Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness in which reality is perceived by sufferers strangely. Schizophrenia may include hallucinations, delusions, and severely irrational thinking and behavior, making it difficult to go about daily activities and incapacitating. Various issues with behavior, emotions, and thinking, cognition, are present in Schizophrenia (McCutcheon et al., 2020). Although there are many different signs and symptoms, they typically involve delusions, hallucinations, or slurred speech and indicate a reduced capacity for function.
False perceptions that are not grounded in reality are called delusions. Various types of delusions are associated with schizophrenic individuals, including persecutory, erotomaniac, somatic and grandiose. Persecutory delusions are those, and despite conflicting information, a person nevertheless feels that an individual, group, or institution is torturing or harming them. Erotomaniac delusions entail believing that another individual loves the schizophrenic person (McCutcheon et al., 2020). In addition to the two types, grandiose delusions occur when an individual they have exemplary abilities despite no evidence. At the same time, somatic beliefs happen when the patient claims a part of the body is affected by a strange condition regardless of contradictory evidence.
Experiences and emotions that are not perceptible to other people are hallucinations. However, they could appear genuine, urgent, and vivid to the individual experiencing them. In over 70% of people with Schizophrenia, hallucinations occur (McCutcheon et al., 2020). People with Schizophrenia are more likely to experience auditory hallucinations, which can involve hearing voices, sometimes numerous voices, or other noises like murmuring or muttering. Voices that the hallucinating person hears frequently make demands and may sound furious or demanding. Additionally, Visual hallucinations are the perception of absent objects, persons, lights, or patterns. It might be especially upsetting to visualize deceased loved ones, colleagues, or other individuals they knew. Perception may be affected as well, leading to trouble assessing distance. Hallucinations by themselves may not necessarily signify Schizophrenia. Hallucinations can also occur in people who suffer from mood disorders, schizoid personality disorders, various mental health issues, and neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
The medial temporal, supra temporal, and prefrontal regions’ lower gray matter volumes are the most often observed schizophrenia-related MRI results. The processing of auditory stimuli, short-term memory, and decision-making, respectively, all heavily depend on these areas. According to twin and potential gene studies, Schizophrenia’s gray matter abnormalities are partially heritable, and intrauterine risk factors such as fetal hypoxia also impact them (Wong, 2020). According to postmortem investigations, cortical gray matter loss does not result from the death of cell bodies but rather from a decline in dendritic intricacy and synaptic frequency, which may affect intraneuronal integration and communication.
In addition to structural abnormalities, functional activation changes have also been well-documented in schizophrenia patients as detected by magnetic resonance and positron emission (PET). Short-term memory and memory formation are two areas that have received much attention in research (Wong, 2020). These processes are especially intriguing since they represent cognitive domains that are disturbed in schizophrenia patients and depend on the brain region, the frontal lobes, and the hippocampus, which is damaged in these individuals.
Not only have chronic schizophrenia patients been found to exhibit impairments in short- and long-term memory activities and physiological abnormalities during functional MRI, but also individuals at genetic and medical risk for the condition and those who have just experienced their first episode. This shows that functional variations are not a product of long consequences of the condition or therapy for the disorder, just like the structural alterations in gray matter and white matter. High-risk individuals can provide evidence of the impact of the gene mutations of Schizophrenia in the apparent lack of disease process, symptoms, or treatment (Wong, 2020). These people include family members and unharmed co-twins of individuals with Schizophrenia, who share the genetic blame for the disease but not the disorder itself.
Not only do those with a predisposition for schizophrenia experience changes in functional activation, but so do those with their first episode. Working memory tasks have revealed differences in functional activation between subjects in the first episode, which is especially intriguing given that Schizophrenia also exhibits underlying gray matter changes in areas connected to working memory, such as the frontal lobe. Because these individuals meet the full clinical definition yet have comparatively short medication backgrounds and are free from the impacts of the disease process that might skew studies in older subjects, understanding that such variations exist early on can help us understand what other variables might relate to them (Wong, 2020). It may be helpful to investigate further functional activation disparities in health-elevated, first-episode, and chronic patients to learn more about the brain alterations that occur as a disease progresses.
The symptoms and cognitive alterations associated with Schizophrenia are typically caused by diminished or disrupted neural connection, which hinders communication between brain regions. White matter creates structural interconnections between different parts of the brain. Therefore, it is not surprising that alterations in its integrity, in addition to the gray matter modifications already mentioned, have been linked to Schizophrenia. Supporting data include white matter volume decreases and structural abnormalities in neuroimaging investigations of the first episode and chronic patients (Wong, 2020). Until adolescence, myelination, the maturational phase in which the myelination encases brain fibers to promote speed and efficiency of conduction, continues.
There are four major dopamine pathways. The mesolimbic pathway is responsible for the functions usually associated with dopamine, which are reward and pleasure. The pathway originates in the ventral tegmental area, a dopamine-rich nucleus in the midbrain from where action potentials are emitted to the nucleus accumbens (Guy-Evans, 2022). The mesocortical pathway also originates from the ventral tegmental area but moves to the prefrontal cortex. A disturbance in this process may cause various dysfunctions including issues with working memory, cognition, and decision-making. The dopamine is relocated from the substantia nigra to the caudate and putamen through the nigrostriatal pathway (Guy-Evans, 2022). Reduction in dopamine levels within this pathway may result in poorer motor planning. The tuberoinfundibular pathway releases dopamine in order to reduce prolactin release. It begins in the arcuate and periventricular nuclei and moves to the infundibular region within the hypothalamus.
