reach the proper level of understanding and knowledge. Semrad-Clikeman (n.d.) notes that instructions below and above the maturity level of a child’s brain development can produce equal negative outcomes. The adverse effect of the failure to understand the brain maturity of each student can lead to misbehavior. Semrad-Clikeman (n.d.) remarks that brain functions develop at a different pace for each person. Thus, the scholar advises that teachers should be aware of developmental disparities among learners.

Also, educators should understand that their students’ development can be affected by such issues as illnesses, hospitalizations, or family disruptions. Children experiencing these circumstances should sit at the front of the class and receive encouragement from the teacher to help them accommodate. Semrad-Clikeman (n.d.) notes that children with chronic diseases should be suggested to engage in alternate activities, and the teacher should explain the reason for such changes to other students.

The author also draws attention to the fact that there should be a variety of materials and ideas to promote children’s brain maturation. Semrad-Clikeman (n.d.) mentions that learners’ skills can be enhanced through games, puzzles, and other activities. Additionally, the scholar warns teachers not to expect that all brain systems of a child will develop at the same rate. Thus, Semrud-Clikeman (n.d.) emphasizes that teachers should not employ a one-size-fits-all approach or base the division of learners into groups only on age characteristics.

Semrad-Clikeman (n.d.) remarks that while brain maturation is a crucial aspect for teachers to consider, it is far from being the only one. Other important issues include genetics, age, environment, temperament, and the level of development. Brain maturation starts before birth when different neurons travel to their appropriate locations within the brain (Semrud-Clikeman, n.d.). If some nerve cells do not find their place, they are destroyed, and the baby will have some disorders in the development.

After birth, the baby already has the auditory and visual systems that continue to evolve as the brain accommodates the environment. The scholar remarks that the development of brain systems is different for each baby. The motor and sensory systems of healthy infants keep developing during toddlerhood and preschool time. However, it is necessary to keep in mind that inputs from the environment, which are different for all newborns, can have both positive and negative effects.

Teachers should understand that the development of brain systems has a great impact on students’ ability to understand instruction. For instance, if the auditory system of a child is not at the appropriate level of development, the reading skills progress will be delayed (Semrud-Clikeman, n.d.). Thus, it is necessary to give age-appropriate tasks to young children and not to combine two activities into one. During the early elementary school years, the brain continues to mature, and children can start performing more complex activities.

Semrad-Clikeman (n.d.) also discusses such topics as learning disabilities, models of attention, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Each of these themes is important for teachers to research and understand since their knowledge can help to arrange work in the classroom correctly. Being aware of different approaches enables educators to select the most suitable methods of work for every student. Some of these topics will be discussed below in the further resources section.

Application

There are many aspects in Semrud-Clikeman’s (n.d.) article that I could use to benefit my students. First of all, I will take into account the recommendations that the author gives in the “do’s and don’ts” section. Namely, I will always pay attention to developmental differences among learners since these divergences can have serious implications for children’s conduct (Semrud-Clikeman, n.d.).

Also, I will prepare a questionnaire for parents to find out the peculiarities of their child’s physical and mental development, which, in their opinion, could imply additional attention for their child. As Semrud-Clikeman (n.d.) notes, the development can be enhanced through a variety of techniques and materials used in the classroom. Thus, I will constantly work on discovering new methods and will provide my students with diverse options for creative thinking.

At the same time, I will make sure not to allow issues from the “don’ts” list to occur in my classroom. To achieve this, I will not use a single approach for all children. The “one-size-fits-all” method, as Semrud-Clikeman (n.d.) remarks, can hinder the brain maturity of students. I will also pay attention to children’s development based on factors other than age. Such a method will allow arranging suitable conditions for learners’ brain maturity.

Also, I will not evaluate pupils’ abilities based on their physical appearance. According to Semrud-Clikeman (n.d.), cognitive advancement is not always correlated with physical maturity. Therefore, I will employ an individualized approach to understanding every child’s level of development.

Further Resources

Out of the list of sources used by Semrud-Clikeman (n.d.), three articles were selected for further analysis and discussion. In their research, Corbetta, and Shulman (2002) study two kinds of attention: goal-directed and stimulus-based. Scholars remark that brain areas are partially segregated and each of these networks is responsible for different “attentional” functions (Corbetta & Shulman, 2002, p. 201).

The authors note that there are two sets of functions that control visual attention: top-down and bottom-up. Top-down, or cognitive, aspects include expectation, knowledge, and current goals, whereas bottom-up factors reflect sensory stimulation. Apart from these, there are also such determinants as unexpectedness and novelty, which manifest the interaction between sensory and cognitive effects. This article is a valuable resource since it provides an explanation of different functions of attention, which is crucial for teachers to know.

Research by Hale et al. (2011) is focused on ADHD. Scholars investigate the impact of this disorder on children’s academic achievement. Hale et al. (2011) note that ADHD children are frequently diagnosed with learning disabilities. The study involves the analysis of approaches to the treatment of ADHD and emphasizes the need to investigate the problem at the national level. This source is necessary for teachers to review and analyze since insufficient management of ADHD children’s problems at school can have adverse outcomes both for these children and their classmates.

The study by Aylward et al. (2003) is also aimed at the investigation of learning disabilities. The scholars focus their research on dyslexia as a serious language disorder preventing a child from spelling and reading the words. Aylward et al. (2003) remark that special tasks involving brain activation, such as comprehensive reading instruction, can help manage dyslexia in children. The article is valuable for educators since it helps to understand the methods of relieving the effect of dyslexia on young learners.

References

Aylward, E. H., Richards, T. L., Berninger, V. W., Nagy, W. E., Field, K. M., Grimme, A. C.,… Cramer, S. C. (2003). Instructional treatment associated with changes in brain activation in children with dyslexia. Neurology, 61(2), 212-219.

Corbetta, M., & Shulman, G. L. (2002). Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(3), 201-215.

Hale, J. B., Reddy, L. A., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Hain, L. A., Whitaker, J., Morley, J.,… Jones, N. (2011). Executive impairment determines ADHD medication response: implications for academic achievement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44(2), 196-212.

Semrud-Clikeman, M. (n.d.). Research in brain function and learning: The importance of matching instruction to a child’s maturity level. Web.

There are some differences between a male and a female brain. Females are known to be excellent in solving problems involving languages. On the other hand, males are fair well in tasks involving arithmetic analysis. These are just some of the differences between a boy and a girl. Sometimes these differences, whether knowingly or not, can result in discrimination when teaching (Ratey, 2008).

There are various ways a teacher can overcome these differences. For example during a physical education lesson, boys would generally perform better than girls. Therefore, the teacher must be careful not to protect the girls, since the objective of the lesson might not be met. In a language lesson, girls would generally perform better than boys. In this case, the teacher should give group assignments, so that they can learn from each other. Both boys and girls should be in each group (Ratey, 2008).

