The most common cause of a traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a severe blow to the head or body. A bullet or a cracked piece of the skull can potentially cause traumatic brain injury if they penetrate brain tissue. For a brief period of time, brain cells may fail as a result of mild traumatic brain injury (Falvo & Holland, 2017). A more significant traumatic brain injury can result in bruises, torn tissues, bleeding, and other physical damage to the brain’s structure and functionality. These injuries have the potential to cause long-term problems or even death.
Clinical Picture
Symptoms of traumatic brain damage can include a variety of physical and psychological manifestations. Mr. XY, a Caucasian man 48 years old, went to the Caring Care hospital’s emergency room complaining of severe and diffuse headaches, stomach discomfort, nausea and regurgitation, an unsteady walk of more than 5 feet, poor hand coordination, and poor balance. He is confined to a wheelchair and is under the care of a full-time caregiver. Mr. XY is depressed and fearful of losing his hands.
Past History
The client stopped working in a rock band as a drummer a few weeks ago. Headaches in the occipital area have diffused in the last 3 months. Recently, Mr. XY experienced stomach aches, nausea, and vomiting. Since a month ago, he has been confined to a wheelchair. Two months ago, he had poor balance and coordination. He has also abused substances for the past five years.
Assessment
An MRI employs radio waves and magnets that are strong enough to provide an accurate picture of the brain. When a person’s health stabilizes or if their symptoms do not improve quickly after an accident, this test can be utilized. Near-wound damage was discovered in the occipital area, and an MRI of the patient’s head was ordered by the doctor after the examination was concluded. Mr. XY is enraged, and he suffers from spells of anxiety and sadness that are difficult to manage.
Diagnosis
The results of an MRI showed that the patient had hydrocephalus owing to a traumatic brain injury.
Treatment
Treatment for TBI depends on numerous aspects, including the injury’s magnitude, severity, and location. Mild Traumatic Brain Injury is mostly treated with enough rest. Obey your doctor’s orders for full rest and a slow return to usual activities. It may take longer to recuperate if you do too much too quickly. Call your doctor if your symptoms do not improve or if you develop new ones. Stabilization is the initial step in treating moderate-to-severe TBI. They will control your blood pressure, monitor your skull pressure, and ensure your brain gets adequate blood and oxygen. Surgery to drain the cerebrospinal fluid by inserting a shunt through the occipital lobe into the abdomen.
Prognosis
Mr. XY has a very high chance of ever walking again. Mr. XY returns home a few days later with discharge advice. Mr. XY is improving but still lacks coordination and balance. He gets home PT, OT, and speech therapy while also visiting the rehabilitation center.
Recommendations
The patient will undergo CBT (cognitive behavior therapy) three times a week, substance abuse sessions, anger management, stress management, pain management, applying counselor skills, psychoeducation, and logical consequences.
One’s physical strength, coordination, and flexibility are improved by physical therapy. Occupational therapy can assist a patient to adjust or readjust how to perform routine tasks such as dressing, cooking, and taking a shower again. There are several benefits for those who have difficulty with swallowing that may be addressed via speech therapy (Falvo & Holland, 2017). It is possible to improve one’s emotional well-being and coping abilities through psychological treatment. It is the goal of vocational therapy to help people get back to work and deal with workplace issues. Using cognitive therapy, he can improve his ability to remember and focus, as well as his ability to study and plan.
Reference
Falvo, D., & Holland, B. E. (2017). Medical and psychosocial aspects of chronic illness and disability (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
The diagram above is an occipital view of how blood is supplied to the brain. The central nervous system (CNS) needs continuous micro-circulation with oxygen and sustenance. The highest part of the CNS with an oxygen demand is the brain. The ischemic cells in the brain die from lacking oxygen. The vertebral and internal carotid arteries are the two paired arteries that deliver blood to the brain. These arteries start in the neck and go up to the skull. The terminal branches of these arteries create an anastomotic circle within the cerebral vault known as the Circle of Willis. Branches emerge from this circle, supplying the bulk of the cerebrum. Smaller branches from the vertebral arteries supply other areas of the CNS, such as the pons and spinal cord.