Within the mesolimbic pathway, every antipsychotic drug can reduce dopaminergic levels. A decrease in dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens can cause fewer cravings for dopamine-producing activities (Guy-Evans, 2022). On the other hand, overstimulation with an increase in dopamine dramatically expands this craving. Though the use of antipsychotics or other medication on the mesocortical pathway may increase or decrease motor capabilities, it has the potential for negative side effects on the mesolimbic pathway. Antipsychotics that limit dopamine in the nigrostriatal pathway may cause motor control impairment. A disbalance caused by D2 antagonists, which may be first-generation antipsychotics, can lead to symptoms such as contractions, spasms, parkinsonism, tremors, and more (Guy-Evans, 2022). In the tuberoinfundibular pathway, antipsychotics may contribute to higher prolactin levels and can lead to hyperprolactinemia.
Traumatic brain injury is caused by sudden external forces that have physical impact on the head and thus the brain. Impacts due to abrupt collisions on the head such as in case of accidents, falls or the being knocked can have adverse effects on the brain that may lead to traumatic brain injury. This paper seeks to discuss traumatic brain injury as a disability. The paper will look into the history of traumatic brain injury, its causes, diagnosis as well as its treatment.
History of traumatic brain injury
Traumatic brain injury has a long history. Reference to traumatic brain injury has been made to periods of as early as the nineteenth century. Brain injuries had, by the times of civil wars, been identified and medical steps initiated to help people who suffered from such injuries.
Knowledge about traumatic brain injury was in its development process in the nineteenth century following increased cases of injuries that were associated with the brain. The civil war that took place in the second half of the nineteenth century, between the years 1861 and 1865, made the cases of traumatic brain injury rampant.
During the time, a lot of people, especially the ones who engaged in gun battles, suffered from gunshot injuries in the head. The low chances of survival due to these injuries were noted and measures taken to help save people who got such injuries. Measures such as pathophysiology had been developed and were being offered to those who suffered from such injuries. Developments of antiseptics were then the only available remedy for such injuries (David et al. 1).
Causes of traumatic brain injury
Traumatic brain injuries are caused by physical bombardment of the head with an object. Reported causes of these injuries include violent collisions, accidents and hobbies such as sports which may involve accidental knocking of the head.
One of the main causes of the traumatic brain injury is accidents caused by motor vehicles. Motor vehicle accidents result in sudden motions and impacts that can lead to the head being knocked resulting to brain injuries. During an accident, a person’s head can be “stricken, suddenly jerked, or penetrated by a foreign object” (Brain 1).
If such effects pass to the brain, then a traumatic brain injury may occur. The injury may be mild or severe depending on the degree of injury caused to the brain. Mild injuries may be temporary with inflicted short time unconsciousness while a severe traumatic brain injury causes prolonged and more extreme effects to the injured person. Motor vehicle accidents cause a large percent of total traumatic brain injuries reported.
A research conducted by Atlanta nation center for injury prevention and control conducted in the year 2006 indicated that about at least twenty percent of the reported traumatic brain injuries were due to motor vehicle accidents. In the research, over a million cases of traumatic injuries were reported in America out of which almost three hundred thousand were caused by motor vehicle accidents.
The brain injuries encountered in these accidents constitutes the most severe category of traumatic brain injuries. This can be attributed to the fact that most of these accidents lead to high level impacts that exerts a lot of physical pressure on the brain (Brain 1).
The effect of the motor vehicle accidents that leads to traumatic brain injuries results from biological properties of the brain that demands coordination among cells of the brain. One of the essentials of this coordination is the nerve system.
In an event of an accident, this system may be strained due to pressure from sudden movement of the head or even collision of the head with objects in a vehicle or outside a vehicle in the process of the accident. The brain then loses coordination resulting in the injury. Another significant cause of traumatic brain injuries is falls. Though its effects are occasionally less severe, falls cause more cases of traumatic brain injuries as compared to motor vehicle accidents.
While motor vehicle accidents cause about twenty percent of brain injuries in America, falls cause close to thirty percent. Falls can occur when a person slips or flips from a high level off the ground. It can also occur as a result of a violent knocks on the head as a result people in a fight or in social activities such as games. Falls account for a higher percentage of the injuries because they occur even in domestic settings.
The extent of a brain injury as a result of a fall also varies depending on the nature of the fall. Injuries due to falls are, however, considered to milder than those as a result of motor vehicle accidents. Other causes of traumatic brain injuries include usage of firearms, sports among others (Brain 1).
Diagnosis of traumatic brain injury
Some of the symptoms of brain injuries are similar to those of other complications and thus care should be taken during diagnosis to avoid confusing brain damage with other medical complications. One of the key characteristics of traumatic brain injury is “confusion and disorientation” (CDC 8) of the victim. A person who has developed a brain injury will realize a change into a sense of mental instability characterized by confusion in the activities of the victim.
