Aging may result in severe effects on the brain and lead to cumulative damage and the impairment of cognitive functions. This paper reflects on the strategies that can slow these effects and provides evidence of their effectiveness. The report concludes that although some of the processes associated with aging are inevitable, it is possible to maintain their outcomes and improve the individual’s physical and mental state.
Strategies for the Reduction of Brain Aging Effects
Aging is a natural process that may be associated with neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive decline. The reason for this link is that with age, various changes occur in the human brain. They include the shrinking of certain parts of the organ, the reduction of communication between neurons, a decrease in blood flow, and an increase in inflammation (National Institute on Aging, 2017). These changes may result in problems associated with memory, multitasking, and attention. However, it is possible to prevent and slow the effects of brain aging.
One of the possible methods that can be used is diet. The study by Morris et al. (2015) shows that the combination of the Mediterranean and the DASH (Dietary Approach to Systolic Hypertension) diets may slow cognitive decline caused by aging. Individuals’ nutrition plan should include green leafy vegetables, such as kale and spinach, nuts, whole grains, and beans. In addition, vitamin E, flavonoids, folate, and carotenoids are suggested as the means of neuroprotection. Wahl et al. (2017) add that the low protein and high carbohydrate diet may decrease brain aging as well.
Another method that can slow the effects of aging on the brain is exercise. Szalewska, Radkowski, Demkow, and Winklewski (2017) report that regular physical activity affects neuromuscular functions positively and is beneficial for individuals’ physical and mental state. The most effective types of exercise are high-intensity aerobic programs that may be combined with strength training. The study shows that six months of regular physical activity may result in the enhancement of executive functions, cognition, and mental flexibility (Szalewska et al., 2017). A year of weekly exercise may lead to an improvement in cerebral blood flow and an increase in hippocampal volumes. In addition, individuals can utilize resistance training to enhance brain insulin signaling.
Cognitive training is one of the effective methods for slowing brain aging. According to Li et al. (2016), training may lead to the suppression of reduced lateralization, a decrease in gray matter changes, the induction of plastic changes, and the enhancement of functional entropy. Twenty-four sessions of cognitive exercises showed that affect functional connectivity and brain structure positively, leading to the improvement of older individuals’ attention and memory.
Finally, another possible method of slowing the effects of brain aging is stress reduction. Mecocci et al. (2018) report that oxidative stress, which can be caused by chronic fatigue and depression, is positively associated with the risk of Alzheimer’s disease and other types of dementia. It means that it is vital to prevent exposure to stress to decrease the effects of aging. Possible methods can include the utilization of breathing exercises, yoga, and mental health therapy.
Conclusion
Aging may result in memory loss, the inability to concentrate, and associated diseases. To slow the effects of aging on the brain, an individual may adhere to a specific diet and regular exercise, as well as undergo cognitive training. In addition, it is vital to reduce exposure to stress. Although the process of brain aging is inevitable, it is possible to prevent the development of adverse outcomes of it.
Mecocci, P., Boccardi, V., Cecchetti, R., Bastiani, P., Scamosci, M., Ruggiero, C., & Baroni, M. (2018). A long journey into aging, brain aging, and Alzheimer’s disease following the oxidative stress tracks. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 62(3), 1319-1335.
Morris, M. C., Tangney, C. C., Wang, Y., Sacks, F. M., Barnes, L. L., Bennett, D. A., & Aggarwal, N. T. (2015). MIND diet slows cognitive decline with aging. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 11(9), 1015-1022.
Szalewska, D., Radkowski, M., Demkow, U., & Winklewski, P. J. (2017). Exercise strategies to counteract brain aging effects. In I. R. Cohen, A. Lajtha, J. D. Lambris, R. Paoletti, & N. Rezaei (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology (pp. 69-79). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
Wahl, D., Cogger, V., de Cabo, R., Biet, S., Simpson, S., & Le Couteur, D. G. (2017). A low protein, high carbohydrate diet attenuates brain aging and improves spatial memory in mice. Innovation in Aging, 1(Suppl 1), 579.
The nervous system is the central communication and decision-making center in the body. It relays messages to all body parts; to and from the brain. The whole system uses neurons and other specialized cells called glial cells to pass messages. It is divided into two sections; the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The two systems communicate via neurons through the generation of impulses. The central nervous system primarily comprises the spinal cord and the brain. The PNS is made of somatic and efferent nervous systems. Coordination between these two systems controls all body functions (Farebee, 2007, Para. 1-6).
General description
The collection of information from the environment is the central role of sensory nerves. This information is relayed to the brain, and feedback is sent via motor neurons on actions to be taken by the body (Serendip, 2005, Para. 1-3).
The cerebral cortex has millions of neurons, each with thousands of synaptic connections. Communications by brain neurons are done via protoplasmic fibers called axons. The brain controls behavior through two means; muscle activation or hormonal secretions. Many connective tissue membranes surround the brain hence, separating it from the skull. This helps in cushioning and protecting the brain with help of the cerebrospinal fluid. The separating layers are the arachnoid mater, Pia mater, and Dura mater.
Three sections make the human brain namely: the midbrain (tectum and tegmentum), forebrain (hypothalamus, cerebrum, and thalamus), and the hindbrain (the cerebellum, medulla, and pons).
The five swellings
During the development of a vertebrae embryo, a fluid-filled tube develops into the CNS. The first signs of a developing brain are swellings that develop at the tube end. These swellings later develop into three main sections in an adult’s brain. The swellings (three), as the fetus develops multiply to five due to the division of the hind and forebrain into two. The five swellings that develop are Telencephalon, metencephalon, Diencephalon, Mesencephalon, and myelencephalon. The telencephalon and the diencephalons form the forebrain, the mesencephalon forms the midbrain and the metencephalon, and the myelencephalon from the hindbrain (Rice University, 2000, Para 2)
Myelencephalon (or medulla) forms the posterior section of the human brain stem. It contains neurons that carry signals communicated from the body to the brain and vice versa. In addition, it contains the reticular formations that occupy the middle part of the brain stem, from the back of the myelencephalon to the front section of the midbrain. The Myelencephalon controls main body activities that include: sleep, attention, respiratory, cardiac, and circulatory reflexes in addition to the movement (Rice university-Myelencephalon, 2000, Para. 1)
The mesencephalon forms the midbrain. It contains two divisions namely: the tegmentum and tectum. The tectum forms the upper cover of the mid-brain. It has two pairs of bumps called colliculi. These two pairs’ work is to control the auditory and the visual systems. The tegmentum has three structures namely: the periaqueductal gray, red nucleus, and substantia nigra. The periaqueductal gray helps in offsetting effects resulting from opiate drugs. On the other hand, the substantial nigra in collaboration with the red nucleus helps the sensory-motor system in conveying messages to and from the brain (Rice university- mesencephalon, 2000, Para. 1).
