Category: Brain

Introduction

Broca’s area and its importance

While discussing how the language areas of the human brain are organized, it is necessary to consider some fundamentals concerning the interdependence between language and brain. First of all, there is a need to point out that the functions of language and their relation to the human brain were studied under abnormal circumstances, including brain damage, the effects of medicine on the brain, etc.

As far as scientists studied the relationship between language disorders and brain damage, one can conclude that scientists became familiar with each language area of the human brain. One of the most widespread speech disorders, which are caused by brain damage, is aphasia. The first man who started to study the interdependence between brain damage and language disorders was a Frenchman Paul Broca.

He identified “the third frontal gyrus of the cerebral cortex”, which is considered to be one of the language areas (Geschwind 2). This area controls not only the tongue, but the whole system of speech production, including the muscles of the face. The portion of the brain is known as the motor face area. However, one is to keep in mind that damage of Broca’s area does not lead to paralysis of face muscles and serious language disorders.

It can cause only mild weakness of the vocal cords. For this reason, one can conclude that the motor face area can be also controlled by the opposite side of the brain. At the end of the 19^th century, Broca found that damage of the left half of the brain can cause certain disorders of spoken language; while damage of the right half of the brain does not impact on language abilities. This fact was confirmed by eight cases of the most common language disorder.

Wernicke’s aphasia

Another interesting issue, which should be noted, is that a person whose Broca’s area is damaged can sing songs. For this reason, it becomes evident that a mental condition, in which people are often unable to remember simple words or communicate, cannot be regarded as the result of the motor face area paralysis. In 1874, a new approach concerning a well-known language disorder appeared.

Thus, Carl Wernicke, who worked as a junior assistant in neurological centre, was well familiar with Broca’s conclusions on aphasia. However, he pointed out that damage of the left hemisphere of the human brain, which is placed outside the third frontal gyrus of the cerebral cortex can cause a language disorder differing from a disorder described by Broca.

For instance, one is to keep in mind that Broca’s aphasia is characterized by the so-called telegraphic speech (thereby, a person who suffers from aphasia cannot speak fast, the endings of verbs and nouns are usually omitted, it is extremely difficult to build long sentences and use sequence of tenses); while Wernicke’s aphasia seems to represent the opposite state, when a person’s speech is not low, grammar and articulation are not neglected, and the rhythm of the speech is also preserved.

However, a person who suffers with Wernicke’s aphasia relies on circumlocutory phrases, in order to build a sentence. For example, a patient can say: “Before I was in the one here, I was over in the other one. My sister had the department in the other one” (Geschwind 4). While speaking, a person who suffers from Wernicke’s aphasia uses descriptive ways to communicate. Thus, knife can be determined as “a thing, which is used to cut bread, meat, etc”.

Moreover, Wernicke’s language disorder is also characterized by verbal and literal paraphasia. Verbal paraphasia is considered to be a kind of a language disorder, when a person substitutes a word for another one, which has related or unrelated meaning.

For instance, the word fork can be replaced by the word spoon, or the word table can be replaced by the word chair. Literal paraphasia is a kind of a language disorder, when a person substitutes correct sounds for incorrect ones. For instance, the word wrench can be replaced by the word bench.

The key functions of Broca’s and Wernicke’s regions

One more difference between Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s language disorder is that damage of Broca’s area may cause no consequences in relation to speech comprehension; however, Wernicke is of completely different opinion, as he states that damage of the left hemisphere outside the third frontal gyrus of the cerebral cortex can lead to a severe loss of speech understanding.

Wernicke explains the phenomenon by the connections between the language areas. Thus, it is necessary to notice that both areas are connected by the articulate fasciculus. Taking into account the fact that Wernicke’s area receives auditory stimuli, it becomes obvious that the repetition of some words influences a bundle of nerve fibers and the auditory patterns are relayed to the third frontal gyrus.

On the other hand, written language comprehension depends upon the connections between the visual area of the human brain and its speech regions. The angular gyrus is the portion of the brain, which is responsible for the function.