The change into this confusion is normally significant and distinguishable from the state of the person prior to the development of the complication. Unconsciousness that lasts for a long time is another feature that is associated with traumatic brain injury. The interference of the nerve systems in the brain causes lapses that send the victim into long durations of unconsciousness that can last to about half an hour.
Higher susceptibility to coma is another indicator that can lead to traumatic brain damage being considered. Though all states of coma are not indicators of brain damage, higher scales, normally rated at thirteen and above, have been associated with traumatic brain injury. Experiences such as: “amnesia and neurological problems” (CDC 8) also point to possibility of brain injury (CDC 8).
Other symptoms such as: “headaches, dizziness, insomnia, fatigue, nausea, blurred vision, seizures” (CDC 8) together with changes in a person’s behavior such as “irritability, depression, anxiety, sleep disturbance” (CDC 8) among other characteristic symptoms are indicators of the presence of traumatic brain injury (CDC 8). Care should be taken before conclusive diagnosis into traumatic brain injury is pronounced because most of these symptoms are, independently or in some cases jointly, experienced in other complications (CDC 8).
Treatment of traumatic brain injury
Developments have not yet been made into a specific treatment of traumatic brain injury. Damages on the head vary to a great extent and a range of care is therefore necessary for the victims subject to specific brain damages. With no availability of treatment, victims are left to the possibility of recovering or rehabilitation if their injuries do not cause death.
Mild injuries are recognized to respond to recovery care and this has led to a large percentage of victims regaining their complete health after suffering mild brain injury. It has been established that more than half of victims of mild to moderate traumatic brain injuries recover under counseling on how to deal with the injuries. Medical services are however available for controlling and treating other aspects of external injuries suffered in order to minimize brain injuries.
Measures like “removal of foreign bodies, control of bleeding, or craniotomy to relieve pressure from swelling” (Edwards 6) are normally undertaken to control the extent of brain injury suffered from a head injury. Medical care that is available to victims of traumatic brain injury are therefore control measure to help in reducing the degree of damage as well as associated impacts of the injury (Edwards 6).
Preventive measures are therefore the only sure alternative for controlling traumatic brain injury. Taking precautions to avoid or reduce accidents as well as their impacts is for example an effective measure in controlling traumatic brain injury (CDC 1).
Conclusion
Traumatic brain injury is a medical complication that is caused by physical head injuries that penetrates into the brain. The complication can be identified through the symptoms it causes on the individual. Though no treatment has been developed for traumatic brain injury, measures are available for controlling the effects of the disability.
We live in an increasing technology and device-dependent world. Having said that we have a dependency also indicates that there is a certain part of our body that we tend to use a lot less because of it. We are now part of a mentally and physically stagnating society because of it. According to Minot State University professor Terry Eckmann, who was the guest speaker on Brain Fitness at the International Council of Aging, the past 10 years have shown that there is an actual and direct correlation between the brain and physical movement or exercise.
Prof. Eckmann indicated that recent studies have shown that our brain is a constantly evolving and developing part of our body. We may stop developing physically, but our brain has a unique character that allows it to continue growing, even in our most advanced years of age. Brain exercise it seems prevents the onset of Alzheimer’s and dementia because brain use/exercise allows for the development of new neurons and neural pathways in the brain. Thereby proving that regular brain exercise has a direct effect on our physical well-being.
Brain exercise is nothing special. It does not require the use of any specific instruments, nor does it require any sort of special software to accomplish. Anytime we do anything physically challenging, such as learning a new dance routine or how to cook the recipe for a dish, we force our brain to exercise because of the cognitive need to understand what it is we have to physically manifest. Such activities ensure that our brain does not stagnate and instead, stimulate the brain by keeping it fresh with the analysis of new activities that turn into part of our daily routine.
It is not as hard to keep our brains as active as we think. Prof. Eckmann pointed out that any sort of physical activity, socialization, and volunteerism provides our brain with enough activity to keep a senior citizen’s brain active. For example, older adults who regularly hit the dance floor, either with a partner or just as part of an aerobic activity have the chance to reduce their chances of having Dementia by 75%. This is because the activity allows for the stimulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factors.
The rest of her video interview spoke about the other benefits of exercise on the physical aspect of a person, including how the concept of exercise has changed since the time before the baby boomers, the Jane Fonda era, and the current era as well being fanatics. The main point of her talk is that “Movement matters”, no matter how one gets it. Even something as simple as a 5-minute walk has long-lasting effects on our brain and physical well-being.
Overall, it was a highly engaging and informative talk. Ms. Eckmann was well prepared and came armed with the most up-to-date information that will keep students of Health and Medicine engaged in the video podcast. It would seem like the information she is presenting has already been presented before, and that may be the case, but very few experts manage to create a relationship between mental fitness and physical exercise such as she was able to.
This is why I would highly recommend watching this video to anybody in the field of neurology, rehab medicine, or even those who simply have an aging relative.
This kind of information is one that we are best off knowing about and implementing in our daily lives. That is if you want to remain socially active during the remainder of your retired lives. Nobody would want a limited social life by the time he turns 70 just because his brain isn’t functioning the way it used to. Turns out, we can prevent the brain from aging, even if our physical system continues to age. And that is good news for everybody all around.