An anterior communicating artery crowns the circle of Willis and acts as a link-up between the two anterior cerebral arteries. The posterior communicating artery is a limb of the internal Carotid artery that connects it to the posterior cerebral artery. Both the anterior and posterior arteries are termed “Linking receptacles.” The internal carotid artery emerges where the sinistral and dextral common carotid arteries bifurcate at the cavernous sinus. Its main purpose is to supply blood rich in oxygen to the significant anatomy: of the brain and eyes, which is made possible through the emergence of the ophthalmic artery and anterior choroidal arteries. This artery then bifurcates into the middle and anterior cerebral arteries. The motion and sensuous palliums of the upper limb and face are predominantly supplied by the middle cerebral arteries, providing Broca’s area in the prepotent frontal lobe and Wernicke’s in the prepotent temporal lobe. The anterior cerebral arteries, on the other hand, dispense oxygenated blood to the brain portion that is principally behind the motor and sensory control of the lower limbs.
The basilar artery emerges from the junction of the vertebral arteries at the bottom of the skull, where the head converges with the neck. It makes sure that oxygen and nutrients reach critical areas such as the cerebellum, brainstem, and occipital lobes. The brainstem aids in reflex actions such as respiration, eupepsia, and sleep patterns; the cerebellum, on the other hand, sees that the body has balance, pose, integration, and articulation. The Vertebral artery is responsible for transporting blood from the brain to the spinal cord. Their emergence is at the subclavian arteries, underneath the clavicle; the right subclavian finds its base at the brachiocephalic artery, while the left subclavian is directly at the aorta. These vertebral arteries traverse independently in the sinistral and dextral regions of the vertebral column in the neck.
All the arteries in this diagram are significant in that they contribute to the well-being of the cerebral-spinal structures; however, the basilar artery proves to be the most significant in the organism. For the body to be balanced in movements and posture, there must be enough supply in the brain to transmit neurons to the spine, which is responsible for the support of the body as a whole. Clinically, the disruption of blood oxygenation in the brain leads to stroke of the spine and the cerebellum, which affects the body, disabling both reflex and voluntary actions. The contributing factors to this lack of supply of blood to the brain are stroke embolism, thrombosis, hypoperfusion, and excessive bleeding.
Brain structure plays an indispensable role in shaping symptoms of mental illnesses. The current research shows that specific parts of the brain are associated with symptoms of various mental illnesses. (Krause-Utz et al., 2017). For instance, the amygdala plays a central role in anxiety processes (Krause-Utz et al., 2017). The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex can also be correlated with mental disorders, such as schizophrenia or depression (Di Giuseppe et al., 2020). Moreover, investigations outline that the right and the left insula can be linked to specific symptoms (Krause-Utz et al., 2017). It means that different brain parts are affected by mental illness symptoms.
Individuals often rely on several defensive mechanisms to eliminate the adverse effects of stress, anxiety, or other unpleasant feelings. These might include narcissistic (primitive) and immature practices playing a vital role in addressing psychological issues. Narcissistic defense mechanisms revolve around distorting, avoiding, or negating reality. For instance, a person might deny negative aspects about themselves to protect their psyche and mental health (Di Giuseppe et al., 2020). Additionally, delusional projection occurs when an individual holds a fixed belief even when there is sufficient evidence of the contrary. In clinical settings, people with a narcissistic personality disorder might refuse form medications because of the idea that they are healthy (Di Giuseppe et al., 2020). This example demonstrates how this defense mechanism works.
Immature defense mechanisms differ from the previous category and have specific peculiarities. They are linked to the fear of intimacy and its loss (Krause-Utz et al., 2017). This psychological challenge is common during preadolescent and adult life, especially among individuals affected by personality disorders (Krause-Utz et al., 2017). Various immature defense mechanisms exist, including acting out, introjection, idealization, splitting, projection, regression, and passive aggression. According to Di Giuseppe et al. (2020), projection involves attributing improper desires, thoughts, or feelings to another person. For example, a male engaging in an extramarital affair may accuse his wife of unfaithfulness. Passive aggression is also another typical immature behavior characterized by an indirect tactic of expressing aggression (Krause-Utz et al., 2017). The clinical example of immature defensive behavior occurs in terms of antisocial personality disorder, characterized by inappropriate behaviors used to hide other important feelings (Di Giuseppe et al., 2020). It helps to protect the psyche from too high significant stress and continue functioning. However, the given mechanism might have both positive and negative impacts on an individual and his/her mental health.