The telencephalon is the largest of all divisions of the brain. It is made up of the cerebral cortex, Amygdaloidal Nucleus, Basal forebrain nuclei, and basal ganglia. The amygdala is also found in this section. It is a component of the limbic system, positioned in the temporal lobe. It helps in controlling fear and emotional levels (Rice university- telencephalon, 2000, Para. 1). The basal ganglion controls the body motor system, speech development, emotions, and helps the brain to store data (mainly done by the cerebral cortex). In addition to the amygdala, the telencephalon has another component called the hippocampus. This section of the brain is important in learning and memorization of content (Serendip, 2005, Para 11).
The metencephalon takes the biggest proportion of the hindbrain. It has two parts, the cerebellum, and the pons. This portion of the brain houses tracts and portions of the reticular formations. The pons acts as a bridge to the cerebellum with millions of fibers. Many of these fibers cross the bottom of the brain stem hence, connecting to places in the cerebellum. The cerebellum has two divisions that have ten smaller lobules. Its major function is to organize motor movements, muscle tone, and ensuring balance during movements. In addition to movement, it also helps in language development through controlling tongue movements (Sodicoff, 2004, Para. 2).
The last division of the brain is the Diencephalon. It is made up of two structures: the hypothalamus and the thalamus. The thalamus is lobe-shaped and found on the brain stem. Its surface is covered with white lamina, made up of myelinated axons. It forms the main pathway for neuron transfer of information to the cerebral cortex hence helping the sensory and motor body systems. The hypothalamus is near the thalamus. It is involved in homeostasis, emotional, hunger, and thirst control. In addition, it helps the body to coordinate the autonomic nervous system and circadian patterns (Serendip, 2005, Para. 12).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the brain is a very vital organ in the human body. This is because through the brain human beings can move, and “read” their environment hence coordinate body functions to meet their needs.
Reference
Farebee, M. J. (2007). The nervous system: the brain. 2009. Web.
Rice University. (2000). Language and brain: neurocognitive linguistics. 2009. Web.
Serendip. (2005). Brain Structures and their Functions. 2009. Web.
Sordicoff, M. (2004). Neuronatomy resource appendices: Neuroembryology. 2009. Web.
Major Psychiatric Disorder(s): F90.2 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (combined presentation)
The client is a 23-year-old female who came to a hospital and cannot even remember why she came here. She does not feel that something goes wrong with her and that she may have some problems. At the same time, she reports on her poor concentration and poor memory. She does not like to wait in line or answer many questions. She has to move and change something. Her intentions to move constantly annoy people around. Such behavior proves that the client may have attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The client meets criterion A1, an inattention pattern.
For example, she has difficulties while sustaining attention in tasks (A-1-a) when she missed counted some money as a bank worker (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). She does not listen when people speak to her directly during interviews (A-1-c) and does not like to wait. The client admits that she loses her wallet five times per week (A-1-g). She is easily distracted and changes topics frequently, and such behavior meets the criterion A-1-h (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Finally, she avoids her engagement in tasks, explaining that she cannot do something (A-1-f). At the same time, the client meets criterion A2, hyperactivity and impulsivity (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). She leaves her seat when she is expected to sit (A-2-b), talks excessively (A-2-f), cannot wait her turn (A-2-h), and feels restless (A-2-e).
This diagnosis may be based on the fact that the client cannot sit when it is expected, proving that her motor performance is substantially below the expected level – criterion A (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Also, such coordination disturbance considerably influences her daily activities and relationships with other people – criterion B. Finally, the client says that she could not remember when everything began. It could begin when she was younger, meaning that some symptoms appeared in the early developmental period – criterion C.
The choice of this diagnosis may be explained by the fact that the client is obsessed with the necessity to move fast and change the things around. Such characteristics prove that some personality disorder traits may be observed. However, the client does not meet the full criteria for one disorder.
Medical Disorder(s): Brain Damage
This diagnosis is possible because the client suffers from memory loss, poor concentration, and a short attention span that are the symptoms of a brain injury. It is hard to clarify the causes of this medical problem. Certain diagnostic tools, e.g., MRI, should be chosen to prove this damage.
Client Strengths
The client went to high school.
The client had a job.
The client develops good relations with her family.
The client has the energy to be occupied with several tasks.
The client understands that she can annoy people.
The client does not have any medical issues.
The client does not have any alcohol problems.
The client does not have bad eating habits.
The client is not suicidal.
Comments/Differential Diagnosis
The client may have insomnia disorder because she says that she barely sleeps and feels tired. Her inability to sleep properly may cause her behavioral changes and her feeling of being the energizer bunny. Also, anxiety and depression may be the causes of her behavioral changes and the necessity to be in a hurry to not identify other problems and obligations. She loses things, cannot be complete tasks, and does not want to wait. Such behavior is an example of anxiety disorder.
Reference
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Neurons are the cells responsible for communication between other cells in the body. Neuron cells are electrically excitable and facilitate communication just like electric wires in an electric circuit. They are responsible for all communication in the body cell and without them transmission of information between cells system could not be possible. Neurons act as bridge communication between body cell and the brain (Bancroft, 1998, par 3). With them, communication between body systems and the brain is enabled through sending and receiving information signals. The brain is the central organ that facilitates communication between different body systems with the neurons facilitating transmission of information signals. Neurons enable the transmission through special unique receptors, connections and terminals in various specific regions of the central nervous system that are responsible for messaging processes. To facilitate transmission of message signal, neurons require neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are responsible transmission of signals between a neuron and a cell. Neurotransmitter relays amplify or modulate message signal appropriately (Best, 2008, par 3). It is through movement of neurotransmitters across a small gap referred to as synapse that communication between a neuron and another body cell is enabled. The neurotransmitters have various functions that consist of transmission, stimulation, regulation and inhibition of various varied body functions. In essence, neurotransmitters are responsible of facilitating communication between neurons and other cells and can be viewed as a bridge between them.