Physical movement increases a child’s performance in subjects like mathematics, science and languages. Other benefits that come from physical movement include improved reading skills, positive attitude towards education and improved intelligence. Other than academic benefits, exercise strengthens muscles as well as some vital parts of the brain such as cerebellum and basal ganglia. Physical movement assist in the circulation of oxygen to the brain, thus enhancing development of neurons (Ratey, 2008).

Throughout America, many schools have reduced hours and resources allocated to physical education. This is because, some schools have the notion that students would be better prepared, if they dedicate most of their time in the curriculum. In other schools, importance of physical education has not been well emphasized. Instead, a lot of attention has been given to major sports such as football and basketball. Since not all students are good in these sports, they are usually left out (Villaire, 2000).

Exercise has been known to cure depression and enhance memory. To be precise, it causes the discharge of some neurotransmitters that ease mental and bodily pain. The inner ear system and sensory-motor system are among the first body systems to mature once a person is born. During exercise, impulses go back and forth from vestibular and motor sensory. This type of interaction is vital for learning since it helps students maintain balance and improve coordination in movements.

The kind of exercise encouraged here is spinning, which can be achieved in a merry go round. A chemical known as Brian-Derived Neurotrophic Factor is released by brain during a physical activity. This chemical produces and safeguards new neurons. These neurons are usually created in a place called the hippocampus, which happens to be the section of the brain involved in learning and storage of memory (Stevens, 2008).

The functioning of anterior cingulate suggests the existence of a connection between learning and movement. Studies have shown that lack of movement causes poor ties between various sections of brain and cerebellum. Cerebellum is part of the brain involved with emotional cleverness.

People move because the brain sends signals to various muscles of the brain. These movements are controlled by cerebellum or ganglia. However, when a person engages in a completely new type of movement, the prefrontal cortex is stimulated. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for solving problems and analysing. This area is stimulated because the brain has no record of the new movement. Continuous stimulation of this part will eventually lead to improved learning capabilities (Stevens, 2008).

Long working hours, misuse of drugs and bad diet have all been blamed for the increasing cases of depression. During depression, the pre-frontal cortex is usually inactive. When these conditions continue for a long time, it can lead to aggression, poor eyesight, nervousness, abuse of drugs and difficulty in learning. One of the most effective ways of treating depression is by exercising on a regular basis (Johnsgard, 2004).

When some neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and serotonin are few, depression might occur. Serotonin and BDNF have a mutual kind of relationship. The level of one chemical influences the level of the other one. Presence of BDNF increases the production rate of serotonin. Regular exercise elevates the level of such neurotransmitters in the body, by exciting the sympathetic nervous system.

It has been found out that when exercise is combined with antidepressants, the stress level is reduced significantly. The combination of BDNF produced while exercising and antidepressants, quickens recovery (Johnsgard, 2004). It has been observed that depressed people have a smaller hippocampus.

The smaller the hippocampus, the more the person is depressed. This situation can be reversed by exercise. Exercise generates BDNF which in turn stimulates the growth of neurons, the numerous neurons formed increase the size of the hippocampus, thereby reducing depression (Johnsgard, 2004).

In conclusion, physical education is as important as any other lesson in the school. Many schools have realized the importance of movement, and they are bringing it back to their programme. Apart from the many benefits, exercising is fun. People laugh and talk a lot during physical movement. This creates strong bonds between people, and most importantly, it gives an opportunity to improve social skills.

References

Johnsgard, K. (2004). Conquering Depression and Anxiety Through Exercise. New York: Prometheus Books.

Ratey, J. J. (2008). Spark: The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain. New York: Little, Brown and Company.

Stevens, T. A. (2008). The importance of physical activity and physical education in the prediction of academic achievement. Journal of Sport Behavior 3(2), 36-50.

Villaire, T. (2000). Decline of Physical Activity. Web.

Introduction

The twenty-first-century workforce requires students to be equipped with generic skills to meet the challenges of modern living in a globalized world. Evidence-based research continues to be drawn on to develop education curriculums. Recently, with the government’s goal of the No Child Left Behind Act, 2001, brain-centered teaching practices are emphasized to enhance the learning experiences of students across ages (Beamon, 2004; Blank et al., 2007; Churchland, 2007; Grobstein, 2007; Martinez, 2004). The literature points to the importance of teacher understanding of brain development and its interaction with student learning. This is critically important to know for students who experience a learning disability, such as dyslexia. The following paper aims to present a critical review of current research into brain-centered teaching. It is anticipated that the review will find brain-centered teaching as effective for students in primary and secondary school.

Review of the Literature

In 1995 the Santa Fe Institute collected a series of essays into a book titled, The Mind, the Brain and Complex Adaptive Systems, which identified a mismatch between emerging research into learning theory and education best practices at the time (Zull, 2004). It appeared that research into the development of the intellect in children pointed to children below the age of three years as being heavily dependent on encouragement from socially significant others and external stimulation for the brain to develop optimally with basic social skills, such as being able to collaborate and to have a broad perspective of situations. Further, the collection of essays indicated that unless skills are stimulated at a very early age, trying to develop these skills later in life was shown to be increasingly difficult.

Later research also supported the idea of elementary schools delivering learning materials to classes of 10-12 students to optimally engage the mind of young students (Newman & Dickonson, 2006). It was also becoming more apparent that teachers needed to develop learning programs that provided ongoing learning for themselves, as well as students. The understanding of content and process in ways in which a child would view the material would enable children to see for themselves how their minds work. Provided with the foundation for self-learning and would prepare young students’ for ongoing professional development in their adult years (Buszaki, 2006). As such the role of teachers had to change so that they could model learning techniques to students to enable the children to learn for themselves (Abbott & Ryan, 1999; Thomas & Arhmed, 2004).

More recent literature contends that adolescents can also benefit from a brain-centered teaching approach at school. Neurocognitive research using fMRI scans shows that teenagers have not fully developed their frontal lobes, and as such skills in reasoning and decision-making tend to not be comparable to those of most adults (Beamon, 2004). This can be a challenging situation for teachers as well as frustrating for teen students trying to take on board necessary socio-emotional skills and intellectual material for use later in life. Knowledge of how these brain areas in teens can be fully activated, and engaging other brain areas of teens that are predominantly active at this stage in their development, allows the teacher to develop “how-to” strategies for; problem-solving; awareness of the relevance of materials; and cultivation of collaborative skills (Churchland, 2007). An ideal method to achieve these goals is to motivate teenage students with authentic events that are happening in their lives at this time. However, Beamon (2004) does not go into detail as to how this can be achieved by teachers. Forrest Primary School suggests that a Life Skills program for teens can enhance their understanding of how their brain functions and that this can have numerous positive implications for personal development and learning. This can include activities such as brain gym and circle time (Forrest Primary School, 2006).

Overall, it is recognized that any brain-focused teaching methods need to incorporate a whole school approach and not be limited to individual classrooms implementing evidence-based practices at a teacher’s initiative. Current best practices draw on neurocognitive and constructionist theories and models to enhance the National Teaching Standards (Cain, Cain, McClintic & Klimeck, 2005). More congruent classroom instruction can be developed with a “brain compatible” curriculum. This means moving beyond textbooks to meet the needs of survival in a globalized and highly technological society, where information is abundant. Seeing human beings as living systems and so materials that are relevant to the dynamic and complex experiences of the student are likely to have a much greater impact than materials that are abstract or too simplistic (Grobstein, 2007).