Sleep apnea is a health condition that is commonly found in older adults. During sleep, breathing of a person may stop for 10 or more seconds. It usually occurs several times during the night. Usually, family members notice the symptoms as the person suffering from sleep apnea tends to feel consequences of the condition. Some people try to ignore the problem. However, this is very dangerous especially for older adults who may develop numerous disorders.
The Symptoms
At the same time, it is possible to identify a number of major symptoms: snoring, sleepiness during a day, a “dry throat” on waking, problems with memory, morning headaches, night sweats, irritability and an increased heart rate (“Sleep Apnea” n.p.).
Risk Factors
It is important to be specifically cautious for people who are male, older than 60, overweight, smoking, drinking, people having a thick neck, heart disease, neuromuscular disorders, cold and infections, and people having a relative suffering from sleep apnea.
Treatment
Luckily, there are numerous ways to treat this health condition. These ways include lifestyle changes, specific devices, and surgery. Of course, it is important to start with lifestyle changes. Males at the age of 60 should quit smoking and/or drinking, be active, have a healthy diet. They should also focus on their health and avoid infectious disorders. They should get the necessary treatment of heart diseases and neuromuscular disorders
Readiness of the child for school means whether the child is ready to easily and comfortably move to a new stage of their education. On the neurobiological side, this term can refer to whether a child has a set of certain skills needed in school life, or whether their brain has matured enough to cope with the new load. The range of skills that indicate that a child is ready to go to school is wide, including academic, psychological, and physical. The basic physiological and physical skills that a child should have by school age include the ability to control impulses, concentrate, and the development of gross and fine motor skills. Despite the existence of norms for child development, not all children grow and acquire skills in the same way. Not all school-age children are truly ready for school, and this may not always indicate a deviation from the norm.
Ability to Control Impulses
The inability to control impulses is an indicator of a child’s unpreparedness for school. If a child does not have impulse control, their brain will not analyze the thoughts that arise. Lack of impulse control means that the child may behave inappropriately towards other people. Impulse control begins to develop between the ages of 3 and 5, and children should be able to control impulses by school age (Berke, 2008). ADHD is one possible consequence of poor impulse control (Barkley, 2003). The child in this case may be inattentive, distracted, impulsive, and hyperactive, which will prevent them from getting academic knowledge.
Ability to Concentrate
Concentration is the mental process of focusing the brain on one thought or task. The ability to concentrate appears in preschool children and requires constant development (Berke, 2008). The ability to hold attention is an individual trait, and some children find it easier in this area than others. The cerebral cortex is responsible for the ability to concentrate, which is connected with memory, thinking, and consciousness (Huttenlocher, 2002). Violation in the development of the cerebral cortex can cause difficulties with concentration. However, this is a very individual process, which is not always an aberration. Some children find it easier to concentrate at school, others at home, some concentrate well in background noise, and others experience difficulty.
Development of Fine and Gross Motor Skills
Physical activity and skills are very important for preparing for school. The development of fine and gross motor skills is associated with high rates of future academic performance and is indicative of high brain development (Restak, 2001). The development of fine and gross motor skills is important in everyday life. If children cannot hold a fork or drink without spilling, this indicates that they are not ready for the independence that is required at school. The development of motor skills can also affect the child’s self-perception, as well as their social behavior (Berke, 2008). The stage of development of motor skills may indicate the general normality or abnormality of the child’s development.
Conclusion
The development of a child’s brain directly affects school readiness. The inability to control impulses and concentrate will interfere with the assimilation of academic knowledge. The underdevelopment of motor skills can lead to the fact that the child will be socially and commonly unadapted. Often, the unattainability of certain skills by school age signals the underdevelopment of the child. However, all people grow and develop differently, and not all children can achieve a set of skills by a certain age, which may be a variant of the norm.
References
Barkley, R. A. (2003). Issues in the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Brain and development, 25(2), 77-83.
Berke, L. E. (2008). Exploring lifespan development. Boston: Pearson Education Inc. Huttenlocher, P.R. (2002). Neural plasticity: The effects of environment on the development of the cerebral cortex. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Restak, R. (2001). The secret life of the brain. New York: Dana Press/Joseph Henry Press.
The brain is considered the most complex body organ that serves various intricate functions. Memory, thought, touch, motor skills, and breathing the main functions of the brain. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS). The organ is largely made up of fat while the other components are protein, water, salts, and carbohydrates. It is significant to note that the brain is not a muscle, but contains blood vessels and nerves. The cerebrum, the brain stem, and the cerebellum are three basic structural parts of the brain.
The Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest brain component which is divided into the right and left hemispheres. The two parts of the cerebrum are connected by white matter fibers called corpus callosum (Lee & Park, 2022). The frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes make up the cerebral hemispheres. The frontal and parietal lobes are distinguished posteriorly by the central sulcus. Moreover, the two lobes are inferiorly divided from the temporal lobe by the lateral sulcus. Meanwhile, the parieto-occipital sulcus distinguishes the parietal and occipital lobes (Cho et al., 2022). The cerebrum is further divided into telencephalon and diencephalon (Bhushan et al., 2022). The cortex, the subcortical fibers, and the basal nuclei make up the telencephalon, while the thalamus and hypothalamus make up the diencephalon.