References
Di Giuseppe, M., Perry, J. C., Conversano, C., Gelo, O. C. G., & Gennaro, A. (2020). Defense mechanisms, gender, and adaptiveness in emerging personality disorders in adolescent outpatients. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 208(12), 933-941. Web.
Krause-Utz, A., Frost, R., Winter, D., & Elzinga, B. M. (2017). Dissociation and alterations in brain function and structure: Implications for borderline personality disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 19(1), 1-22. Web.
Traumatic brain injuries are impossible to predict, and their outcomes on human health vary. In addition to professional medical and surgical help, most brain-injured patients require psychological and social support to redirect their maladaptive behaviors like anger, aggression, depression, loneliness, and low self-esteem. The role of nurses in treating patients with brain traumas is integral and includes cognitive-behavioral therapies, coping strategies, communication, and medications. This literature review focuses on the main aspects of brain traumas, their behavioral outcomes, and nursing care. Recently published articles will be used to demonstrate what has already been known about the chosen problem and what kind of psychological help might be offered.
Redirecting Maladaptive Behaviors in Brain Injury Patients in Nursing
Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are common causes of human disability provoked by sudden physical damage to the brain. They are usually unpredictable, and their consequences vary depending on various physiological, psychological, and environmental factors. Maladaptive behaviors may be observed in brain-injured patients, leading to challenges in adapting and understanding circumstances at any age. Nurses and other healthcare providers are responsible for recognizing the damage and applying pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions to help people manage their challenging behaviors (Block et al., 2020). Identifying cognitive impairments is based on the continuum of care, which requires increased nursing knowledge and assessment (Oyesanya et al., 2018). Communication, education, family support, and clinical guidelines are also integral for patient improvement and redirecting maladaptive behaviors. This literature review aims to identify the major characteristics of brain injuries, maladaptive behaviors, and nursing roles in promoting effective communication, cognitive-behavioral therapies based on coping strategies, and medication treatment for TBI patients.
Project Importance
There are several reasons for choosing the theme of managing maladaptive behaviors in brain-injured individuals as the current nursing problem. First, Dash and Chavali (2018) define TBI as a long-lasting and serious but silent epidemic with high mortality and morbidity ratings. This problem does not depend on age, gender, or racial background and might affect any population in developed and developing countries. Second, brain injuries are characterized by lingering changes, unpredictable consequences, and disabilities (Cripe et al., 2021). Thus, despite the level of care offered to patients, some problems are hard to overcome. Nurses need to know what kind of help to provide for people with brain injuries and redirect their maladaptive behaviors.
Brain Injuries and Maladaptive Behaviors
Despite the intention to protect the human brain, some injuries happen suddenly and provoke serious damage to the body. In addition to evident physiological traumas, the effects of TBIs on people’s behaviors include difficulties in impulse control, inabilities to regulate emotions, agitation, apathy, and low self-esteem levels (Block et al., 2020; Cripe et al., 2021; Mueller et al., 2018). Sometimes, patients understand that their changes are caused by brain injuries and accept care from professionals to improve their physical and mental health conditions. However, most hospitalized patients with TBIs do not understand what has happened and what causes their temporary or constant disabilities, and the nursing staff should pay careful attention to their support and care (Dash & Chavali, 2018). Therefore, nursing interventions should be directed to manage such maladaptive behaviors as anger, aggression, anxiety, depression, sexual or social disinhibition, apathy, or absconding (Block et al., 2020; Mueller et al., 2018). Communication and cooperation with family members are usually required to clarify patients’ typical behaviors and health peculiarities to avoid unnecessary or ineffective treatment and choose the correct form of treatment.