Apart from facilitating communication between neurons and other body cells, neurotransmitters has great influence on behaviour. Neurotransmitters have majors in regulation of emotion, mood, sensory function, perception and affect therefore having great impact on behaviour. The transmitters that affect behaviour on a large scale include dopamine, noreponiphrine and serotonin (Best, 2008, par 7). The neurotransmitters are transmitted in various part of the brain and are motivated by varying factors. Release of Dopamine is usually motivated by rewarding condition such as food, sexual pleasure and drug. Dopamine has stimulating effect on an individual when they are released. It has various effects of cognition and behaviour, pleasure and motivation, regulation of sleep, motor activities, attention, sexual arousal, mood and learning. Norponiphrine produce effects such as stimulation and enhance alertness. It also has a major effect on learning and regulation of long-term memory. Serotonin, like Dopamine has an important role on controlling mood, memory, learning, sleep and other behaviour including sexual behaviour (Bancroft, 1998, par 4-7).
Neurotransmitters, as mentioned, have effects that regulate emotion, appetite, sleep, sexuality and other factors. Because of their effect on these aspects of an individual, they have great influence on behaviour. Release and level of the transmitter affect the way an individual behaves in a certain situation. The three have been associated with mood disorders such as depression.
The brain is a very important organ in human and other animals. It is a very important organ of the nervous system, mind and behaviour. It is the centre of command of the body. As the organ where central command is situated, the brain is a very vital organ of the body without which other cannot function. As other organs in the body, the brain is divided into different regions. Regional divisions of the brain include brainstem, cerebrum, cerebellum and diencephalon. The four regions have important systematic functions in control of behaviour (Benton, 2009, p. 76).
The four regions have interdependent functions that together contribute to core function of the brain a central command. Brainstem is the region where all information coming from sensory output is sorted out. Diencephalon contains the thalamus, epithalmus and hypothalamus is responsible for filtering sensory information. It also contains centers that are responsible for regulation temperature, thirst, circadian rhythms, hunger and pain sensation. Cerebellum is responsible for maintaining balance and equilibrium in the body. Without cerebellum, an individual could not be able to conduct such functions as walking. The cerebrum, which is comprised of frontal lobes, corpus callosum and basal ganglia, is responsible of transmission of information between the two sides of the brain and memory processing. Cerebrum also contains centers that are responsible for regulating inhibition, judgments and impulses.
Cerebellum is more responsible for behavior that the other regions of the brain. This region contains frontal lobes that have high controls of how a person behaves. Frontal lobes have control of the emotions that affect human behaviors. The limbic system compromising of hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala play an important role in regulation motivations and emotion, which include responses to stress (Benton, 2009, p. 81). Amygdala, on the other hand regulates expression of emotion associated with aggression such as fear, anger and disgust. As demonstrated, human behaviour is greatly affected by different centers in the four regions.
In any given situation, sensory processes concerned include the touch, auditory and vision as response of brain to events.
In the scenario given, sound produced when the ball was pitched was received by auditory organs, sent to the brain and the brain interpreted the sound. After the sound is interpreted, the player is motivated to look around for the source of sound using vision. When the player moved the eyes towards the ball, the image of the ball was created in the retina and sent to the brain for interpretation by optic nerves. The brain interpreted the image as a moving ball. As the ball moves closer, the player’s visual is stirred and enables the thalamus to trigger the brain’s perceptual and emotional centers. The trigger enabled the player to approximate the speed of the ball. This information enabled the player to approximate the distance of the ball. By use of input from sense and memory, the player was able to form a decision to track and hit the ball at appropriate distance.
When the ball is hit using a bat crack, sound produced stimulated auditory areas of the cortex of the players. Brain’s perceptual and emotional centers of spectators were activated making them to track the ball. While the ball is on the air, images of moving ball are recorded in occipital cortex. Consequently, a message is sent to motor cortex, which command s the legs of opponent player to move towards the direction of the ball.
The process of the game involves coordination between perception centers an motor cortex. The coordination enables opponent player to move in the appropriate direction and at appropriate speed in order to reach the ball. Prompts from frontal lobes enable the opposing player construe direction and speed of the ball. As the player run towards the ball, Neural network is activated and enables the player to catch the ball. When the ball is in the player’s mitt, sensory nerves transmit and receives signal from the brain enabling the player to recognize that the ball is within his grip.
Reference List
Bancroft, M. (1998). Brain Physiology.
Benton, A. (2009). Brain and Behavior: Research in Clinical Neuropsychology. Massachusetts: Transaction Publishers.
Biosensing is the ability to detect and measure the levels of different chemical and biological molecules in living systems. The main goal of biosensing in medical applications is to facilitate the prevention and monitoring of diseases. Examples of molecules that can be monitored through biosensing include glucose, calcium ions, and neurotransmitters. Biosensors are faster, less invasive ways of obtaining important biological information.
The brain is a critical organ in multicellular organisms. In humans, the brain consists of billions of neurons that create multiplex networks that influence learning, behavior, intelligence, and memory. Therefore, understanding brain physiology is important for the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of neurological complications. Previous methods to study the brain included imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography, functional magnetic resonance imaging, and x-ray computed tomography, among others. These techniques are limited by the ability to provide constricted spatiotemporal data about the brain. Electrophysiology and optical neuroimaging are other techniques that have been used in brain sensing. However, electrophysiology is highly invasive because it requires direct physical contact with rain tissues. Conversely, the use of light to investigate neuronal signaling has several benefits, for example, adjustable wavelength, sensitive detection, low invasiveness, and high spatial resolution (Chen, Truong & Ai, 2017).
Optical neuroimaging is an indirect way of looking into neuronal signaling, which requires the use of sensors, probes, or indicators. Dyes that are sensitive to calcium or voltage changes and fluorescent indicators have been used to capture brain signals in vitro and in vivo. However, dyes can result in non-specific staining and cannot be localized spatially or temporally. Conversely, fluorescent dyes are unsuitable for direct in vivo uses on human subjects because they need genetic delivery. Nanozymes are versatile artificial catalysts that have wide biomedical applications such as biosensing and targeted therapy. Furthermore, it has been shown that nanozymes can be used as biosensors in the brain of mice (Chen et al. 2016). The discovery of nanozymes and their potential for biosensing applications is an interesting area of research that can be exploited to enhance the understanding of human brain physiology and associated conditions. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to explore the possibility of using nanozymes in biosensing of the human brain in vivo.