Figure 1.0: Parts of Cerebrum
The Brainstem
Figure 2.0: The brainstem
The brainstem is the most ancient brain part, evolutionarily, and is divided into three parts. The medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain are the three structures that make up the brainstem (). The medulla oblongata is superior to the cervical spinal cord and continuous to it (Diek et al., 2022). The pyramids and pyramidal decussation are ventrally visualized just below the pons. The hypoglossal nerve’s rootlets can be seen as they exit the brainstem. Meanwhile, two pairs of protrusions are dorsally visible, representing the nuclei where sensory information from the dorsal columns is relayed onto thalamic projection neurons (Bhushan et al., 2022). The pons lies superior to the medulla oblongata and has a band of horizontal fibers. The midbrain, also known as mesencephalon, appears as two bundles that rostrally diverge as cerebral peduncles.
The Cerebellum
Figure 3.0: The cerebellum
The cerebellum modulates motor control, enabling precise body movement coordination. The part occupies the posterior fossa which is dorsal to the pons and the medulla oblongata (Bhushan et al., 2022). Like the cerebrum which has gyri and sulci, the cerebellum has finer folia and fissures which increase its surface area (Lee & Park, 2022). The vermis connects the two hemispheres that make up the cerebellum. Additionally, the cerebellum has four deep nuclei that are in sequence from medial to lateral: the fastigial, globose, emboliform, and dentate (Bhushan et al., 2022). Brain tumors in children are commonly located at the cerebellum. Meanwhile, in adults, they are formed around the posterior fossa.
Conclusion
The brain is made up of the cerebellum, brainstem, and cerebrum. The three parts of the brain serve different functions that help in thought processing, movements, touch, motor skills, and other body regulation functions. The cerebrum is the largest brain component and consists of the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes. Meanwhile, the brainstem is the most ancient brain part according to evolutionary studies. The cerebellum occupies the posterior fossa and is responsible for motor control modulation.
References
Bhushan, R., Ravichandiran, V., & Kumar, N. (2022). An overview of the anatomy and physiology of the brain. Nanocarriers for Drug-Targeting Brain Tumors, 3–29.
Cho, E. B., Kim, D., Jeong, B., Shin, J. H., Chung, Y. H., Kim, S. T., Kim, B. J., Han, C. E., & Min, J.-H. (2022). Disrupted structural network of inferomedial temporal regions in relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis compared with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 5152.
Diek, D., Smidt, M. P., & Mesman, S. (2022). Molecular organization and patterning of the medulla oblongata in health and disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(16), 9260.
Lee, D., & Park, H.-J. (2022). A populational connection distribution map for the whole brain white matter reveals ordered cortical wiring in the space of white matter. NeuroImage, 254, 119167.
Quan, P., He, L., Mao, T., Fang, Z., Deng, Y., Pan, Y., Zhang, X., Zhao, K., Lei, H., Detre, J. A., Kable, J. W., & Rao, H. (2022). Cerebellum anatomy predicts individual risk-taking behavior and risk tolerance. NeuroImage, 254, 119148.
The University of Queensland (2018). The midbrain. Web.
The brain forms the control center and coordinates all functions and other organs within the body. The brain executes its functions by sending and receiving signals in nerve impulses through the neurons. Though the neurons interconnect the whole brain, it is divided into compartments that perform different functions. The main purpose of the compartmental divisions of the brain is to promote brain activity by division of roles per compartment (Ahanger et al., 2021). Each section executes a specific function and controls some selected body parts. For effective action, the brain cannot work as a single unit due to the risk of poor coordination of impulses.
The cerebrum brain plays a role in maintaining the body’s balance and posture. This function is executed by making postural adjustments. The brain signals the vestibular receptors and proprioceptors and commands the change in position and muscle weight through the motor neurons to ensure that balance is achieved. The cerebrum is another part of the human brain located in the uppermost section. Its main role in the body is to coordinate the function and processing of the sensory functions. These include the main body senses, such as vision, hearing, and touch necessary for the body’s normal functioning. This function aids in controlling body movement and intellectual development, which enables studying, memory, and emotion processes. The brainstem is the most bottom portion of the brain. It is the section responsible for performing all subconscious functions. Such tasks include inhalation and exhalation, and sustaining heart rate.
The frontal lobe of the cerebrum forms the section covered by the frontal bones, as the name suggests. It constitutes two pairs, the right and left frontal cortex. The lobe plays a significant role, especially in mental functioning. It aids in planning, individual memory management, and decision-making. Other essential functions include speech and language coordination through the Broca’s region (Baker et al., 2018). The area helps in constructing words and arranging them chronologically to produce a coherent speech.
The frontal lobe is responsible for motor skills learning. Mastery of the coordinated functions, including voluntary walking and running, are enhanced. A person can also differentiate and categorize various regions by using the frontal lobe of the cerebrum. Individual personalities are developed in the region as it controls impulse responses. The interplay of signals that define one’s characteristics is in the frontal lobe. It also serves to manage the attention of someone adequately.
The functioning of the frontal lobe can be adversely affected in case of damage from traumatic injury or disease. Such a condition is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, abbreviated as ADHD. It results in differences in the mental development of a person and affects brain activity and attention levels. The common sign of ADHD includes self-focused behavior, impatience, emotional turmoil, interruptive behavior, fidgeting, and lack of focus. Most of them will also have several unfinished tasks, and they noisily conduct their activities (Danielson et al., 2018). They talk and move excessively and have challenges sitting still in one location for a prolonged period. If this condition occurs, the frontal lobe will be damaged, and its ability to perform its functions will be impaired. In addition to the effect on attention ability, the person may have other secondary problems related to the inability of the lobe to carry out other duties adequately.