For teachers to achieve such a state of mind with their students there needs to be “in the moment” teaching, or the active process (Motschnig-Pitrik, & Dernt, 2003). Teacher-student and peer questioning can engage students in conversations about what they are learning. Self-reflective journals are another method of encouraging students to think more deeply, to identify specific features of what they are learning, and to recognize relationships and patterns amongst the information as they practice critical analysis. Thinking on their feet allows students to develop goal-setting approaches to problem-solving and this entails establishing timelines. The communication of their ideas will be clearer and more comprehensive as they will have personalized their learning experiences (Martinez, 2004).

Discussion

In conclusion, the hypothesis for this research was supported in that the literature supports the use of a brain-centered approach to teaching, within primary as well as secondary schools. It appears that students who start early to model learning approaches exhibited by their significant others and interact with a high stimulation in their environment have much better life skill chances later in life. The modeled learning approaches however must encompass learning about one’s brain structure and function so that young students can develop their self-learning strategies. Furthermore, later in life as teenagers, students can benefit from a brain-centered approach in learning self-reflection and critical analysis to gain a deeper insight into characteristics and patterns amongst the information they are learning.

The research into brain-centered teaching can positively influence learning curriculums to ensure that “no child is left behind” in that the approach focuses on multiple methods of delivery of materials, often in an active way to engage students with “in the moment” learning experiences. This encourages independent as well as collaborative learning skills for the student. Neurocognitive research has contributed immensely to current best practices of teaching. And a whole school approach must be taken to ensure that the students absorb a systems approach to learning about themselves, and how to navigate life’s challenges, now and in the future.

References

Abbott & Ryan (1999). Learning to go with the grain of the brain. 21st Century Learning Initiative. Web.

Beamon, G. (2004). Brain-Based Teaching with Adolescent Learning in Mind (2^nd edition). New York: Sage Publications.

Blank et al. (2007). Emergent pedagogy: Learning to enjoy the uncontrollable and make it productive. Web.

Buszaki G. (2006). Rhythm of the Brain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Caine, R. N., Klimek, K., Caine, G., McClintic, C. (2005). 12 Brain/mind Learning Principles in Action. London: Corwin Press.

Churchland, P. (2007). Neurophilosophy at Work. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Forrest Primary School (2006). Forrest Primary School. Web.

Grobstein, P. (2007). Parallel changes in thinking about the brain and about education. Web.

Martinez, M. (2004). Brain plasticity and the art of teaching to learn. Proceedings of the Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation & Education Conference (I/ITSEC): Transforming 21st century operations. Paris, France.

Motschnig-Pitrik, R. & Dernt, M. (2003). Can the web improve the effectiveness of person-centered learning? Case study on teaching and living web engineering. Proceedings an the International conference WWW/Internet (ICWI’03) Algarve, Portugal, 651-658.

Neuman, S. B. & Dickinson, D. K. (2005). Handbook of Early Literacy Research. Cambridge: Guildford Press.

Thomas, H. & Ahmed, J. (2003). Cultural Bodies: Ethnography and Theory. New York: Blackwell Publishing.

Zull, J. E. (2004). Teaching for meaning. Educational Leadership, 62(1), 68-72.

Introduction

Brain SMART refers to a program used to promotes the practical process of effective teaching and learning through the understanding of the translating implications of the brain as well as a student’s achievement in research. The program has been applied in many state departments of education and high achieving school districts across Canada and the United States with scientific research conducted on the program proving that both the brain and body functions are integrated. Successful achievements in-class work is enhanced by understanding the learning components and good strategies used in teaching. ( Ronald.F. 2006). This paper gives evidence of accomplishments achieved through the Brain SMART program in new learning and also refers to the research that has had the greatest professional impact for me as an educator. In addition, the paper also gives examples of the correlation between the coursework and the National Board Standards.

Discussion

Research undertaken over the last ten years has greatly influenced my approach as an educator, to the learning process of each individual student. For some educators, being able to rewire someone’s brain so that there are no limits to what they can learn seems almost impossible but research indicates that trying to make constant creation of new neural connections, and using the existing ones to make them stronger and efficient, plays an important role in helping students to reach their full potential. The academic and emotional aspects of learning work together through the understanding of two levels in the learning process. Strategies that are used to implement the Brain SMART program and that will be discussed in this paper include; the Brain SMART Science Structure and Strategies, Thinking for Results, Differentiated Instruction, Courageous Learning and Achievement, and Classroom Management in Students.

Brain SMART Science Structure and Strategies

In this strategy, Howard Gardener’s theory on Multiple Intelligence(s) is applied; a theory that has been very instrumental in helping me identify both the strengths and weaknesses of my students. This is because after understanding the eight kinds of intelligence(s), I have gained the ability to connect well with my students and have become more observant of each child and their approach to learning. These kinds of intelligence are namely Verbal-Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Interpersonal, Naturalistic, Existential and Bodily-Kinesthetic. It is essential that educators understand a student’s multiple intelligence(s) if they desire to achieve excellent results in their work, they need to address the student’s multiple (Gardner, 1983). It has been observed that the Montessori environment of learning in which each child is taught as an individual, runs parallel to Gardener’s theory of learning. As a teacher, I address the different bits of intelligence by making sure that they are integrated into my lesson planning. I try to achieve this by going over my lesson plans on a daily basis and listing beside them what kind of multiple intelligence(s) I will be applying for each lesson. This has assisted me to adopt various methods of teaching and to enhance creativity in my students by applying such methods as the use of crossword puzzles with vocabulary from a subject that is being studied, and implementing all types of intelligence projects when working.

The most challenging part for me this year has been educating parents on good nutrition, and how nutrition affects learning. Proposing the kind of diet that children should get has attracted mixed reactions from parents with some of them even reporting the issue to the school authorities that who in turn implemented a good nutrition program that helped solve the misunderstanding. Children have embraced his idea of good eating habits with some of them promoting it by putting signs on the signboards in school. Understanding good nutrition and the impact it has on a student’s physical structure and brain has helped me understand how nutrition affects the learning process. (Wilson and Conyers, 2005).

Thinking for results

Though children may enter school without some cognitive skills, they still have the ability to learn, and recognizing that intelligence is not fixed allows both the educator and student to explore different opportunities to achieve good results in class. Learning how to improve student’s learning and the use of strategies through the cognitive process has helped me to understand this fact. The three phases of the Genius Model ( input, process, and output) are combined together with the twenty-five cognitive assets and in such a way, students are able to learn under a system that promotes both effective thinking and success in social skills and leads to excellent student’s achievement.