Background
Enzymes are biological catalysts that have vast applications in various fields, including medicine, the manufacturing industry, pharmaceuticals, and the food industry. Enzymes are naturally produced by living organisms as part of native proteins. The advantages of natural enzymes include high specificity for reactions, can be reused over again, and work at low temperatures such as those present at physiological conditions. However, the main problem encountered when using natural enzymes is their high cost of production. Other shortcomings include extreme sensitivity to pH, ionic strength, and temperature, which denature them and alter their catalysis. Contamination of the reaction vessel with other substances in industrial applications can also affect their reactions.
These problems have led to studies to find other alternatives to natural enzymes, which led to the discovery of artificial enzymes. Artificial enzymes can be described as man-made, organic molecules that are designed to recreate the active site of natural enzymes, thus affecting catalysis (Esmieu, Raleiras & Berggren 2018). There are many types of artificial enzymes, including cationic polymeric products, nanoparticles, graphene, and its oxide, porphyrins, cyclodextrins, metal complexes, and dendrimers (Wei & Wang 2013). Some uses of artificial enzymes encompass healing and disinfecting wounds, killing bacteria, and getting rid of biofilms. Enzyme mimicry, which is the capacity to copy the structure and function of natural enzymes, has played a central role in the development of these synthetic enzymes.
Nanozymes are nanostructures with enzymatic activities. They have distinct features compared to artificial and natural enzymes, which have made them useful in biomedical applications such as bioimaging, bioanalysis, diagnostic medicine, targeted treatment, immunoassays, growth of stem cells, biosensing, and removal of pollutants (Wei & Wang 2013). A specific example of bioanalysis is the detection of glucose in serum using cerium oxide’s ability to mimic the action of the natural enzyme catalase. In the medical field, the constant use of antibiotics in the treatment of bacterial infections has helped to cure numerous diseases. However, the extensive use of antibiotics has led to resistance, which is a serious threat to global health. Subsequent studies have shown that some natural enzymes have the potential to confer protection against bacterial infections (Chen et al., 2018). Nanozymes are sensitive to chromatographic techniques due to their ability to react with chromogenic substrates, thereby leading to the formation of colored products. This property has enhanced its use in biosensing applications.
One advantage of nanozymes is diverse surface chemistry features that ultimately modulate their catalysis. For example, gold nanoparticles can undergo different surface alterations to mimic the activities of enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and oxidase (Chen et al., 2018). The second benefit of nanozymes is the ability to withstand a wide range of pH, temperature, and salt concentrations, which makes for effective antibiotics under harsh conditions. Other advantages include low production costs and large-scale preparation. A recent technology is using light to regulate the activity of nanozymes with real-time precision (Wu et al. 2019). The main disadvantage of nanozymes is that they have lower specificity than natural enzymes, which restricts their in vivo applications (Cheng et al., 2017). The development of highly specific nanozymes will circumvent this shortcoming, enhance biosensing and pave the way for groundbreaking studies in living cells and organisms. Ultimately, there will be improved diagnoses and targeted treatments using non-invasive nanozyme technologies.
Hypothesis
Studies show that nanozymes are amenable to changes in specificity by altering their surface properties (Chen et al. 2018). This process enables the fabrication of nanozymes with different enzymatic activities for various purposes. Furthermore, nanozymes are stable over a wide range of conditions such as pH, temperature, and ionic strength. This stability implies that they can be subjected to diverse conditions during in vitro optimization processes to determine the most appropriate reaction conditions (Wei & Wang 2013). Furthermore, nanozymes are reported to have been used successfully in biosensing applications. A number of studies have also been done to elucidate the kinetics and reaction machinery of nanozymes. All these factors point toward the possibility of customized nanozymes for specific biosensing applications.
It is hypothesized that nanozymes can be used as effective biosensors of the human brain in vivo. If highly specific nanozymes that target important brain biomarkers such as glucose and calcium are developed, it will be possible to sense the levels of these molecules and study the structure and function of the brain. Furthermore, given that nanozymes can respond to different light wavelengths and elicit diverse enzymatic activities, it will be possible to use the developed nanozymes to study different physiological processes of the brain by simply altering the wavelength of light applied.
Methodology
The study would be conducted in three key stages of nanomaterial synthesis, characterization, and optimization of conditions. The materials, methods, chemicals, and techniques are specified for each stage of the process. The imidazole framework (ZIF-8) would be used. An aqueous solution of 0.5M zinc acetate (2 ml) would be poured into a similar volume of 2M 2-methylimidazole. The mixture would be stirred at room temperature overnight, leading to the formation of a white precipitate, which would be centrifuged and cleaned using anhydrous ethanol and deionized water. The product would then be vacuum-dried for 12 hours at 80oC. The nanozyme hemin@ZIF-8 would then be prepared by assimilating a hemin molecule into the ZIF-8 framework during the first chemical reaction. About 20 μL of 20 mM hemin dissolved in dimethylsulfoxide would be added to the reaction mixture. Other nanozymes would be prepared in the same way by adding 30 μL of 20 mg/mL GOx aqueous solution, 20 μL of 20 mM hemin and 30 μL of 20 mg/mL GOx, and 20 μL of 20 mM hemin and 30 μL of 2 mg/mL GOx-FITC for GOx@ZIF-8, GOx/hemin@ZIF-8, and GOx-FITC/hemin@ZIF-8, in that order (Cheng et al. 2016).
Characterization of the nanozymes would then be done by assessing specific enzyme activities. For example, a peroxidase chromogenic substrate (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) would be used to determine the enzymatic potential of hemin@ZIF-8 by adding 5 μL of the nanozyme to Tris-HCl buffer with hydrogen peroxide and ABTS at a pH of 7 and incubating at body temperature (37oC) for 20 minutes. The nanozyme would then be separated from the product via centrifugation, followed by measurement of the product through colorimetric analysis. Conversely, the activity of INAzyme would be determined by quantifying the oxidation of glucose and ABTS. The in vitro activity of the nanozyme would be ascertained by subjecting it to varying glucose concentrations in artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF). A simulation of the in vivo nanozyme activity would be done by sampling microdialysate from the striatum of the living human brain and measuring its glucose concentration as described by Cheng et al. (2016).