Medical or therapeutic interventions are recommended to manage attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. However, it is advisable to initiate both management regimes for efficiency and quick recovery of the lobe. Medically, the recommended drugs of choice that can be used under strict prescription include guanfacine, atomoxetine, lisdexamfetamine, and methylphenidate (Danielson et al., 2018). Various programs, such as psychoeducation, behavioral therapy, group training, cognitive behavior, and social skills training are encouraged in therapy.
References
Ahanger, S. H., Delgado, R. N., Gil, E., Cole, M. A., Zhao, J., Hong, S. J., Kriegstein, A, R., Nowakowski, T, J., Pollen, A, A., & Lim, D. A. (2021). Distinct nuclear compartment-associated genome architecture in the developing mammalian brain. Nature Neuroscience, 24(9), 1235-1242. Web.
Baker, C. M., Burks, J. D., Briggs, R. G., Stafford, J., Conner, A. K., Glenn, C. A., Sali, G., McCoy, T. M., Battiste, J. D., O’Donoghue, D. L., & Sughrue, M. E. (2018). A Connectomic Atlas of the Human Cerebrum—Chapter 4: The Medial Frontal Lobe, Anterior Cingulate Gyrus, and Orbitofrontal Cortex. Operative Neurosurgery, 15(1), S122-S174. Web.
Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Ghandour, R. M., Holbrook, J. R., Kogan, M. D., & Blumberg, S. J. (2018). Prevalence of parent-reported ADHD diagnosis and associated treatment among US children and adolescents, 2016. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(2), 199-212. Web.
In the video, neuroscientist J. Panksepp describes the approach to emotions as a science. He also points out how treating the feelings of other animals seriously might enhance the lives of humans (TEDx Talks, 2017). There are three aspects of the video that are worth discussing – the link between primal emotions and affective feelings, the existence of human emotions in animals, and the use of neuroscience in therapies.
For ages, philosophers have been captivated by the link between cognition and emotion. Many behaviors may be explained in cognitive-emotional interactions, implying that emotion and cognition can be separated (Pessoa, 2018). However, there are moments when emotions and cognition are combined, blurring the lines between them. As the primal emotions transform into strong affective feelings, the integration occurs (Niedenthal & Ric, 2017). The growth of diverse research disciplines requires a greater understanding of how cognitive and emotional processes interact.
Animals have often been treated as emotional equivalents to humans. Researchers are discovering more and more evidence that animals have emotional reactions to trigger events (Prasad, 2021). These reactions are not only natural, but they are also a fascinating illustration of development that is important to neuroscience. Although there is still more study to be done on animal emotions, there is growing evidence that they have sensations that are quite similar to human feelings and that these feelings are vital to their survival.
Using the capabilities of arithmetic operations, researchers may learn more about how the brain operates at the cellular level. It can show how it is organized and what may be missing in disorders like depression (Vinograd & Craske, 2020). This can aid in the discovery of new therapeutic paths and the testing of their efficacy through simulations. Animal models aid in the understanding of depression’s molecular alterations and the development of improved therapies.
Emotions have long been an underdeveloped area of scientific inquiry. The study of emotional processes in other animals, including related feeling states, is important in many areas and may be used in various medical treatments. Neuroscience, as it was shown in a video, can provide some remedies for pressing issues such as depression. This, alongside the other points, are valuable in understanding the complexity of neuroscience.
References
Niedenthal, P. M., & Ric, F. (2017). Theories of Emotions; The emotional Brain. Psychology of Emotion. Routledge.
Pessoa, L. (2018). Understanding emotion with brain networks. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 19, 19-25.
Prasad, A. J. (2021). Biomedical Correlates of Human Emotions. The Indian Practitioner, 74(3), 34-37.
Vinograd, M., & Craske, M. G. (2020). Using neuroscience to augment behavioral interventions for depression. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 28(1), 14-25.
Over the past few years, scientists have been carrying out research in an aim to explain the various functions of the brain. Nevertheless, this has not been an easy task. Perhaps in an attempt to explore the various functions of the brain, these scientists have limited their research into two performances of the brain: cognitive and volitional.
Additionally, these scientists have divided the brain into two empirical centers, that is, sensorial and motor. Ironically, this division has dealt blow to empirical psychology by stating the exact opposite. However, the main concern in this paper is to explain the meaning of emotion and use one theory of emotion to explain its meaning.
To begin with, emotion is a multifarious psychophysiological experience in a person’s mind as influenced by the exterior and interior factors, popularly known as biochemical and environmental factors respectively. Emotion consists of an assortment of visible conducts, expressed feelings, and some alterations in the body state. It is important to note that emotions exist at personal states thus, making it very hard to characterize or classify unless in the most common and palpable instances (Myers 500).
Interestingly, many features of emotion appear comatose to human beings hence, difficult to explain. Since emotion is a complex term that involves many concepts, it is important to define emotion in terms of its concepts. So far, three definitions of emotion enable us to define and comprehend the meaning of emotion.