The Thinking for Results Assessment has helped me to identify my students’ strengths and weaknesses and also helped me to identify the cognitive skills that I should integrate into the curriculum daily. By learning about the different cognitive assets and their different phases, I have come to realize that different Skills such as Practical Optimism, Initiative, and Appropriate Courage if lacking, can be easily identified. When planning my lessons, I am now more aware of my clear intent in teaching and I usually ask students questions to help them think. Several cognitive assets used in combination, help me to identify difficulties experienced by the students which I try to solve in order to ensure that such difficulties do not hinder my success in teaching. Learning to recognize the different cognitive skills and how to implement them appropriately has helped my growth as a teacher.

Differentiated Instruction

According to Marian Diamond’s strategy, “Enhance Learning with Technology”, brain research has proved that different people learn differently in the same environment. From experience, the Montessori differentiated classroom style of teaching has been able to address different learning needs by trying to attend to each student’s individual needs while at the same time giving each person the necessary tools to succeed in a safe environment. This is because a differentiated classroom creates an opportunity for the instructor and the student to work as a team. Using Meier’s Four-phase model of learning has improved my awareness of how to prepare and present lessons, arouse students’ interest as well as how to keep them hooked to the subject that is being taught. The students in turn develop a desire to learn and to involve their brains and bodies in learning (experience and practice) and through peer teaching and skill-building, they are able to utilize what they have learned.

Montessori curriculum, however, differs from Meier’s model of learning in that through the Montessori curriculum, most lessons adopt a story form as a way of attracting student interest, and engaged learning is promoted through group projects, hand-on learning with materials, and field trips. Standard instruction provides a good learning environment only to 25% of students and the traditional setting of education is thus considered not the best way to educate people (Wilson and Conyers, 2005). This creates the need to address each type of learner through differentiated classroom implementation.

Courageous Learners

Courageous learners are those people who courageously work towards overcoming the situations that increase the probability of academic failure in class( Wilson and Conyers, 2005). It is estimated that 75% of students at risk may have a right hemispheric strength, a characteristic that is associated with skills such as seeing the big picture, rapid visual processing, and strong intuition. My understanding of Brain SMART’s four fundamental forces of learning has helped me as an educator, to identify the necessary requirements for students to succeed. This has also furnished me with a good understanding of what the students can achieve if given the right tools.

One of the four forces in courageous learning is Professional Development and Teacher preparation. This has helped me to be a highly effective teacher by providing me with the tools and skills necessary for the student’s success, an achievement displayed in the higher reading levels, and great strides in Math Applications that have been achieved through this force. Another force is the Physical/Mental Health and Safety force that deals with educating students on good nutrition, educating parents on the effects nutrition has on children learning, as well as encouraging a positive attitude among the students and towards others. There’s also the Parent Support, Mentors, and Peers force that encourages mentoring and peer teaching, and this is done by guiding and teaching students through healthy social interactions. Peer teaching is part of the Montessori learning program and helps students to properly interact with each other. Through the application of this force, I have been able to spend extra time with my students and to schedule parent volunteers who come in and help students on daily basis. Parents have also been able to go over their children’s work through weekly conferences, a process that has helped them to be involved in their children’s learning.

Wilson and Conyers advocate the STAR TEACHERS GO FOR IT, a 19 classroom learning tools program that is used to help students learn and save information. I have found some of the learning tools to be very valuable in classroom teaching and how I have used them to achieve good results in class will be briefly discussed hereafter. One of the tools is the T which stands for Twenty Minutes and through it, the teacher uses less than 20 minutes to deliver important information at the beginning of the lesson and to review what has been taught at the end of a lesson. C stands for Color and through this tool, colors are used to teach phonics whereby different colors are used for different syllables. Another tool, H stands for Highlighting, and through it, I teach students how to highlight what is to be done at a particular time in order to get their focus on one subject at a time, hence promoting organization. The use of stories is represented by tool S, a process through which the teacher uses storytelling to help children learn and retain information in a fun-making manner. This in due course enables them to use their creativity and imagination. The use of graphics ushers in the G- Graphics tool, enables students to make sense out of what they are learning by the use of graphic organizers. These tools have greatly helped me as a teacher for I am now able to identify the necessary tools that students need to help them put their thoughts in order.

Howard Gardeners’ theory of multiple intelligence offers numerous ways of facilitating effective learning. The Montessori program of the differentiated classroom has been able to meet the key principles whereby a teacher clearly states the objectives of the teaching content although the content and product process is flexible and can be adjusted to suit student readiness, interest, and learning profile. This helps in promoting a student’s ability to learn independently without the pressure of having to keep up the pace of their peers.

Student Achievement and Classroom Management

Marzano’s “Classroom Instruction that Works” has been widely used in classwork. This has been done through identification of similarities and differences in subjects, summarizing and taking of notes, cooperate learning and, generation and testing of hypothesis. The use of graphic organizers encourages students to brainstorm ideas before putting them on paper. Using this strategy, there are the Teacher-Directed tasks where teachers choose tasks for comparison and Student-Directed Comparison tasks whereby the students select items to be compared. The act of generating and testing hypotheses provides the students with a great opportunity to learn and also gives them a chance for teamwork, as advocated by Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory. Teachers have a very important role in ensuring that students are optimistic in school and that they get high school achievement and this demands for proper application of learning tools by the educators. In addition, Marzano’s strategy encourages the teachers to focus on instructional strategies, classroom management, and classroom curriculum.

In order to achieve success in the classroom, it is vital that classroom management be consistent with laid out rules and regulations and also demonstrate a teacher-student relationship that creates a balance between dominance and cooperation. The teacher is expected to guide and support all students and at the same time ensure all learning styles are accommodated in the curriculum and through the incorporation of problem-solving and decision-making strategies, each student should be able to master necessary skills (Marzano.J, 2003). According to Seligman’s Optimistic Child theory (Seligman, 1995), children have been taught to be pessimistic by the society they live in through the “self-esteem” concept. In such cases, Cognitive therapy can be used to change the student’s attitudes from pessimistic to optimistic, a process that creates the opportunity to get rid of negative thoughts and feelings and replace them with positive ones (Seligman. M, 1995).

Through the Brain, SMART program educators receive the necessary tools and applications that enable them to find out the best method of teaching and also expose them to different information compiled through research and science. The program also enhances meaningful learning by engaging the student, a process that helps to retain information and to be optimistic. Teachers should not be discouraged by any instances of failure in the classroom but should instead be focused on anything that will help achieve high standards for all students.

Conclusion

As an educator, I have been very fortunate to work under the Montessori learning environment as it encompasses many of the teachings of the Brain SMART program. This is achieved through its differentiated classroom approach, teaching in different learning levels, giving students choices, and using the respectable language of respect, all of which are geared towards achieving the best in each student. The BrainSmart program and the Montessori differentiated learning approach have given me a teaching environment whose concepts with the five propositions of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.

References

Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence, New York.

Marzano, J. 2003. Classroom Instruction That Works: Research Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement. Prentice Hall Publishers.

Ronald, F. 2006. Smart Teaching: Using Brain Research and Data to Continuously Improve. American Society for Quality.