So, when a person hears a word, one can make a conclusion that a word is accepted by Wernicke’s area. On the other hand, if a word is spoken, one can conclude that it is Broca’s area, which works. While speaking the muscles of the speech are controlled by the motor area. If one is to spell a word, the auditory patterns are relayed to the angular gyrus, which irritates Wernicke’s area.

In other words, it seems to be obvious that speech comprehension depends upon both Broca’s area and Wernicke’s region. If one of the portions of the brain is damaged, certain functions of language seem to be also broken. Taking into account the connections between both areas, one can suppose that the only way deaf people accept language is written; so, Wernicke’s area does not perform any functions.

Actually, there is a need to point out that “sign languages are highly structured linguistic systems with all the grammatical complexity of spoken languages” (Hickok et al., 48). The most interesting fact, however, is that deaf people can learn foreign sign languages and they can sign a second or a third foreign language with a foreign accent.

The principal difference between sign and spoken languages is that sign languages are based on visual-spatial changes; while spoken languages are based on acoustic-temporal ones. Generally, it is necessary to point out that certain damages of Wernicke’s area can cause serious problems with both written and spoken languages.

Thus, one can probably notice that some people cannot reproduce (speak or repeat) certain words, sentences, etc. Moreover, they cannot write correctly. If in such cases a person’s speech is still fluent, the third frontal gyrus seems to be intact. On the other hand, if Broca’s area is damaged, a person’s speech will be slow and labored. One is to take into account that if the damage were in Wernicke’s opposite area, the level of comprehension would remain the same.

The lesions in other portions of the brain can cause other types of aphasia. For instance, if Wernicke’s area is disconnected with Broca’s area, a person can speak fluently; however, his or her speech will be still abnormal. In other words, one can imagine that both areas are preserved, but they do not interact with each other. Thus, it is obvious that there are the channels between the areas, which are damaged.

Several arteries provide cerebral portions of the human brain with blood. The middle cerebral artery provides the speech centers of the brain with blood. The visual portions of the brain are nourished by the posterior cerebral artery.

Inadequate oxygen supply is usually observed in the so-called border zones. “Isolation of speech area by a large C-shaped lesion produced a remarkable syndrome in a woman who suffered from severe carbon monoxide poisoning” (Geschwind 5). The kind of damage led to inability to understand the semantic meaning of words; although new lexical unites could be easily remembered.

Conclusion

“In human beings, it is the left hemisphere that usually contains the specialized language areas” (Boeree par. 2). The inability to produce speech is usually caused by certain damages of the human brain. The most widespread language disorders include Wernicke’s aphasia, Broca’s aphasia, alexia, agraphia, dyslexia.

The last three disorders are caused by damages of the angular gyrus. Thus, if a person experiences some difficulties with reading, one can conclude that he or she suffers from dyslexia. Agraphia is a kind of a language disorder, when a person cannot write. A person’s inability to read is called alexia.

Works Cited

Boeree, George. Speech and the Brain, 2004. Web. <http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/speechbrain.html>.

Geschwind, Norman. Language and the Brain, 1972. Web.

Hickok, Gregory, Ursula Bellugi, and Edward Klima. Sign Language in the Brain, 2002. Web. <http://lcn.salk.edu/publications/2008/HIckok_Sci_Amer_SI_2002.pdf>.

Introduction

Medical and physical treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) cannot fully stand alone in restoration of a patient’s health in many cases. An additional program based on cognitive behaviour is also required for mental and emotional stability. Both programs, however, are only aimed at restoring the patient into their maximum achievable potential rather than taking the patients to their original capability.

The programs involve a holistic approach that conclusively is based on family, neuropsychologists, psychiatrists, teachers and nurses’ participation. From the case study, a life care plan can be drawn for improvement of her health.

Neuropsychiatric Examination

The patient should be scheduled regularly to neurologist and psychiatrist evaluation for health follow up. The frequency of these appointments will be different based on the patient’s conditions. Evaluations are necessary for suggestions on appropriate intervention measures following the patient’s new heath conditions (Thurman, Alverson, & Dunn, 1999).