Firstly, some scientists define emotion as a confidential and prejudiced feeling. Under normal circumstances, human beings experience or feel extraordinary array of states. For some, it is enjoyment and happiness while to others it is distress and pain. Explicitly, this explains the different states of emotions as experienced or felt by individuals.
Secondly, we can define emotions as a state of psychological stimulation normally accompanied by expressions or a show of unique somatic and habitual retorts. This means that emotional states become explainable when an individual undergoes various body responses, as one can observe them. In other words, these retorts engross separately innervated intuitive body organs for example, the stomach and the heart (et. Al. 501-502).
Undoubtedly, by using this second definition, individuals can examine the emotion of other people and even that of animals. Lastly, we can define emotion as actions that people take when they are responding towards something for example, calamities or threats. This definition concurs with Darwin’s analogy on the practical tasks of emotion, which asserts that emotion play a significant role in the survival of human beings since they generate actions into perilous state of affairs.
With the three definitions of emotion, it is imperative to note that emotion primarily rivets three concepts: animated actions, conscious incident and physiological stimulation. Research shows that research correlates to feelings such as character, individuality, disposition, inspiration and the doldrums.
All human beings irrespective of their age, color, sex and ethnic background experience various emotions. However, it is important to note that an individual cannot experience all emotions at one particular time. It all depends on one’s state of affairs and the circumstances. For instance, a person facing threats will have different emotions from another person who is experiencing contentment.
The most common faculties of emotions include love, annoyance, self-assurance, contentment and stress. Depending on one’s condition, a person can experience one or a mixture of these emotions (Freitas-Magalhães 12-18).
Conceivably, in an attempt to define emotion, several scientists came up with theories in order to explain the implicit meaning of emotion. As we have seen, the brain is a complex structure that performs an assortment of functions.
These various function of the brain that influence emotions prompted scientist to come up with different theories of emotion that falls into three categories: cognitive, physiological and neurological. To start with, neurological theories tend to explain how the body responds emotionally due to actions on it. On the other hand, neurological theories examines how various activities directed to the brain influence an emotional rejoinder hence, expressive feelings.
Lastly, the cognitive theories tend to explain how individual thoughts and psychological bustles play a significant role in the configuration of emotions. The three categories of emotional theories have so far been a success story of trying to explain the meaning of emotion. In fact, the theories of emotions as crafted by psychologists and ancient philosophers enjoy an assortment of ideas- ideas fundamentally originating from diverse sources (Dalgleish 582-589).
Starting from the ancient Greeks to Sartre to contemporary scholars, these theories of emotion continue to explain the meaning of emotion. Interestingly, even experts from fields not related to biology and psychology for example, creative art, anthropology and sociology have come up with theories to explain the meaning and impact of emotion.
For instance, in trying to explain the meaning of emotion, creative scientists have developed various works of art that range from sculpture to paintings, which show various expressive feelings.
On the other hand, psychologists and animal behaviorists have mastered the art of emotions, and even conjectured the basis, progression, and roles of emotion. In addition, these natural scientists have gone ahead to proliferate the theories of emotion and their impacts to the individual and society.
In overall, these theories examine the genesis and evolution of emotion and facial expression. Thus, the study and analysis of the theories of emotion will not only assist us in knowing the meaning of emotion, but also, it will enlighten us on the precepts of emotional expression and bring them into perspective (James 188-189).
Some theories tend to emphasize emotional expression as the fundamental facet of the entire emotion process. In fact, some architects of these theories of emotion believe that emotional expression brings about the familiarity of emotion, which comprises the felt eminence of emotion. For instance, during the 19th century, William James and Lange were among the first persons to propose a theory to explain emotional expression.
Known as the James-Lange theory, this theory of emotion examines the genesis, development and functional roles of emotion. James and Lange observed that emotional perceptions trigger body changes, which results into emotional experience. He went further to explain that in the absence of perception, it would be hard to explain emotion any attempt will appear insipid and colorless.
According to James, the brain does not house emotion, which can cause body actions. Instead, James argued that the mind contains body activity that precipitates into emotion. In addition, James believed that the body is like a sounding board. Once smacked by neural impulses, there will be a generation of waves all over the body.
The brain has the capacity to sense the generated neural impulses and consequently produce an eminence of emotional feeling. Therefore, the multiplicities and shade of emotion becomes inestimable just like bodily patterns whose origin is neural actions. James also failed to recognize the various categories of emotion, that is, neurological, physiological and cognitive, and instead, branded them as subjective and academic (James 188-194).
Later on, James proposed that the best way to explain emotion is to set up an experiment, and not just gripping to hypothetical statements. He therefore proposed a myriad of nature experiments of destroying the entire neural system and observing whether the body will experience changes-precisely, without any generated nerve impulse.
Nevertheless, although the experiments attracted diverse scholarly analysis and literature, the interpretations seems parallel, and eventually goes against the hypothesis proposed by James William. Largely, the experiments fail to meet the expected results.
However, these experiments ignited research and deliberations aimed at explaining the real meaning of emotion. Leaving that aside, the James-Lange theory also explains the meaning of emotion from another perspective. This theory explains that the nervous system through its travelling nerve impulses causes bodily changes through a multifaceted process superior than a reflex or instinctual response.