Seligman,M. 1995. Optimistic Child. Proven Program to Safeguard Children from Depression and Build Lifelong Resilience. Harper Paperbacks; New York.

Wilson, D and Conyers, M. 2005. Brain SMART. Graduate Education and Professional Development. Guilford Publishers.

Introduction

Brain-based learning is a current teaching approach based on neuroscientists research that suggest that biologically driven framework for creating effective instruction should be adopted by teachers when giving instructions and teaching children. The approach acknowledges that at different development stages, children have certain brain power that can absorb certain issues. Depending with the age and social setting, instructors should adopt educational techniques that are brain-friendly to facilitate learning and memory.

The main reason why there are some schools that perform poorly than others is because teachers fail to know the best way to handle and teach their students; every student has potential thus the most important thing is to ensure that there is an environment that can improve the absorption power of students (Sylvan and Joanna 1-7). This paper analysis how brain-based education system can be used to improve the degree of performance in poorly performing schools; to discuss the topic, the paper will focus on strong points of the system.

Principles of Brain-based learning

The brain is complex but has powers to perform different tasks at the same time; however the parallel structure of the brain needs to be aligned and well instructed. The theory beliefs that the brain has multiple areas that stores information, however for an effective learning, the entire body should be part and parcel of the learning.

The concept is of the opinion that the brain is a social organ that is affected by the environment and the general structure of learning environment; brain can be subjected to stressing moments and when stressed then learning is hampered (Kondoh 40). The following are the pillars that can be used to facilitate learning in poorly performing schools:

• Instructions and Curriculum

Brain is soothed by music and arts; the approach is based on the notion that attention follows the emotions that someone has. With this notion, then when someone’s mind is not emotionally sound, then chances of being attentive to learning and other this is affected. Music and art are known to have the potential of tapping emotional areas in ones brains, lowers stress and thus boosts learning, understanding and memory.

Under the frameworks of music, instructors should note the possible intervention mechanisms as:

1. Music as carrier: when music is playing, it has an effect of encoding human brain thus creating and environment of relaxing. Interventions of music should be made for learning students to ensure that their brain remain fresh and attentive.
2. Arousal: when music is playing, it has an effect of relieving the brains thus energizing and calming down the brain
3. Primer: neuroscience research has shown that music has the power of preparing specific pathways for learning content. Other than making the brain prepared, it has an effect of improving ones immune system. With such a research, teachers should use music to prepare students to absorb more information into their system.

Teachers should understand their students that when they seem to be worn outs and stressed, then have games, arts and other outdoor activities that are likely to relax the students. Different environments calls for different approaches and so does the music that can reduce stress in children. For instance, in traditional settings, teachers should know the kind of music that restores peace and reduces stress on the people.

When engaging in different art physical activities, the actions make avenues of expression and emotional connection and release in children; they need to be engaged in art and activities that involve the use of ones intelligence. In the same angle of art, when someone is taught something and gets the chances to have a hand-on experience, then they are less unlikely to forget the thing. In modern ways where there is technology, teachers should adopt some audio-visual delivery mode that can improve students’ memory.

In poorly performing schools, teachers should adopt different teaching methods that improve students’ memory; they should use policies like PowerPoint, fieldtrips, art analysis, metaphoric icons or images and other forms of art that can improve students’ capabilities. When dealing with matters of art, there is need to have a wide knowledge of the culture of the people that the students come from (Duman 2080).

• Use more diverse forms of assessment

This is the notion that teachers need to have a well illustrated performance and growth model that students have for a certain period of time; since students have different brain power, teachers should have a standard testing and assessment method that can assist in analyzing the trend and improvement pattern that a certain student has. With the well elaborated analysis then teachers will know the specific areas to intervene and sometimes students that require special address.

In poorly performing schools, the rate of performance may be attributed it the gauging and comparisons level that the students are given that may make them believe they are weaker than others. For example when examined and rated with other better performing schools, they may feel they are less wise causing them psychological stress and influence.

The best way to reduce such chances is to have teachers assessing their students according to the rate of delivery they have given, with such an approach, and then the progress of the child will be noted and improved accordingly.

Other than the traditional assessments methods, that has been used as standard ways of accessing students delivery mode, there is need to have other methods both verbal and written self-assessments. Such integrated systems are likely to improve academic growth, interdisciplinary, and realism in assessments; such systems are likely to improve performance of poorly performing schools (Worden, Christina and Kurt 10).

• Learning Environment

According to Brain-based learning, learning can be improved when social aspects of human life is considered; the environment that children are brought up in have and effect on the perception, attitude and the degree of absorption that the child will have.

Poorly performing schools should involve even the community and the people around them when teaching their students; community should offer an optimal learning environment for students. For example, there is a high tendency to find those schools that perform poorly to be located in environments that the people value less education, the community may even hold a negative perception towards the schools that children are going; the totality of these factors creates unfavorable learning environments (Naq 542).

Conclusion

Poorly performing schools can improve their performance rate by adopting brain-based education method; according to the method, teachers should ensure their students brains is relaxed using interventions like music, art, and simple metaphoric simple icons or images. Other than preparing the brain for learning, instructors should ensure that the learning environment is favorable for learning.

Works Cited

Duman, Bilal. “The Effects of Brain-Based Learning on the Academic Achievement of Students with Different Learning Styles.” Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice 10.4 (2010): 2077-2103. Print.

Kondoh, Michio. “Linking learning adaptation to trophic interactions: a brain size-based approach.” Functional Ecology 24.1 (2010): 35-43. Print.

Naq Nawaz Khan, et al. “The Impact of Brain Based Learning on Students Academic Achievement.” Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business 2.2 (2010): 542-556. Print.

Sylvan, Lesley J., and Joanna A. Christodoulou. “Understanding the Role of Neuroscience in Brain Based Products: A Guide for Educators and Consumers.” Mind, Brain & Education 4.1 (2010): 1-7. Print.

Worden, Jennifer M., Christina Hinton, and Kurt W. Fischer. “What Does the Brain Have to Do with Learning?.” Phi Delta Kappan 92.8 (2011): 8-13. Print.

Introduction

The exposure of our brain plays a significant role in shaping the mental setup at any one time and is fundamental in influencing new learning and acquiring of knowledge. The human mind makes sense from the moment of birth and through it, we make decisions in different situations (Slavain, 1991). Current brain-based research indicates that learning is attained best when connected with the learner’s previous exposures, facts, principles, or clarity of details (Perry, 2000).

Discussion

The bond between past and new learning is established under the concept that knowledge in the brain is stored in an arrangement of connections; and learning shapes from experiences by strengthening certain connections (Slavain, 1991). Passage of electrical current along the nerve cells stimulates these neural connections, enhanced by the discharge of chemicals into the synapse between neighboring cells. The more frequent the stimulation takes place, the more habitual a remembrance or a particular idea becomes.