Holistic Approach

The therapy program should be conclusive and not divided into segments. From the case study, the patient faces problems in general of situations hence the process of her rehabilitation needs a complete individual approach. All therapies i.e. speech therapy should be conducted in all settings and not only in one area, for instance, when the patient is seated.

The therapies should be focused on mastery development and recognitions. However, cognitive therapies should be carried out in a home setting or familiar places to enable the patient to easily conceptualize with the aid of her environment. Her lessons need to be scheduled at least twice a week (Thurman et al., 2005)

Administration of Group Therapy

The patient needs to identify herself with others. This is vital for individualistic development. This can be conducted twice a week. Interaction should involve discussions and plays. This also acts as her learning ground on what is going around. The goal of socialization programs is to alleviate emotions such as anger and depression. Group therapy needs to involve a population of survivors of traumatic brain injury. This will enable the patient to develop a positive attitude towards her ambitions and goals (Thurman et al., 2005).

Structured Life Pattern

Neuropsychological individuals need tough schedules in their lives. Follow up of schedules like; waking up, taking breakfast, shopping and learning terms should be tightly structured. This ensures that the brain is put in auto pilot hence it gets accustomed to such schedules and enhances creativity, novelty in diverse areas and memory development.

Scheduling will control her sleeping habit such as reducing daytime sleeping. Additionally, she will be able to control her eating habit as well. Schedules also reduce forgetfulness among the patients. Additionally, tight structures reduce constant decision making processes thus injured individual’s capabilities increases (Thurman et al., 2005)

Familiar Setting

Neuropsychological patients find difficulties in generalizing new information as well as learning new things. Familiar settings encourage their brain developments and recall capacities, which enhance the learning process. The patient care program should be carried out in her community and home setting (Thurman et al., 2005).

Conclusion

The patient needs repeated neuropsychological evaluations to monitor her progress; these can be carried out within a year or two. The evaluation is important to enable the neuropsychiatric to determine the level of progress made by the intervention program.

The screenings normally carried out include; post trauma, educational screening, job employment and transition and the possibility of developing dementia. Under well supervision system, this life care plan will enable the patient to gradually regain her maximum psychological potential. Additionally, the program should be carried out throughout the patient’s life.

Reference

Thurman, D., Alverson, C. & Dunn, K. (1999). Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States: A public Health Perspective. Journal of Head Trauma and Rehabilitation, 14(6), 602-615.

Educational neuroscience is an upcoming field of science that brings together scholars and researchers in educational psychology, cognitive neuroscience, education theory, and developmental cognitive neuroscience among other related disciplines in exploring the various interactions that exist between education theory and biological processes.

Neuroscientific research is arguably one of the major areas of study which have continued to draw increased human concern and attention in the world. According to Goswami (2007), Neuroscience plays the key role of bridging the gap between the two disciplines, through a more direct form of dialogue between educators and researchers who work together to bring light in the understanding of how the brain functions.

Educational neuroscience plays the significant role of emphasizing the overall understanding of the various codes of neuroscience as it is applied in the modern world of scientific study of the human mind and the brain. In that case, the discipline has presently continued to receive great support and concern from both educators in the field and cognitive neuroscientists.

As a result of this heightening concern, various academic institutions from allover the world have expressed their willingness to play an active role in supporting the study of educational neuroscience. The contents of this paper reveal how findings in neuroscientific study and recent discoveries on the functions of the brain impact differentiation in the classroom.

It is obviously clear that educators ought to be informed about developments in the brain research and the recent big concern of neuroscientific study meets this requirement in a more realistic approach, thus forming an impressive potential at increasing human understanding of learning and teaching.

However, educators should always try to be cautious about the current explosion of neuroscientific research, and they should go for only those findings and observations that are well established. Neuroscientific research offers a diversity of findings on how the brain learns and these insights, even though not all of them would be close to perfection, helps educators to strengthen their knowledge, thus establishing positive grounds for further learning (Sousa & Tomlinson, 2011).