Nursing Beliefs and Attitudes
Immediate or chronic cognitive impairments are observed in patients with brain injuries, and nursing care should include regular assessments and follow-ups to predict the worsening of health later. The role of nurses in treating TBI patients is great, underlying the level of knowledge and professionalism in modifying care and accommodating cognitive impairments (Oyesanya et al., 2018). Maladaptive behaviors should be timely redirected to prevent new physical injuries and behavioral changes (Oyesanya et al., 2018). Brain injuries might be mild, moderate, and severe, which explains impaired consciousness and post-traumatic amnesia in patients characterized by disorientation and confusion (Block et al., 2020). Behavioral disturbances and memory impairment create certain barriers in nurse-patient communication. However, nurses also admit that inadequate resources, limited staffing, knowledge gaps, and poor practice might negatively affect psychological interventions (Oyesanya et al., 2018). Guidelines for nurses to direct TBI patients and offer interventions based on the classification of brain injuries are necessary to enhance nursing care and examine the steps that bring more positive health outcomes with time.
Communication
Redirecting maladaptive behaviors in TBI patients is one of the primary responsibilities of nurses and clear pharmacological treatment plans. Nurses should follow doctors’ prescriptions, recommendations, and clinical guidelines in most cases. At the same time, effective communication is another vital factor that might affect recovery and predict the development of other unpleasant behavioral changes (Mueller et al., 2018). Brain injuries make it difficult for patients to cooperate and communicate, and a nurse must retain and comprehend information (Oyesanya et al., 2018). Coordination of care and the assessment of patients define how nurses ask questions, make observations, and talk to family members. Still, there are situations when patients with TBIs remain impulsive or get angered for no reason, and nurses should ensure safety in their working environment. Oyesanya et al. (2018) identify missing changes or small details in patients’ behaviors as the possible explanation. In addition to communication with patients and families, successful redirecting maladaptive behaviors depends on cooperation between nurses and reports about concerns.
Coping Strategies
Developing and analyzing effective psychosocial and cognitive-behavioral interventions to support patients with TBIs have become a regular topic for multiple nursing and healthcare projects. Most researchers support coping as a good solution for nurses to manage constantly changing behaviors and impulsive demands of brain-injured patients (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Bohnen et al., 1992, as cited in Mueller et al., 2018). Maladaptive consequences may be solved with the help of emotion-based or problem-focused cognitive-behavioral strategies. When nurses work with patients, they need to adjust negative emotional reactions to stress or avoidance (Mueller et al., 2018). Problem-focused interventions aim to cope with the roots of challenges and use strategies to find alternatives. According to Mueller et al. (2018), coping is a very individual process, and the worth of nursing care is not to interfere but to stay close to give answers or pose provoking questions. In both cases, TBI patients have to identify their maladaptive behaviors and learn what they can do to prevent the damage or gain control of their thoughts and actions.
Pharmacological Interventions
After being recognized, diagnosed, and properly treated, brain injuries remain a dangerous factor for human health. It is not enough to analyze human behaviors and give some recommendations to improve socialization and communication. In nursing, pharmacological treatment as a part of a follow-up plan for TBI patients plays an important role. Therefore, some researchers underline the effects of medications, including their financial burden of $9.2 billion in medical expenses in the United States in 2000 (Dash & Chavali, 2018). Sedatives, anti-depressants, and anti-convulsants are effective for managing maladaptive behaviors like aggression or agitation (Block et al., 2020). Beta-blockers and neuroleptics result in quick sedation, which allows patients to protect themselves from unnecessary injuries and harmful behaviors by blocking dopamine receptors in the body system (Block et al., 2020). At the same time, Mueller et al. (2018) admit that drug abuse can be another form of maladaptive behavior in patients with brain injuries, and nurses must control medication intake to avoid dependence and misuse. More evidence and knowledge should be gained to understand the effects of pharmacological interventions on managing patients’ behaviors after brain damage.