The final step of optimization would be done in an online sensing platform based on INAzyme activity. In vivo microdialysis would be coupled with a microfluidic chip and a fluorescent detection system. The nanozymes would be restrained within the microfluidic chip in a microchannel. Brain microdialysates would be sampled continuously via a pump using aCSF as the perfusion solution at a rate of 1 μL/min. This step would enable the fluorescent detection of glucose by supplying a peroxidase substrate such as an Ampliflu Red solution at the same flow rate. A T-joint would be used to mix the peroxidase substrate and microdialysates online. The mixture would then be sent to the microchip containing immobilized INAzyme to react and generate fluorescent resorufin for subsequent detection.
The above method is valid and reliable because it has been tested successfully on mice’s brains. Most human studies in clinical research are usually based on the success achieved through mice studies. Consequently, it is expected that the outcomes will compare favorably when using human samples. The potential limitation of the method is that differences in the specific affinities of human and mouse substrates could alter the outcomes. It would not be possible to conduct reperfusion surgery and living brain ischemia studies on human subjects.
Chen, Z, Wang, Z, Ren, J & Qu, X 2018, ‘Enzyme mimicry for combating bacteria and biofilms’, Accounts of Chemical Research, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 789-799.
Cheng, H, Zhang, L, He, J, Guo, W, Zhou, Z, Zhang, X, Nie, S & Wei, H 2016, ‘Integrated nanozymes with nanoscale proximity for in vivo neurochemical monitoring in living brains’, Analytical Chemistry, vol. 88, no. 10, pp. 5489-5497.
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Since ancient times, music has been one of the most popular art forms attracting people. If various emotional and regulatory inputs guide the human in distinct ways, the internal result may be a large number of subjectively experienced feeling states. The emotional power of music may arise from auditory inputs from the inferior underlying emotional circuits. Music may simulate the comfort derived from audio-vocal contact. This may be one of the reasons people love music — it keeps them company.
Comforting effects produced by music can be almost completely eliminated by stimulating the glutamate receptor system with intraventricular injections of kainic acid, which can also increase vocalizations in the absence of mirrors (Breitling 770). Music makes the brain happy, influencing emotions. From a physiological perspective, the emotional distress that accompanies major psychiatric disorders is probably more closely linked to the changing dynamics of underlying emotional systems than to the cognitive systems in which we most commonly see the symptoms. Following Rose (23) might transient arousals of separation distress response systems are felt during certain aesthetic experiences. One of the most intriguing manifestations of separation distress in the human brain may reflect a powerful response many of us have to certain types of music.
It is widely recognized that music is the language of emotions. It is one of the few ways that humans can allow the external world voluntary access to their emotional systems on a very regular basis. Most people listen to music for the emotional richness it adds to our lives. We even love to hear sad songs — especially bittersweet songs of unrequited love and loss (Breitling et al 765). A common physical experience that people report when listening to such moving music, especially melancholy songs of lost love and longing, as well as patriotic pride from music that commemorates lost warriors, is a shiver up and down the spine, which often spreads down the arms and legs, and, indeed, all over the body (Sloboda, 110). To the best of our knowledge, this response reflects a mixture of vasoconstriction, local skin contractions caused by piloerection, and perhaps changes in evaporative cooling at the skin surface. Such effects can be objectively measured as a galvanic skin response (GSR), which is a general yardstick of skin resistance. Of course, there is great variability in the incidence of this response. Some people rarely recognize such feelings in their lives, while others, probably the more social ones, delight in them frequently.
“Kohut and Levarie (1950) claimed that music associated with frightening sounds stimulates the ego to deal with the resultant defensive anxiety by organizing and transforming it into recognizable forms; thus, the pleasure of mastery indirectly becomes the pleasure of listening to music” (cited Rose 47).
Females typically recognize that melancholic music is more likely to produce positive emotions phenomenon than happy pieces, while males more commonly suggest that happy music is the cause. Sad music does, in fact produce more emotions than does happy music, even in males. Conversely, those pieces of music that produce more emotions are typically rated as sad rather than happy by listeners (Breitling 765). People tend to have much more emotional to pieces they themselves have selected, which may reflect the rich networks of associations people have to music they have enjoyed often (Strickland 100). “As for major creativity, it perpetuates the child’s imaginative, restless probing of reality, resampling early, less differentiated stages of imagination and reintegrating them with the realistic perspective of the adult in order, finally, perhaps, to recompose reality refreshingly” (cited Rose 48).
An intriguing possibility is that a major component of the poignant feelings that accompany the music are sounds that may acoustically resemble separation — the primal cry of being lost or in despair. In other words, a high-pitched, sustained crescendo capable of piercing the “soul” seems to be an ideal stimulus for evoking chills. A single instrument, like a cello or trumpet, emerging from a soft orchestral background is equally provocative. Thus, the emotions listeners experience during music may represent the natural tendency of emotional brain systems, especially those that are tuned to the perception of social happiness, to react with an appropriate homeostatic thermal response (Strickland 100). When people are happy, they feel joy — not only physically but also as a neurosymbolic response to social separation. As mentioned earlier, the roots of the social, motivational system may be strongly linked to thermoregulatory systems of the brain. Thus, when people hear the sound of someone who is happy, they also feel joy and delight. This may be nature’s way of promoting reunion. In other words, the experience of separation establishes an internal feeling of thermoregulatory discomfort that can be alleviated by the warmth of reunion (Thompson 67).
In all cultures and historical periods, music has played an important role as a transmitter of emotions and feelings. The study of music has profound consequences for understanding the psychology and neurobiology of human emotions (Breitling 765). Just as each basic mammalian emotion can be expressed in many ways in human cultures — including dance, drama, music, and other arts — arousal of a single basic ludic circuit could add “fun” to the diversity of playful activities. In other words, music impulses that are processed through the higher cognitive networks of the human cortex may result in many seemingly distinct forms of human joy (Thompson 67). The common denominator for all, however, may arise from basic neuronal systems that were originally designed to generate ludicity.