Meaningful learning, knowledge background, processing, neural connections, relevance, and prior knowledge activation are key principles of brain-based learning. Teachers should present information in clear, organized ways and ensure that concepts are understood; to deliver meaningful learning (Slavain, 1991). Connecting new knowledge to background knowledge builds a firm foundation by opening the best chances for correction to construct new concepts. Teachers need to take time in planning to understand what knowledge students already have to spare them the agony of repeating it or building on the knowledge they do not possess (Cole, 2008). In the ‘brain buttons’, a type of ‘brain gym’, for example, one hand massages two spots below the clavicle, the other resting on the navel. The carotid artery is stimulated by the movements-thus enhancing the flow of blood to the brain. This activates the brain for reading skills and memorization of knowledge in powerful ways (Cernicky, 2009).

Levels of processing is another principle with the initial processing being shallow, extracting only the more superficial features like shape or sound. Next, the input gets processed deeply by analysis of dynamic features. In the theory of processing, memory depends on the depth of encoding (Dewart, 1999). Neural connections are responsible for the proper operation of the nervous system. The first step in their development entails the formation of the neurons followed by an elaboration of axons and dendrites to finally make important connections between the two (Steward, 1989).

Politano (2000) demonstrates the principle of relevance through the question of ‘What Is In It For Me-WIIFM’. They indicate that students become more focused once they establish the relevance of what they are learning. Finally, activating prior knowledge is a powerful principle; with schemata theory indicating that knowledge is packaged into structures termed as schemata. Once a particular schema is activated, a huge store of knowledge becomes available immediately. It assists in making sense, relating information, and determining learning relevance (Tamara, 2004).

Conclusion

There is a sturdy mutual correlation between past and new knowledge. The depth of what one already knows is directly proportional to the level of comprehension and ability to quickly learn new knowledge and comprehend broader topics. Teachers must strive to plan their lessons alongside models that encourage brain-based learning.

References

Cernicky, G. Brain Gym. Web.

Cole, R. W. Educating Everybody’s Children: Diverse Teaching Strategies for Diverse Learners. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2008.

Dewart, H. An introduction to cognitive psychology: processes and disorders. New York: Routledge, 1999.

Perry, B. D. How the brain learns best. New York: Instructor, 2000.

Polationo, C. Brain-Based Learning With Class. Manitoba: Portage & Main Press, 2000.

Slavain, R. E. Educational Psychology: Theory Into Practice. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1991.

Steward, O. Principles of cellular, molecular, and developmental neuroscience. New York: Springer, 1989.

Tamara, J. Adolescent literacy research and practice Solving. New York: Guilford Press, 2004.

Brain based learning is “learning by participation in realistic environments that let learners try new things safely” (“Brain-based Learning,” 1) as opposed to traditional schooling through lectures that inhibits the way the brain naturally learns new things.

Explaining how learning takes place, Lucas says that “basically learners extract some type of meaning from all stimuli that that they encounter. A stimulus is anything with which the brain comes into contact through the five senses (sight, sound, touch, taste and smell)” (2008, p.4)

This report has two parts: Part one shows how the sense of sight and the sense of sound can be used to help a grade 2 pupil learn how to measure time in a math lesson. Part two focuses on the importance of emotions in the learning process.

To demonstrate how the sense of sight can help in brain-based-learning, the teacher can come with a wall clock and place it where all the pupils can see. Allow the pupils to examine the clock. Ask them to count the calibrations on the clock face (see figure1) explain other visible features like the clock hands, the clock adjusting mechanism and so on so that the pupils have a pretty good perception of the workings of a clock. (Figure 2)

With this background information it is now possible to help pupils learn how to measure time. Make the students observe the ‘seconds hand’ of the clock making a full revolution explain what that means. Use this same pattern to explain the ‘minutes’, and ‘hours’ hands of the clock. This can form a basis to teach about seconds, hours, days, weeks, months and years. All this learning occurs because the pupils can see an actual clock at work.

The sense of hearing can also help in the learning process. Ensure that the class is so quiet that the ticking of the clock can be distinctly heard by everyone. Ask the students this question: What is time? Then tell them to ‘listen to time as it passes.’

The teacher can tell the pupils to close their eyes and count each click. As the clock ticks the teacher can have the students appreciate the interval between seconds as the basic measure of time. Tapping the tops of their desks in rhythm with the ticking of the clock will create a mental impression of time.

The importance of emotions in learning is that “emotions are responsible for building academic constructs in the brain and provide a foundation for symbolic thought process,” (Hirsh, 2009). Hirsh further explains that symbols are the genesis of learning. Teachers concentrate on helping children to be able to utilize symbols from different disciplines. For example linguistic symbols include letters and words, while mathematical symbols include numbers, patterns and algorithms (2009).

As explained earlier in this paper, learning occurs when the brain responds to stimuli channeled in through one or more of the five senses. How a symbol is encoded in the brain depends on the state of the stimuli or emotion triggered by the teacher. For example contrast between a tense math class and a relaxed history or poetry class.

In the math class scenario, the teacher demands nothing but exact and correct answers. To make matters worse the society associates math with geniuses like engineers and doctors. If a teacher portrays math as a difficult subject, pupils will find it stressful to follow and understand lessons. The appraisal emotions evoked by such an environment will affect retention of symbols and concepts. In future, instead of the learner taking math as a pleasant challenge they will try to avoid it believing that it is stressful.

On the other hand the poetry teacher has a poem read out in a relaxed class environment, and invites learners to say what they think. The learning process will be triggered by positive emotions and retaining of language symbols will not be a challenge. Hirsh recommended positive emotional states such as: “joy/pleasure, anticipation/curiosity instead of fear/threat and sadness/disappointment” (2009).

References

“Brain-based Learning” (2010) Funderstanding.

Hirsh, A.R., (2009). The Role of Emotions in the Development of Symbolic Thought, and Its Implications for Curriculum. Web.

Lucas, B., (2008). Engage Your Brain for Learning. USA: ASTD Press, Vol.25, Issue 0808.

Introduction

Firstly, the Constructivism method of learning is very democratic in the sense that it allows learners to construct their own learning experiences. This approach of teaching is about producing good learners as opposed to simply delivering information, some of which are abstract or hypothetical, which some students may fail to synchronize in their minds. In a constructivist classroom, students become explores and adventurous of ideas, knowledge, and concepts in an organic way (Dover, 2018). In a classroom setup and a lesson in which constructivist is applied, students are encouraged to give detailed accounts of their ideas and use evidence to boost their viewpoints. In the constructivist approach, the assessment is about having more time with the learners every day, focusing must still happen for the students to succeed.

Challenges of Implementing Constructivist teaching method

Scholars argue that the aspect of collaborative learning in the classroom is seen as tending to produce tyranny of the majority on the minority. In such circumstances a few students’ authority of interpretations of concepts dominate the group’s conclusions, and the ones with contrary views are forced to conform to the group consensus. In addition, this approach mostly promotes group thinking and ignores the individuality of every student, whereas learning is supposed to promote the individual rights of each learner. Some teachers are also reluctant to change from their normal belief in the conventional teaching method to this approach which reduces their authority in class as drivers of knowledge (Butler, 2019). Likewise, this method is likely very ineffective at promoting academic achievement, which is normally measured through examinations after some time of subject coverage.