Conclusion
In general, redirecting maladaptive behaviors in patients with brain injuries is a crucial nursing intervention. Sometimes, pharmacological treatment positively affects the person’s condition, and families neglect some recommendations and cognitive-behavioral therapies. However, nurses must continue their education and training to recognize their impact on the patient’s health and offer the best options to deal with sudden behavioral changes and unwanted emotional and physiological shifts. Cognitive impairments affect the level and quality of communication and cooperation between patients and nurses. Coping strategies help find alternatives and protect patients who experience anger, aggression, loneliness, and low self-esteem. TBIs are never simple health problems, and their consequences may be temporal or far-reaching. In nursing, protecting patients against harmful environments and their uncontrolled behaviors and emotions introduces the core of redirecting. A lack of evidence and convincing factors about pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions cannot be ignored, and more studies should be developed to provide brain-injured patients with high-quality care and professional help in managing their maladaptive behaviors.
Cerebrum – The largest division of the brain. Cerebrum consists of two sections, each of which has 4 lobes.
Cerebral Cortex – refers to the outer component of gray substance making up the external part of the brain (Burn & Tröster, 2004).
Different regions have different functions:
Corpus callosum
connects the brain’s right and left hemispheres.
Brain stem
regulates heart rate, breathing, sleep cycles and emotions.
Cerebral cortex
Functions include: planning; reasoning; language; recognising sounds and images; memory.
Cerebellum
important for coordination, precision and timing of movement.
Lobes of the Brain
Frontal -Located deep to the Frontal Bone of the skull.
Functions: Plays a role in the actions such as memory formation, emotions, reasoning and character.
Parietal Lobe – located deep to the Parietal Bone of the skull.
Functions: Plays an important role in the actions such as senses and integration of sensation, spatial knowledge and perception.
Occipital Lobe – located deep to the Occipital Bone of the Skull.
Functions : Key function involves processing, integrating and interpreting vision and visual stimuli.
Temporal Lobe – located deep to the Temporal Bones of the skull.
Functions: plays an important role in hearing and information retrieval (Perry & Brat, 2010).
Nervous System
Nervous System:
Central Nervous System (CNS).
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)(involuntary).
Somatic nervous System (voluntary).
Sympathetic Nervous System.
Parasympathetic Nervous System.
Basic function: Central/Peripheral
Cerebro – spinal fluid: Provides oxygen and nutrient; absorbs shock; maintains form and averts collapse.
Basic Function: Autonomic/Somatic
Autonomic Nervous System of PNS (involuntary).
Somatic Nervous System of PNS (voluntary).
Basic Function: Sympathetic/parasympathetic
Sensory system
Hearing
Auditory canal:
The sound waves enter the external auditory canal and trigger vibrations of the tympanic membrane.
Tympanic membrane:
The tympanic membrane induces a vibration of the ossicles.
Ossicle:
The vibrations induce waves in the perilymph of the various inner ear chamber.
The vibrations induce waves in the perilymph of the various inner ear chambers (Blake et al., 2006).
Round window – absorbs excess energy . It also prevents wave reverberation
Auditory receptors – change the fluid wave into a signal.
Vision
Rods and cones:
For one to see an object.
The pattern of the object must fall on the vision receptors (rods and cones in the retina).
Regulation
The light entering the eye have to be controlled so as not to bleach the signals.
Energy from the wave of photons have to be converted into electrical energy (Ropper & Samuels, 2009).
Brain
The brain receives and interprets the waves (Blake et al., 2006).
References
Blake, T., Heiser, A., Caywood, M., Merzenich, M. (2006). Experience-dependent adult cortical plasticity requires cognitive association between sensation and reward. Neuron, 52(2),371–81.
Burn, D. & Tröster, A. (2004). Neuropsychiatric complications of medical and surgical therapies for Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 17(3), 172—180.
Perry, A., & Brat, D. (2010). Neuropathology patterns and introduction. In A. Perry & D. Brat DJ (eds.), Practical Surgical Neuropathology. Elsevier, Churchill Livingstone: Philadelphia.
Ropper, A., & Samuels, M. (2009). Adams and Victor’s Principles of Neurology (9th ed.). New York, McGraw-Hill Professional.