“We are not just emotionally moved by the music we enjoy, but the emotions actually appear to flow directly from the music. Even as we recognize that the information triggering the feelings is encapsulated within the well-interpreted score, the resulting mood changes arise from the dynamic responses of our brain” ((Panksepp, 1999:33 cited Rose 48).
Once people unravel the details of circuits, their role in other forms of music can be evaluated. These interactions may constitute affective consciousness. This foundation process was first laid out in stable motor coordinates within the brain stem. It not only helps guide many higher perceptual processes by promoting attentional focus and perceptual sensitivity but also may provide fundamental stability for the psychological “binding” that is characteristic of the perceptual field (Thompson 67). Presumably, this foundation process is not directly influenced by higher contents of consciousness, although it may be strongly and automatically modified by various other influences — by conditioned emotional triggers, y meditation, music, dance, and probably a variety of other rhythmic sensory-motor inputs and activities.
By directly modifying the intrinsic neurodynamics of the self, emotional circuits establish the conditions by which the essential neural conditions for affective consciousness are created. The mesencephalic roots of the self, through its many neural connections with higher brain areas, help us envision, albeit dimly, the emergence of higher forms of self-consciousness (Zeki 71). Hence, certain types o music, such as the pulsing rhythms of rock and roll, may help simulate a sexual neural reverberation in the brain, promoting energetic forms of dance with strong pelvic movements. Other rhythms may promote the expression of other effects that can be expressed in dance or simply felt. Positive emotions and happiness may reflect a sound-induced change within the neural representation of the primal self (Zeki 71; Stewart 196).
Finally, the most important and impressive influence of disease on artistic work is when it makes the whole character more serene, the keynote more profound. The great composers find ways to induce even more complex emotional states (Thompson 67). This makes it possible for them, like authors and artists, to describe the pain and express suffering in their work. In the St. Matthew Passion, Johann Sebastian Bach makes us feel the lashes tormenting Christ on Golgotha through agitated cadences while subdued strings express the lament of women in the background. Bodily symptoms are difficult to translate into music, and the interpretation of the syncopated leading rhythm in the first movement of Mahler’s ninth symphony as “the irregular beats of a diseased heart” seems romantic (Stewart 196). There is more and better support for the idea that the gleeful Haydn once gave a far from a subtle musical expression of a natural body noise! This is supposedly done with a brief Solo in the Largo of his 93rd symphony where, after preparing the scene with soft music, one instrument after another losing its way, he suddenly makes two bassoons together hammer out fortissimo the long-sought for bottom C. Delighted with emitting the naughty joke he merrily danced away in the welter of a Menuetto. Music also possesses a capacity for appeasing uneasy minds, dispelling the “spirit of Saul,” or in the words of the 18th-century playwright Congreve, “music hath charms to soothe the savage breast” (Breitling 187).
It may also excite, and the effect can be measured in changes in pulse rate and blood pressure. This may have striking consequences: no less than three orchestral leaders are said to have collapsed over a particular passage in Wagner’s Tristan and von Karajan needed an ambulance to take him home after he had conducted the opera for the first time. Beethoven was, however, not always guided by patience. In the Appassionata, he bares his soul and gives free rein to despair and a heaven-storming defiance of his lamentable infirmity. On the whole he succeeded better in becoming a philosopher than his companions in misery, the unrestrained court-painter in Madrid and the venomous Dean from Dublin. For instance, it was under these circumstances that Beethoven composed the Pastoral Symphony, so elevated above human misery and distress; indeed perhaps he attained these heights by a superhuman effort to endure his disability (Breitling 670). It is pathetic to hear him rejoice in rendering the enchanting sounds of animated nature which he could hear only in memory. What he now heard, day and night, was a nasty throbbing. In his Fifth Symphony, Beethoven lets us understand and for a moment share his ordeal by representing it with monotonous beats on the kettle-drum against a subdued background in the strings, a musical “autopathography” (Rose 32),
It is possible to say that the same effects are produced by folk music which influences positive emotions and feelings in listeners. The deep tectal and underlying zones are more richly connected with frontal motor areas, where plans and intentions are generated, than with posterior sensory areas, where perceptions are constructed. Again, in selecting one or the other of these large cortical regions of the brain — sensory or motor -as being more closely linked with primal consciousness, the frontal cortex clearly has a great deal to commend it (Sloboda, 1991). To establish behavioral priorities in time, the frontal cortex needs to actively retrieve perceptual information from sensory cortices. It is also significant that more powerful personality changes result from frontal cortical damage than from comparable damage to posterior sensory areas. “Thus, this form of music became a bearer of historical memory, similar to the role of griots in many West African societies” (Stewart 196). This rhythm would reverberate through the body and, at a cultural level, find representation in the varieties of music stimulus. While forms of damage to many other higher areas of the brain can damage the “tools of consciousness” (Rose 65), they typically do not impair the foundation of intentionality itself. emotions do this with the smallest absolute destruction of brain tissue (Rose 198).
In sum, music is one of the powerful tools which affects certain areas of the brain and causes emotional pleasure. The connection between music and experience is more convincing in emotions. Music stimulates positive emotions and feelings of happiness, joy and delight. Among different kinds of music rhythms, there is a close relationship in terms of form as well as content, and they often develop side by side — this is hardly surprising since they are closely linked with the general pattern of cultural evolution.
Works Cited
Breitling, D., Guenther, W., & Rondot, P. Auditory perception of music measured by brain electrical activity mapping. Neuropsychologia 25 (1987): 765-774.
Rose, J. G, Between Couch and Piano: Psychoanalysis, Music, Art and Neuroscience. Brunner-Routledge, 2004.
Sloboda, J. Music structure and emotional response: Some empirical findings. Psychol. Music 19 (1991): 110-120.
Stewart, J.B. Message in the Music: Political Commentary in Black Popular Music from Rhythm and Blues to Early Hip Hop. The Journal of African American History, 90 (2005): 196.
Strickland, S.J. Music and the Brain in Childhood Development. Childhood Education, 78 (2001); 100.
Thompson, R.A. Early Brain Development and Social Policy. Policy & Practice of Public Human Services, 56 (1998): 67.
Zeki, S. Art and the Brain. Daedalus, 127 (1998); 71.