Lesson Plan Activities

• Grade Level: Fifth
• Subject: Science/Life Science
• Time Required: 90 minutes
• Materials Required: This lesson incorporates the use of a Poster-sized picture of the brain, a Brainiac worksheet, your body-The Brain worksheet, The Incredible Human Brain worksheet, why do Zombies Love Brains worksheet, and a Brain Diagram worksheet. Laptop computer and LCD projector will also be used during this lesson to play and project a video clip of an instructor demonstrating and explaining the brain hemisphere, different parts of the human brain, and their assignments.
• Key Terms: Cerebellum, Spinal cord, Brain stem, Temporal lobe, Occipital lobe, Frontal lobe, and Parietal lobe

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, the learners will be able to recognize, describe, discuss, demonstrate and explain the roles of the four parts of the brain.

Introduction (5 minutes)

The teacher starts by greeting the students, he then proceeds to display a poster with a human brain on the board and invite the learners to observe it keenly as they brainstorm silently. This generates curiosity, interest and elicits responses from the students on what they know or think they know about the brain. Through observation of the diagram, the learners analyze internally and construct individual knowledge about the brain. In the process, the educator asks them to be in pairs and describe to each other what they have observed from the picture. While in pairs, the students give very many varied and diverse answers about what they know or understand about the human brain. In the meantime, the teacher walks around to different answers the learners give to their partners.

Lesson Development – Exploration of the Topic (20 minutes)

In this next episode of the lesson, the teacher divides the class into small groups of five students each. He then asks them to watch a 10 minutes video while sitting together in their groups. In the clip, the expert is demonstrating that the brain is split into the left and right hemispheres. The instructor explains and elaborates that the right hemisphere controls the left parts of the body, while the left also directs the right sections of the body. The tutorial video goes further as the instructor also explains the four different portions of the brain, their tasks, and how the spinal cord connects sections of the body to the brain. Additionally, in the video clip, the aspects of body actions are highlighted. Clarity is given on how the cerebellum of the brain controls movements, coordination, and body balance.

During this activity, the teacher moves around the classroom from one group to another, watches and observes how different groups pay attention to the video clip. While doing that, the educator props up short questions to reinforce the learners’ focus and attention to key points being explained. This activity is meant to enable the learners to collect new information about the brain and construct a model of how the brain works. The students do so by thinking internally, reflecting, and visualizing what they watch in light of what they already know or what they assume to know.

Once the video clip is over, the educator instructs the learners to discuss in their groups what they observed, learned, and understood from the played clip. The group work allows them to think freely, within the limits of information they gathered from the video session. Group discussions allow them to exchange dears, hypotheses and try to make individual interpretations of what each one of them learned independently. The discussions also allow the learners to question explanations, observations, and suggestions their colleagues might make about the topic, which may not agree with what they think they know or understand about the topic. Meanwhile, the teacher encourages the learners that each one of them should feel free to say what they extracted from the clip without fear because no particular correct answer is required.

Interactive session (15 minutes)

This session is a continuation of the group activity, where the teacher asks members of groups to explain to the rest of the class what they recorded concerning the video during their group discussions. Members of each group select one of them as their representative to present their points to the rest. It is essential when each and every time one group is taking their turn to highlight their observations as a group, the teacher keeps on probing the group and asking them questions to justify their answers. The group taking the floor must provide justifications for their answers and observations.

The members from other groups carefully listen, as one group is explaining their observation about the content of the video which was played in class and make attempts to redefine their understanding of the topic. In between, they ask for clarifications, probe the ideas presented, contradict, and even disagree with some points put forward by a particular group in their presentations. During this activity, the teacher chips in as the groups present their thoughts on the topic by making clarifications on aspects of the topic which seem not clear to the class. Further, the groups are asked by the teacher to give everyday activities they do which relate to the topic.

Collaborative Session (20 minutes)

In this activity, the students are asked by the teacher to work in their groups and complete the brain worksheet based on what they have learned in class through the video clip which was played. They are instructed to do this by incorporating the observations they made in their discussions and clarifications, which the teacher did during groups’ presentations. (Moehriwi, 2018). The learners are required to agree on the answers before they feed them into the worksheets. The teacher stresses further that the answers for each group do not need to match the textbook definition or explanations of terms, provided each group brings out the concept well. Learners in their groups take their time and collectively feel the worksheet such that, the final answers they display for the rest of the class as a group are through consensus.

Assessment (10 minutes)

Using the oral discussion technique of evaluation, the teacher writes a focus question on the board, which is open for discussion to the whole class concerning one of the sub-topics learned about the brain. He thereafter instructs the learners to brainstorm, freely discuss and give their individual answers (Brau, 2020). The learners are advised that there are no right or wrong answers, and so none of them should fear saying what they think. As the students take part in the discussion through their responses, the educator takes note of the performance of each student individually through their responses. Through this technique, the educator is able to gauge the level of knowledge every student acquired during the lesson.

Lastly, the instructor uses the mind mapping method of assessment by directing the learners to list out and classify the views and ideas relating to what they understood and do remember about the topic. It is supposed to help the learners make connections between facts and ideas visually by keeping all their thought about the lesson together in a sheet (McLeod, 2019). In addition, the students are able to explore the topic further individually, memorize information, and write essays about the topic. The educator again moves around the classroom and checks what each student has written down individually and forms an opinion about what each student is capable of recalling after the lesson.

Review and Closing (20 minutes)

The teacher uses the same groups and gives each of the groups “why do Zombies Love Brains worksheet”. He instructs them, students, to go through it and extract interesting facts about the human brain and reflect on the areas responsible for different things by looking at the pictures in their groups. Each group of five thereafter will present its multimedia presentation to the whole class one group at a time. As the learners go through the worksheets, they are instructed to write ideas that they found captivating about the brain from the worksheet. At the same time the teacher moves around the class and asks group leaders to share what their group wrote. This is meant for the learners to connect each task according to their group’s knowledge and interpretation of the topic so as to help them construct and offer their own inferences of the topic.

References

Brau, B. (2020). Constructivism: The students’ guide to learning design and research. EdTech Books.

Butler, K. (2019). The problem with constructivism teaching methods.Areo.

Dover, G. (2018). The benefits of constructivist learning design. Smart Sparrow.

McLeod, S. A. (2019).Constructivism as a theory for teaching and learning. Simply Psychology.

Moehriwi, (2018). Allowing constructivism into the classroom.

Introduction

Brain-based learning is becoming popular since it provides a good framework that helps to raise students’ performance. Brain–based learning provides an opportunity for the students to link their prior knowledge with the current content area learning; hence, it facilitates learning process for every student (Jensen & Jensen, 2008).

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the fundamentals of the brain based learning, and the brain dominance. It will shed light on how a classroom teacher can optimize students’ learning.

Fundamentals of Brain-Based Learning

The Concept of How a Student’s Brain Learns

Jensen & Jensen (2008) affirms that learning process of the brains depends on the emotions of the child since the power of cognition has a correlation with emotions.