The human brain is the most complex organ and system in existence, which has a highly limited regenerative characteristic making aging a major factor in its deterioration. The proposed research aims to assess how neural stem cells replace and differentiate into neurons and other cells of the brain to use them for therapeutic purposes. Working thesis: neural stem cells must be used as a therapeutic measure to slow or halt the aging process due to their rejuvenation and differentiation capabilities.
Galiakberova, A. A., & Dashinimaev, E. B. (2020). Neural stem cells and methods for their generation from induced pluripotent stem cells in vitro. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 8, 1-20.
The study explores how neural stem cells differentiate into different forms of mature neural cells, including neurons themselves. Pluripotent stem cells, or PSCs, are the best candidates for in vitro generation and cultivation of neural stem cells. There is a wide range of phenotypes when it comes to the differentiation process, which is why a strict condition setting is critical. The source will be useful for exploring and discussing how neural stem cells can be used in practice since the study focuses on in vitro mechanisms.
Lazutkin, A., Podgorny, O., & Enikolopov, G. (2019). Modes of division and differentiation of neural stem cells. Behavioral Brain Research, 374, 1-9.
The research analyzes the process of hippocampal neurogenesis, where the emphasis is put on the neural stem cell lifecycle. The proposed neural stem cell maintenance, division, and differentiation models can occur in symmetric and asymmetric ways. Astrocytes play a central role in maintaining neural stem cells, such as quiescent ones. The source will be highly useful in providing information on the intricate process of stem cell pool preservation.
Navarro Negredo, P., Yeo, R. W., & Brunet, A. (2020). Aging and rejuvenation of neural stem cells and their niches. Cell Stem Cell, 27(2), 202-223.
The study focuses on two key neural stem cell pools in the mammalian brain: the subventricular zone (SVZ) and dentate gyrus (DG). The location of SVZ is lateral ventricles, whereas DG is located in the hippocampus. The assessment of the literature reveals that neural stem cells are critical for brain rejuvenation, and health-promoting interventions slow brain aging. The source provides a mass of valuable knowledge and literature analysis; thus, it will be used as comprehensive evidence.
Obernier, K., & Alvarez-Buylla, A. (2019). Neural stem cells: Origin, heterogeneity and regulation in the adult mammalian brain. Development, 146(4), 1-15.
The study focuses on the process of cell specialization and differentiation in the rodent brain. The key elements include molecular control, heterogeneity, and regional specification. It is stated that neighboring cells use neurotransmitters to signal the pattern of neural stem cell self-renewal. The source provides insightful data on how neural stem cell pools are maintained throughout brain development and maturity.
Petrik, D., Jorgensen, S., Eftychidis, V., & Siebzehnrubl, F. A. (2022). Singular adult neural stem cells do not exist. Cells, 11(722), 1-22.
The study specifically focuses on adult neural stem cells because they produce new neurons throughout one’s life. The authors address the recent findings in regard to progenitor cells being able to undergo self-renewal. The factor of heterogeneity plays a central role in long-term brain health through cell replacement. The source is useful for illustrating the relationship between neural stem cells and other cells.
Tang, Y., Yu, P., & Cheng, L. (2017). Current progress in the derivation and therapeutic application of neural stem cells. Cell Death and Disease, 8(10), 1-12.
The source provides a summative overview of transplantation procedures in regard to neural stem cells. The current state of progress in the field is faced with an array of issues. It is indicated that novel derivation methods, such as trans-differentiation from somatic cells, are developed. The source is highly useful for the practical aspects of implementing neural stem cells’ antiaging properties in the human brain.
There is converging evidence supporting the critical role of direct and indirect adversity in brain development, with effects lasting until adulthood. Holz et al. (2019) state that childhood abuse and familial hardship are examples of direct adversity. In contrast, characteristics such as urban life or ethnic minority status are examples of indirect societal trouble. The authors, working in the field of psychiatry and psychotherapy, discuss the evidence that supportive social environments may have an impact on similar neural substrates, thereby strengthening the capacity to cope with stress exposure actively and counteract the negative effects evoked by social adversity. The article is relevant to the topic because the authors studied the issue from a psychological point of view. Holz et al. (2019) present a review in a scientific journal, so the intended audience is psychologists and researchers interested in the impact of social stress on brain development. The authors address potential preventative and early intervention strategies that target both the person and the social environment to lower the risk of mental diseases and develop resilience.