The most common types of psychiatric illnesses are depression, delirium, and dementia. All of them have a biological explanation behind brain changes, genetic predisposition, and neurotransmitters’ issues. Nevertheless, dementia is the only one that is actually not treatable. According to Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (2018), dementia is a “family of disorders” that involves behavioral and cognitive deficits due to permanent adverse changes to the brain structure and its functioning. It is usually related to older people, but dementia is not an element of normative aging, it is rather a mental illness. The main types of dementia and their behavioral implications would be discussed further in order to devise a proper care plan.
Main body
There are more than a dozen different types of dementia. Nevertheless, dementia with Lewy bodies, Alzheimer’s disease, and Vascular dementia are the most common ones (Oh & LaPointe, 2017). Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is caused by rapid microscopic changes in the brain, including neurofibrillary tangles, neuritic plaques, and abnormal cell death. According to Oh and LaPointe (2017), there are direct correlations between neuroanatomical conditions of different parts of the brain and patients’ behavioral functions. For instance, tissue loss in the cingulate cortex, frontal gyrus, and prefrontal cortex was correlated with disinhibition, apathy, eating disorders, and digressive motor behavior. Other behavioral changes in the early stages are irritability and depression. In later stages, patients may be aggressive, emotionally distressed, restless, suffer from hallucinations, delusions, and sundowning.
Vascular dementia (VD) is usually caused by brain damage following a stroke or heart attack, which leads to numerous small cerebral vascular accidents (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2018). As a result, the patient suffers from a rapid cognitive loss, but it is usually limited to specific abilities. The behavioral symptoms can differ because they depend on which part of the brain was impaired. However, the main symptoms are impaired judgment, memory, and motivation loss, deteriorated ability to plan. The third most common cause of dementia is Lewy body (DLB). It is a progressive illness that is usually combined with Parkinson’s disease and visual hallucinations. The white matter is more intensive in the brain of a patient with AD than with DLB, which points to behavioral changes (Oh & LaPointe, 2017). People who suffer from DLB have oscillating cognition with significant shifts in alertness and attention and experience spontaneous “parkinsonism.”
Despite being incurable, behavioral issues and cognitive deficits of AD can be alleviated with the help of medication and behavioral intervention strategies. The latter strategies are believed to be more appropriate due to their positive outcomes. Person A, a 72-year-old male, has AD and particularly suffers from aggressive outbursts, sleep problems, anxiety, and loss of planning. In that case, the caregiver has to apply a specific daily routine schedule with reminders that the affected person can easily follow. Taking into consideration that Person A is a retired sportsman, sports activities, such as walking in the park and playing active games outdoors, should be included. It will provide joy, a sense of accomplishment, and will significantly decrease anxiety. The differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior techniques can be applied to decrease aggression of the patient by rewarding calmness and accomplishment of other tasks that distract attention (Cavanaugh, & Blanchard-Fields, 2018). The caffeine intake has to be limited and bedtime established to solve the sleep issue.
Conclusion
In terms of hygiene, Person A fears taking a bath, so the bath should be prepared beforehand and contain a limited amount of water. Rails also can be installed what will bring about a sense of safety. Person A’s shaving should be supervised because he used to a traditional razor, which is dangerous in his current condition. Moreover, potentially dangerous items, such as tools, weapons, equipment, gas, and toxic materials, have to be locked up to increase patient safety.
References
Cavanaugh, J. C., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2018). Adult development and aging (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Oh, C., & LaPointe, L. (2017). Where is dementia? A systematic literature review exploring neuroanatomical aspects of dementia. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 2(15), 9-23.
Aging is an inevitable change in an organism characterized by a particular complexity. It is considered a natural part of life, but there is still so much to learn about this process. In particular, the human brain has been of remarkable interest to scientists at all times. The changes the brain undergoes while aging weakens its functions and can result in the development of cognitive disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease.
Main body
The aging process causes chemical changes in the human brain. Such phenomena as changed epithelium morphology of the choroid plexus and reduced CSF production affect brain function (Vandenbroucke, 2016). According to Vandenbroucke (2016), these deviations indicate the importance of the choroid plexus in the aging process of the brain. Apart from this, some physical changes in the brain occur. It is a known fact that the brain mass and the number of neurons decrease with time. Therefore, even without developed disorders, the performance of an older brain is significantly held back in comparison to the performance of a younger one.
Alternatively, the changes in the brain affected by Alzheimer’s have a different nature. According to Alzheimer’s Association (n.d), the main reason for the disease development might be the abnormal build-up of proteins that create plaques and tangles. They spread over the brain cortex and, thus, prevent the normal functioning of the cell transport system. Consequently, these changes result in tissue loss, and the brain shrinks gradually. In the advanced stages of the disease, the brain mass becomes smaller affecting the functioning of the brain. It is worth mentioning that, as Vandenbroucke (2016) states in her article, choroid plexus transplantation had positive effects on treating cognitive disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease. Therefore, further research on this field might be helpful in disease prevention.
Conclusion
To summarize, changes in the aging brain might be different, but some of them are harmful and can cause such deviations as Alzheimer’s disease and similar cognitive disorders. Aging is marked by a significant complexity and remains a subject of research for many scientists. So does the human brain as it controls the majority of the activities of the body. Therefore, it is particularly important to understand the changes that happen in the brain with aging.
The problems of changes in the cognitive functions of the brain over time are one of the leading causes of depression, delirium, and dementia in older adults. Dementia can subsequently develop into Alzheimer’s disease, which is incurable, as well as in Parkinson’s disease, vascular dementia, and dementia with Lewy bodies (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2018). This paper aims to present a summary of what was learned during Week 1 and Week 2 and discuss how this information may help in providing healthcare for older people.
Main body
When treating Alzheimer’s disease, the correct diagnosis is critical, since in the early stages, its symptoms expressed in memory problems and decision-making, can sometimes be attributed to other conditions. Early changes can begin 20 years or more before diagnosis (“Inside the brain,” n.d.). In the middle stages, symptoms may include serious memory problems, and the inability to navigate in space. At later stages, a person completely loses the ability to recognize loved ones and the opportunity to take care of themselves.
The disease is caused by the accumulation of beta-amyloid plaques formed after the sudden death of nerve cells. Experts in neuroscience who are researching the problems of the aging brain are now working to identify various trends associated with reversible and irreversible brain changes. For example, specialists have found that cognitive changes in the brain of healthy older people are reversible through cognitive exercise (Chiu et al. 2017). Nonetheless, scientists have not yet clarified why the nerve cells start dying.