From these diverse findings, both educators and learners are able to construct their own understanding on the possible relationships. These observations raise many connections through which new opportunities of combining theory and practice are applied. This way, avenues for new knowledge are highly encouraged and facilitated.

More importantly, neuroscience research provides a pool of information and insights which could assist educators in making the right decisions regarding those assessment and instructional choices that are likely to be more effective in enhancing the concepts in the discipline.

The insights into the learning process, offered by research findings plays a key role in affirming the importance of differentiation. The comprehensive study in neuroscience provides endless remarkable discoveries on the way the human brain learns. The practice widely supports the application of differentiated student learning in class, thus facilitating their understanding of the concepts. This also offers a more reliable basis upon which students are able to place their own interpretations.

The approach is certain to encourage a more strategic approach and planning on both the educators and the students. Differentiation, as observed in many recent findings and discoveries plays a significant task in bringing useful insights into the process of learning (Bessant, 2008). For instance, research offers uncountable theories and explanations on the way the human brain learns.

Students, in their regular attempts to practically confirm these observations, end up experiencing further on the topic, thus collecting more observations and ideas along the way. With the possible connections of their understanding in most of these findings, students are encouraged to embark on a more learning practice that would enable them to come closer to the reality in what they are trying to learn in class.

Research findings and observations can exclusively be applied to offer a systematic focus and impact to learning. Educators in all levels of study can utilize various strategies or practices to translate research findings into more useful strategies that can be used to enhance student understanding in class.

One way by which educators can translate research findings into teaching strategies is by incorporating instructional activities in addressing the research findings. Educators can also assess various research findings that tend to provide a more concise approach to the understanding of the concepts and try to analyze them further, to establish any connections with what they are trying to teach about the functions of the human brain and how it learns.

Educators can also translate research findings into useful learning strategies that can aid in establishing effective learning grounds. The many different observations perceived through the study of neuroscience normally provides a perfect guidance on the direction which educators should take in addressing their students in a more convenient way that would enable them understand better.

Another useful way of translating research observations into useful teaching and learning strategies is by trying to come up with ways of proving the observed findings before coming into final conclusions about them.

References

Bessant, J. (2008). Hard wired for risk: Neurological science, the adolescent brain and developmental theory. Journal of Youth Studies, 11(3), 347-360.

Goswami, U. (2007). Educational neuroscience: Defining a new discipline for the study of mental representations. Mind, Brain, and Education, 1(3), 114-127.

Sousa, D. &Tomlinson, C. (2011). Differentiation and the brain. Bloomington: Solution Tree Press.

How Drugs Get into the Brain

Essentially, drugs constitute of chemicals (Brick & Erickson, 1999). When an individual takes drugs, the body absorbs the chemical substance of the drugs into the bloodstream. In the bloodstream, the circulating blood takes the chemical component of the drugs into the brain where they exert their effect.

The effect of a drug therefore depends on the amount of active ingredient of the drug that is absorbed into the bloodstream and reaches the brain (Brick & Erickson, 1999). In consequence, the amount of drug that an individual takes determines the effect.

For instance, at a very low dose the effects of a drug may not be realized. Once a certain level of concentration of drugs in the bloodstream is reached, the effect is realized. The point at which a drug starts to have effect on the body is known as its threshold.

Beyond the threshold, the effect of a drug increases with increase in active ingredient of the drug in the bloodstream. The effect however does not increase infinitely but reach a maximum point. At very high doses however, the effects of drugs can be extreme or even fatal.

As aforementioned, drugs reach the brain through the bloodstream. The amount and the rate at which drugs get into the bloodstream therefore impact on their effects. Besides the dose, the effect of a drug in depended on how it gets into the body. The common ways in which people take drugs include smoking (inhalation), snorting, injection and orally (Brick & Erickson, 1999).