Takanashi et al. (2018) state that social stress can cause a variety of psychological issues, ranging from increased anxiety and melancholy to antisocial and violent conduct. Moreover, the authors say that immune dysregulation may be one of the mediators of social stress that leads to violence and depression. The authors have professional knowledge of neuroscience and studied the topic of social stress from a neuroscientific perspective, so their scientific article for scientists and academic researchers in a research journal is a relevant source of information. Takanashi et al. (2018) wrote that while depression and aggressiveness are fundamentally different behavioral and physiological reactions to social stress, they contend that both may be underpinned by an overlapping and separate pattern of immunological signaling. They also propose that animal models of maladaptive aggressiveness generated by social stress must be studied to understand the neuro-immune mechanisms of aggression and depression, which may apply to human charge.
References
Holz, N. E., Tost, H., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2019). Resilience and the brain: A key role for regulatory circuits linked to social stress and support. Molecular Psychiatry, 25, 379-396.
Takanashi, A., Flanigan, M. E., McEwen, B. S., & Russo, S. J. (2018). Aggression, social stress, and the immune system in humans and animal models. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience.
Brain injuries are severe and can affect the normal functioning of the brain where the results may be a blow to the head or suffering from trauma. Brain damage depends on the degree of damage whereby the level detected is directly proportional to the injury level (Putatunda et al., 2018). The degree of brain damage is measured by the force of the impact and the nature of the injury suffered by a patient. Head trauma effects caused by brain injury can lead to the failure of the facial nerves from functioning. The following tests results indicated a possibility of a brain injury:
Abnormal pupil response of the right eye (constriction).
Weakness of the right masseter muscle.
A decrease in strength and the movement of the left abdominal muscles.
An absence of triceps and biceps reflexes in the right upper extremity.
Numbness on the medical portion of the right hand and forearm.
Tests Results Indicating a Spinal Cord Injury
Trauma resulting from a fall or crash of an object can cause spinal cord injuries. Spinal cord injuries can lead to paralysis from the neck, chest, and down to the lower part of the body which affects sensations and mobility. Even when a spinal cord has an injury, scans and tests may indicate the spinal cord to be intact (Putatunda et al., 2018). Scan and test results may not be enough proof of a spinal cord is in a good condition because the injury may fail to be detected by the scans or tests. The following tests results indicated a possibility of a spinal cord injury:
A decreased sensation to touch, pressure, and vibration in the right upper and lower extremities.
A decrease in temperature discrimination (cold vs. warm) in the left upper and lower extremities.
Decreased strength and movement of the right upper and lower extremities during muscle testing.
Decreased strength and movement of the left abdominal muscles.
An absence of triceps and biceps reflexes in the right upper extremity.
Numbness on the medial portion of the right hand and forearm.
Abnormal response of patellar, Achilles (hyper) reflexes in the right lower extremity.
Positive Babinski sign on the right foot.
The inability of the patient to turn his head to the right along with weak right trapezius muscle.
Test Results Indicating both Brain and Spinal Cord Injuries
The motor skills are affected by both brain and spinal cord injuries which are identified by weakness, paralysis, or incoordination of the body parts. Brain injury can affect both the physical and emotional functioning of the body (Putatunda et al., 2018). On the other hand, spinal cord injury can also cause affect the physical and motor functioning of sensory functions. The following tests results indicated a possibility of a brain and spinal cord injury:
Decreased strength and movement of the right upper and lower extremities during muscle testing.
Decreased strength and movement of the left abdominal muscles.
Absence of triceps and biceps reflexes in the right upper extremity.
Numbness on the medial portion of the right hand and forearm.