The above information is beneficial in terms of working with older patients. In particular, understanding the reasons why older patients are more prone to depression helps to reduce the level of anxiety towards the patient by the caregiver. Timely medication or psychotherapeutic treatment of depression is also critical, since patients may not detect it and usually associate its symptoms with other circumstances. It is also extremely informative that for older patients with depression, psychotherapeutic treatment, such as behavioral and cognitive behavioral therapy, may be more effective than drug treatment.
Conclusion
Thus, the summary of the main points learned was presented as well as a discussion of how this information may help in providing healthcare for older people. The most common diseases associated with changes in cognitive functions of the brain are depression, delirium, and dementia. Correct and timely diagnosis, as well as appropriate treatment, can make life easier for many older patients, as well as their caregivers.
References
Cavanaugh, J. C., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2018). Adult development and aging. Cengage Learning.
Chiu, H. L., Chu, H., Tsai, J. C., Liu, D., Chen, Y. R., Yang, H. L., & Chou, K. R. (2017). The effect of cognitive-based training for healthy older people: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS One, 12(5).
Undoubtedly, the issue of whether or not the training of brains by use of computer programs leads to beneficial effects on subjects is a hotly debated topic. Despite the existence of this raging debate, the world has not established whether such computer games facilitate improvement in computer skills for different groups of subjects – both old and young. Specifically, it has not exhaustively been proven that such computer games lead to marked improvements in cognitive skills, such as reasoning, learning, and memory (Fernandez, & Goldberg, 2009). As such, commentators and critics have been ideologically divided into 2 groups; with one holding that computer brain training leads to enhancement of certain mental skills, for instance, reasoning, learning, and memory, while the other opposes this view. What remains is thus a debate whose resolution remains obscure. A closer scrutiny of the arguments advanced by both groups however indicates that the opposing group appears to be more believable. These arguments and the ensuing counterarguments stem from various studies as enumerated in the following discourse.
To illustrate, Adrian Owen – an opposing neuroscientist – conducted a six-week online study whose outcomes indicated that computer training does not enhance cognitive abilities. Owen’s research did not witness even a single participant improving any of their learning, reasoning, and memory mental abilities. In addition, this study did not prove that re-coaching in a single brain task area shifted to other regions such as those linked to age-linked mental deterioration (Wiley Online Library, 2010). Owen refuted claims that practice in certain mental tasks improves mental abilities, adding that such allegations lacked empirical evidence.
In line with Owen’s conclusions, Peter J. Snyder – a neuroscientist with Brown University’s Warren Alpert Medical School – noted that Owen’s study design had several limitations. For this reason, Snyder observes that Owen’s study derived the correct answer but for the wrong reasons. To demonstrate, Snyder opines that Owen’s research was not meant to evaluate improvements among older people. This concept derives from the choice of participants in Owen’s study. Snyder notes that Owen’s participants consisted of TV viewers having their own personal computers. This participant group is more likely to comprise young computer skilled persons as opposed to older people who are more prone to mental deterioration. In addition, Snyder notes a flaw in Owen’s research, namely, the limited intensity of the training sessions that would not reliably affect changes in cognition (Katsnelson, 2010).
In addition, Snyder led a group of researchers to conduct a Meta analysis regarding the medical proof on brain training among older persons who are prone to Alzheimer’s disease. From this study, Snyder and his team did not find any proof that controlled mental intervention programs slow or delay the onset of Alzheimer’s dementia among healthy aged persons. For this reason, Snyder concludes that mental retraining promises no better results than related general methods – notably pursuing hobbies or exercising – that are advocated for maintaining brain sharpness (Sousa, 2005). In this regard, Snyder observes that organized intervention technology is limited in that it fails to lead to substantial benefits over and above those resulting from conventional recuperation methods. The neuroscientist thus concludes that habitual aerobic exercises are significantly better with regard to scope and quality. In relation with this concept, Snyder explains that the important issue is whether or not retraining is able to safeguard cognition as well as whether or not the resulting modifications can last or be transmitted to related brain performance areas (Wiley Online Library, 2010). The neuroscientist then notes that the proof is overwhelming with physical exercises.
With a view to putting dampers on Owen’s study, Glenn E. Smith – a Mayo Clinic neuropsychologist – concurs with Snyder that Owen’s study’s participants’ demographics constrain the relevance of the resultant findings. Further, Smith notes that the exercise regimen employed in Snyder’s study limits the relevance of the results. This is in relation with the fact that in the study, only twenty-four aged people were involved. Moreover, the aged persons were trained for approximately four hours over a six-week period. Smith also notes the age of Owen’s participants limited the significance of the study. To expound, Smith observes that Owen’s participants had a mean age of above forty years, with about 50% being younger. To expose the flaw in Owen’s study design, Smith explains that cognitive functioning remains stable until one is over forty years. For this reason, Smith notes that Owen’s subjects were mostly at the prime of their mental capabilities. Smith notes that people aged above sixty years are the ones who normally experience mental degradation, observing that this is the ideal group that should be studied. Smith also notes that in Owen’s study, the young age of most of the participants evidently tilted the observations in their subjects’ favor (Wiley Online Library, 2010). This is because the young subjects have more responsive brains besides being more conversant with computers.
To effectively demonstrate the design limitations in Owen’s study, Smith conducted the 8-week Memory with Plasticity-Based Adaptive Cognitive Training (IMPACT) study that included only older people (500) besides subjecting participants to more brain training. In this study, the aged persons were trained for one hour every day for five days every week. Fifty-percent of the participants employed a commercial mind training program (Chiao, 2009). Smith’s study saw participants who employed the commercial mind training program significantly improving in their attention and memory abilities.
This discourse has thus proven that the brain game training debate is so far inconclusive as no definite research has been conducted. The existing research and evidence however shows that brain game training has no verifiable benefits with regard to improving cognitive abilities.
References
Chiao, J. Y. (2009). Cultural neuroscience: Cultural influences on brain function. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Fernandez, A., & Goldberg, E. (2009). The sharp brains guide to brain fitness: 18 interviews with scientists, practical advice, and product reviews, to keep your brain sharp. San Francisco, CA: SharpBrains.com.