The effects of drugs that are inhaled or injected into the body are realized quickly. When inhaled, the lungs absorb the active ingredient of a drug and take it directly to the heart. Once in the heart, a drug then gets into the bloodstream and travels to the brain. Similarly, drugs that are injected intravenously get directly into the bloodstream and their effects can be realized in a short time.

On the other hand, drugs that are taken by snorting and oral ingestion are absorbed through the mucous membranes, and the stomach and intestine, respectively. As a result, drugs that are inhaled or taken orally get into the bloodstream slowly and their effects are a bit slow.

Effect of Drugs on Brain Chemistry

Once in the body, drugs interfere with how the brain normally works. Almost all drugs of abuse such as Cocaine and Marijuana target the reward system of the brain (Brick & Erickson, 1999). Drugs bring about their effects by influencing release and absorption of neurotransmitters, especially dopamine.

As a result, drugs affect communication between neurons by influencing the level of dopamine (Hanson, Venturelli & Fleckenstein, 2006). Such drugs as nicotine, alcohol and heroin cause release of more dopamine in synapse part of the brain by motivating more action potentials within Ventral Tegmental Area. Other drugs such as crank and methamphetamine stimulate release of dopamine independent of action potentials.

As aforementioned, drugs interfere with normal working of the reward system in the brain. Under normal circumstances, reward circuit release dopamine in response to pleasurable experience (Hanson, Venturelli & Fleckenstein, 2006).

The dopamine neurotransmitter triggers the brain to pay attention and remember pleasurable experiences. When a drug gets into the brain, it interferes with the normal working of the system and cause high level of dopamine. The high level of dopamine then leads to the euphoric pleasure that is associated with drugs of abuse.

Reference List

Brick, J. & Erickson, C. (1999). Drugs, the brain, and behavior: the pharmacology of abuse and dependence. New York: Routledge.

Hanson, G., Venturelli, P. & Fleckenstein, A. (2006). Drugs and society. Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Brain is a complex phenomenon that can change in the process of life. This capacity of the brain to change is called brain plasticity. There are a number of factors that influence brain and lead to its changes. In their article “Brain Plasticity and Behavior”, Kolb, Gibb, and Robinson explain the nature of brain plasticity, consider the possible factors that lead to brain change, and arrive to the conclusion about the importance of studying brain plasticity.

Researchers estimate that capacity to change is one of the key characteristics of nervous system including brain. As a result of change in nervous system, brain is also changed, and so is behavior. Brain plasticity may lead to change in behavior both in normal and abnormal way. The nature of brain plasticity lies in the fact that behavior changes in response to certain alterations that occur in brain circuits. Those alterations are usually measured with the technique suggested by Camillo Golgi and allowing to estimate differences in synapses located in certain regions of brain.

As a result of studying brain change, it has been found out that experience is one of the leading factors that affect brain plasticity. Research shows that this experience can be both prenatal and postnatal. In addition, there is a whole range of other factors that have a significant impact on the neuronal structure and behavior. Among those factors are psychoactive drugs, gonadal hormones, and anti-inflammatory agents; growth, dietary, and genetic factors; certain diseases; stress; brain injury and leading disease (Kolb, Gibb, & Robinson 2).

When scientists conducted research of various age groups affected by the same factors, they discovered important qualitative differences in neuronal structure change between young and adult sample. Certain prenatal and postnatal experience had a clear long-term impact on neuronal structure as well. It was also noticed that different factors influence neuronal structure in different ways and to a different extent.

The results of research led scientists to several important conclusions. It has been shown that experience leads to changes in brain, and those changes are different for different age groups. Changes occur as a result of both prenatal and postnatal experience and may become obvious already at the adult stage of life. It is remarkable that seemingly similar experiences can lead to different consequences and changes in behavior.

Those behavior changes are results of alterations in neural circuits. And last but not least, for the best results the therapy that is aimed at correcting certain behavior should be constructed in such a way that it also alters corresponding brain circuitry. Therefore, when treating certain diseases, methods of screening brain circuitry can prove to be efficient since they help to predict behavioral models and alter them accordingly.