In fact, some recent research into the emotional process shows that it takes quite long time for emotional changes to transpire. According to James, every instinctual reaction commences an emotion, although there are many very many sources of emotional rejoinder, which appear too ire just like gross, and others appear subtle just like an artistic admiration of exquisiteness. In addition, James believed that the brain does not have specific regions responsible for emotion.
However, some researchers have criticized this proposition terming it unfounded. According to James, individual abilities differ to the extent that each person recalls and preserves emotional experiences differently, and that the degree of emotional experience varies from one individual to another. The theory goes further to explain that recurring emotion results into the most common feeling other than the hidden.
James-Lange theory, a theory developed by Carl Lange and William James is a hypothesis that traces the origin of emotion. The theory starts by explaining that in the world we live in, people have to respond to experiences. The routine nervous system is the foundation of proceeding psychological episodes for example, perspiration, parchedness of the maw, and strapping nervousness.
Thus, emotions are general feelings that precede a psychological change. That is, experiences and not psychological changes cause emotion. In many times, the theory has been successful in explaining the origin of emotion notwithstanding the bedeviling criticisms. Captivatingly, the two architects of this theory, James and Lange, worked under different platforms but came up with similar findings (James 195-205).
According to Lange, there is no difference between vasomotor changes and emotions. This means that if an individual is laughing, then that person is happy.
On the other hand, James justifies the theory by stating words that echo the sentiments of Lange. He stated, “My theory … is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion. Common sense says we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened and run; we receive insults from a rival, are angry and strike.
The hypothesis here to be defended says that this order of sequence is incorrect … and that the more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble … Without the bodily states following on the perception, the latter would be purely cognitive in form, pale, colorless, destitute of emotional warmth. We might then see the bear, and judge it best to run, receive the insult and deem it right to strike, but we should not actually feel afraid or angry (Ellsworth 222-229).”
Nevertheless, even with the explanations given by these two scholars of the 19th century, the contemporary scholars have found various weaknesses with this theory. All the same, it is also important to note that some scholars have found some evidences that support the authenticity of this theory. For instance, persons suffering from panic disorders normally undergo psychoemotional ordeal probably due to physiological responses within the body. On the other hand, some scholars feel that the theory does not provide enough information that brings out the real meaning of emotion.
For instance, in the above example of persons experiencing panic disorder, the theory assumes that the responses correlate with a scrupulous emotional state resulting into a psychoemotional ordeal. However, during therapy, experts have found out that there is no association of any kind between the responses and particular emotional states. This means that although the theory has been a success story in explaining the origin of emotion, the experimental aspect of it remains a dark spot especially to modern research.
In some circumstances, some scientists have chosen to advance the James-Lange theory in order to explain the meaning of emotion. Among the very many scientists who chose to advance this theory, include 20th century psychologist, Silvan Tomkins.
Tomkins proposed that emotional experiences or expressions results into sensations, vascular changes and other behavioral changes. Such changes exhibit on the victim’s face and qualitatively display diverse an assortment of emotions. For example, depending on the source of the emotional experience faces can turn sad from happy, or fury to fright.
Tomkins further explained that perceptions about other bodily changes do not provide more information concerning the explicit feelings of emotion. Contrary to the explanation given out by James, Tomkins asserts that other than the three categories of emotions, more categories have evolved each with a definite functional and adaptive role. These functional and adaptive roles exhibit in neural organization and revolve around facial expressions (Ellsworth 224-227).
For instance, some people do not take certain foods because they believe that they are not only dangerous, but also deleterious. This results into emotions of disgust, and in many occasions, whenever these people hear or see these kinds of foods, they open their mouth and push the tongue in and out as an expression of disgust.
Research shows that the response to this disgust has caused a myriad of rejection scenarios, for example, emotion of condescension, where the object is a different individual, and the sentiment of indignity, wherever the object is the one experiencing the response.
Tomkins did a lot of work in itemizing both existing and emerging categories of emotion, and further denoted the resultant facial expression of each category. In addition, the expanded theory describes each emotion comprehensively aimed at explaining the meaning of emotion. Today, many researchers and scholars have found the multi-volume work done by Tomkins of great significance in the study of emotion (Laird 8-36).
In conclusion, the concept of emotion is vast and involves a comprehensive study of various disciplines. This is the reason why various scientists have come up with theories to explain the meaning of emotion. The James-Lange theory is among the very many theories of emotion that explain the origin, evolution and functional roles of emotion. This theory has so far been a success story in the field of psychology, as it explains the meaning of emotion both in literature and in experiment.
Works Cited
Dalgleish, Tim. The emotional brain. Nature Perspectives, 5, 2004, 582–589.
Ellsworth, Phoebe. William James and Emotion: Is a Century of Fame worth a Century of Misunderstanding? Psychological Review, (101)2, 1994, 222-229.
Freitas-Magalhães, Armindo. The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure of Human Face. Oporto: University of Fernando Pessoa Press. 2007. Print.
James, William. What is an Emotion? Mind, 9, 1884, 188–205.
Laird, James, Feelings: the Perception of Self, Oxford University Press. 2007. Print.
Myers, David. Theories of Emotion: Psychology. Seventh Edition, New York, NY: Worth Publishers. 2004. Print.