Emotions affects the learning process since the student under threats releases some chemicals in the brain that inhibits understanding of content. A teacher should therefore pay close attention to students with physical disabilities since these students have high chances of developing negative emotions that may result from peer rejection.

This can be achieved by teaching social behavior publicly as it enhances social acceptance through emphasizing on the importance of diversity in classrooms. Through this acceptance, children with physical disabilities will demonstrate positive emotions that facilitate content area learning.

The teacher should also note that there are students who have learning disabilities that are neurological in origin, hence affected in understanding the content of new concepts (Jensen & Jensen, 2008).

These students demonstrate a problem in processing new information. It is therefore paramount to be flexible during teaching since the neural connection is responsible for stimulating the appropriate learning style, which is experienced when current passes along the nerve cells in the brain.

Jensen & Jensen (2008) affirms that introducing of new concepts can be enhanced by accommodating prior knowledge of these students.

For example, teaching students that the world is round can be introduced by accommodation the notion of students who believes that the world is flat, and then coming up with information that will help them to analyze and criticize their prior concepts. The teacher can also ask the students to compare the previous leadership with the current leadership style.

Creating this link helps the students to understand the concepts of new content. Another example involves the use of body movement in order to enhance understanding of language such as standing up and sitting down to demonstrate the difference between consonants and vowels (Willingham, 2004).

Brain Dominance

The Paradox of the Left Side Processes and the Right Side Processes of the Brain

There are diverse ways of enhancing brain dominance during the learning process. One of these ways is enhancing memory. This results from the fact that brain comprises of several parts, which are used to store different types of memories.

For example, while listening to the music the brain can store the composition of the music separately. In this case, the melody of the song can be stored in a different part of the brain from the lyrics of the song (Jensen & Jensen, 2008).

Retrieval of the stored information is however affected by individual’s learning style. It is paramount to note that children with disability exhibit different learning styles from the normal children. For case in point, students with reading disabilities depict characteristics of visual processing since they are unable to shift the brain from the right to the left side (Jensen & Jensen, 2008). This shows that there is a relationship between poor visual processing and reading disability.

However, critics claim that the different parts of the brain are independent rather than correlated; hence, there is presence of limitation while activating different parts of the brain (Willingham, 2004). This separation puts across the point that the mathematical skills do not have any relationship with the verbal skills as a student can demonstrate proficiency in mathematics and poor verbal skills at the same time.

Willingham (2004) affirms that different parts of the brain are characterized by different developmental history; hence provide no room for substitution. For example, a student who possesses high musical skills cannot substitute his music intelligence for understanding mathematics. Hence, the student must adopt the appropriate learning style that enhances understanding of mathematical formula.

How a Classroom Teacher Can Optimize Student Learning

Despite the fact that the left side and the right side process of the brain is faced with a contradiction, it vital for a teacher to note that a student can exhibit multiple intellectual abilities since to some extend, these abilities have a correlation. He/she can use various ways to enhance student’s learning which include

• involving the students in repetition of the content area as this facilitates build up of their memory,
• enhancing learning of difficult content by using supportive words such as “for example,”
• activating the right side of the brain by stimulating visual material such as the balance scale as this enhances visualization of the mathematical algebra equation, and the left side of the brain by using graphs as this helps to demonstrate the relevance of text,
• using music in order to enhance spelling capability for students suffering from dyslexia, and
• activating the mind of the students suffering from ADHD by using art therapy as it helps to stabilize erratic moods and builds their self-esteem (Jensen & Jensen, 2008).

References

Jensen, E., & Jensen, E. (2008). Brain-based learning: The new paradigm of teaching. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Willingham, D. (2004). Reframing the mind. Education next, 4, 1-15. Web.

Introduction

Brain drain which is also referred to as the Human capital flight is the mass departure of persons or individuals possessing technical skills and knowledge from a certain region, country or even continent. Causes of such departures could be caused by various reasons such as unemployment, wars, or health threats. The imposed sanctions by the United Nation have only served to increase this trend in Iran. The impacts of brain drain are far reaching both to the economy and to the social welfare of the country. This tends to become a liability to countries as the governments have invested heavily to educate and pass knowledge to the individuals, through existent schools, universities research centers. (Emsia, 2007).

Causes of Brain Drain

Due to deteriorating conditions brought forth by violence and political instability in the country, many of the educated citizens of Iran have left the nation to go and seek greener pastures abroad. As the country continues to progress it is slowly realizing that it cannot sustain any development without the input of human capital. Scarcity of educated and skilled people has reached alarming proportions and their retention is becoming harder and harder as the developed nations are calling out for their skills. Brain drain has also been contributed by the aging demography in the developed countries. Iran’s inability to catch the attention, inspire and retain professionals was a problem recognized since the early days of the Islamic revolution (Gupta, 2008). It is estimated that over one hundred and fifty thousand of the country’s elite and distinguished citizens have left the country as a result on crack down on both students and professors deemed to be anti- government. This trend has been continuing and has been on the upswing as the violence continues to rock the region. This has led to a slow and steady disintegration of systems and thriving institutions such as courts, hospitals and schools that serve the society. Destinations of choice for the professionals are Western Europe, Australia, US, and China which has had recent dramatic economic growth.

Impact of Brain Drain

• Worsening economic conditions: A recent government report estimated that the Iran was loosing about $40 billion every year due to brain drain. Economic plan and policies are not being realized as the human capital responsible to drive these initiatives is not present. Each professional leaving the country is likened to about a number of oil wells being destroyed (Grubel, 1977).
• Absence of good governance: The mass departure of professionals and researchers has led to the loss of managers and skilled personnel to run the civil and private sector in Iran. Senior individuals being elevated to powerful government solutions are being chosen due to political patronage rather than on merit because the elite people capable of running the country have left (Vahid, 2005).
• Poor or lack of services: Due to weak social institutions, services such as healthcare, education and security are absent to the people of Iran this reduces the quality of life in the country. This only serves to increase brain drain as this are the same reasons being used by the professionals to leave the country in the first place (Javad, 2005).

Conclusion: Attempts to Reverse Brain Drain

Drastic Measures being taken by the government to address this problem include, provision of research facilities in universities and creation of jobs for their skilled professionals. The Iran National Science Foundation has been established to reverse this devastating trend (Yehuda, 1975).

References

Emsia, E. (2007). Brain drain from Iran to the US (1970-2000). Tehran: Eastern Mediterranean University.

Grubel, H. (1977). The brain drain: determinants, measurement, and welfare effects. Hamburg: Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press.

Gupta, S. (2008). The cultures of economic migration: international perspectives. London: Ashgate Publishing.

Javad, M. (2005). Trade, industrialization and the firm in Iran: the impact of government policy on business. Tehran: I.B.Tauris.

Vahid, R. (2009). The Age Of Nepotism. Bombay: Vahid Razavi.

Yehuda, H. (1975). The economic structure of the Middle East. New York: Brill Archive.