Cranial Nerves Involvement
The cranial nerves involved are the optic nerve, oculomotor, and trigeminal nerve. The trigeminal nerves are responsible for chewing and facial sensational (Putatunda et al., 2018). The optic nerves are used for light detection, and the oculomotor nerves are used for the movement of the eye in constriction and dilation when responding to the amount of light. Regarding the obtained test results, the patient’s pupil has an abnormal response.
Reference
Putatunda, R., Bethea, J. R., & Hu, W. H. (2018). Potential immunotherapies for traumatic brain and spinal cord injury. Chinese Journal of Traumatology, 21(03), 125-136.
Sleep is one of the most important physiological aspects of a person’s health. Sleep occurs in five stages: wake, light sleep, deeper sleep, deepest non-REM sleep, and REM. It has been estimated that approximately 75% of sleeping time is spent in the non-REM stages, with deeper sleep taking the majority of this amount. Brain waves are defined as patterns within the nervous system. Wakefulness is divided into the open (beta waves predominate) and closed-eyed stages (alpha waves predominate). Light sleep is the shortest sleep period, defined by more than 50% being replaced by activity of low-amplitude mixed-frequency. It is followed by deeper sleep when heart rate and body temperature decrease, and waves such as K-complexes and sleep spindles occur. Deepest non-REM sleep is the stage when the body actively regenerates itself, and the brain delta waves are of the highest amplitude and lowest frequency. REM sleep is primarily associated with spontaneous awakening and dreaming and exhibits beta waves (Patel et al., 2022). Together these stages ensure that a person is rested and energized after sleep.
Sleep patterns are regulated by two neural mechanisms: circadian rhythm and homeostasis. Circadian rhythms are responsible for the synchronization of environmental signals (darkness and temperature) and for the feeling of sleepiness during the night or being able to wake up without an alarm. Homeostasis has the responsibility to regulate how much sleep is necessary after a certain amount of time (Patel et al., 2022). In case of long sleep deprivation, it increases the intensity of sleep.
As sleep is extremely important for a person’s well-being, I believe it is essential to pay attention to the mechanisms of sleep and how they work. It is exceptionally fortunate that the human body has two mechanisms that regulate sleep patterns. However, it is in a person’s best interest to help these mechanisms do their work. If a person disregards the body’s natural signals of sleep deprivation or purposefully creates circumstances where the biological clock and actual clock misalign, circadian rhythm and homeostasis will not be able to perform efficiently. Therefore, it is a person’s responsibility to maintain a consistent sleep schedule.
References
Patel, A. K., Reddy, V., & Araujo, J. F. (2022). Physiology, sleep stages. StatPearls Publishing.
The tiniest insult can cause brain damage in adolescents, which can hinder their recovery and make them more susceptible to future concussions. One fundamental problem with diagnosing migraines is that a definitive diagnosis is predicated on the patient’s self-reported symptoms and signs (Ströhle, 2019). There are several variables that affect a person’s symptom manifestation and recovery. These include the injury’s site, accompanying medical issues, and psychological elements. The psychological problems could have existed before the injury, or they could have developed as a result of it. A typical and expected reaction to an injury is an emotional one.
Discussion
Elite athletes who have experienced a concussion express higher anxiety and depression than those who have sustained an orthopedic injury. Elite athletes may experience a range of ailments after a concussion. It is uncertain how injuries suffered while participating in sports affect this population’s specific mental health outcomes. Sports-related concussions are the acute, frequently sudden symptoms of brain injuries caused by biomechanical forces (Ströhle, 2019). Multiple symptoms typically could exist, the majority of which would point to functioning issues rather than problems with the neuroanatomical structure. Post-concussive damage can have an impact on an individual’s physical, intellectual, and psychological well-being. As a result, medical supervision of athletes after a headache is growing in popularity.
Conclusion
A multifaceted approach should be taken to treat concussion symptoms, including counseling. These psychotherapy treatments may consist of supportive therapy, behavior therapy, guided meditation, and psychoeducation about the progression of the illness. If necessary, the medicine may also include managing psychiatric medications. Accommodations can be given at work and in educational settings if the symptoms a person is experiencing are known (Ströhle, 2019). Individuals benefit most from a team-based treatment strategy when it comes to managing and recovering from injuries.