Together with achieving certain results, the study raises a number of significant issues that still require an answer. It is unknown exactly how various experiences alter behavior; whether brain plasticity is unlimited and permanent; whether there exists certain interaction between different plastic changes; and whether some plastic changes lead not only to normal but also to disordered behavior.

Those are the vital questions that require more in-depth research. When answers are obtained to those questions, it could be possible to work out solutions for treating a whole range of behavioral and psychological disorders and improve the lives of millions.

Works Cited

Kolb, Bryan, Robbin Gibb, and Terry E. Robinson. “Brain Plasticity and Behavior.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 12.1 (2003): 1–5. Print.

A description and criteria for Traumatic Brain Injury using DSM-IV-TR

According to the Center for Disease Control, a traumatic brain injury (TBI) occurs when an individual sustains a jolt to his head or a piercing head damage that interrupts the functions of human brain. The degree of TBI varies from mild to traumatic. Mild TBI occurs when a person loses consciousness for a short period.

Traumatic TBI on the other hand occurs when an individual experiences long-term period of unconsciousness that normally lead to amnesia. TBI can lead to a number of temporary and lasting emotional and behavioral regulation problems (Niehuser, 2009, p.1).

According to the DSM-IV-TR criteria, symptoms of TBI include dizziness, headache, blurred vision, lightheadedness, fatigue, alteration in sleeping patterns, ringing in the ears and mood swings (Niehuser, 2009, p.18).

TBI is catalogued according to the severity and mechanism of the damage.

There are three types of TBI:

• mild;
• moderate;
• severe.

Some indicators of mild TBI are:

• short-term loss of consciousnesses;
• memory loss;
• eyes open;
• headache;
• disorientation;
• brief spells of confusion.

Symptoms of moderate TBI include: incidences of brain inflammation or bleeding causing drowsiness; eyes open to stimulation; sluggishness; and spells of unconsciousness that last between 30 minutes to six hours.

During severe TBI, the victim losses consciousness for more than six hours and cannot open eyes, even when provoked.

The present Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR) has a partial classification structure with regard to the description of mild, moderate or traumatic TBI. Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is one of the frequently used severity classification systems to determine the degree of TBI.

The GCS scale is normally used for the preliminary assessment of TBI severity. It is an experimental prognostic pointer and helps in early assessment of the severity of brain damage. In Mary’s case, the GCS scale could have been used to determine whether she received any initial resuscitative measures by the poolside.

The GCS can be used to ascertain if Mary had any prior history of head injury. The GCS scale consists of simple form with yes/no/unknown content responses that the nurse could use to determine the severity of TBI experienced by Mary (Ara &Bhat, 2010, p.19).

The medical severity of intracranial damages is shown by the level of consciousness, determined by the GCS scale. In many cases, there is a close affinity between a low GCS score and poorer outcome.

In patient with severe TBI, the motor element of the GCS has the most prognostic value since the eye and verbal response in these patients is usually missing.

However, in Mary’s case, the predictive value of the eye and verbal elements of the GCS scale was significant because she was able to respond to verbal and tactile stimuli. She was also able to look at the nurses and moved her finger upon request.

Thus, the predictive value of the eye and verbal components of GCS is relevant in Mary’s case because she was able to obey instructions from the nurse (Lingsma & Roozenbeek, 2010, p.546).

Several methods are used to evaluate levels of intellectual functioning. To determine level of intellectual capability, most neuropsychologists utilize the WAIS-IV assessment tools that allow patients (like Mary) to carry on with subtest despite giving successive incorrect answers.

The WAIS-IV can thus be used to give adequate information concerning Mary’s cognitive abilities. TBI is usually characterized by memory loss. The WAIS-IV scale can be used to assess memory loss in Mary’s case.

The WAIS-IV scale was modified from WAIS-III since clinicians usually assess memory loss and intellectual capability simultaneously.

The WAIS-IV subset scores are merged into eight primary indexes that can be used in Mary’s case to test a series of memory functioning such as immediate memory, visual immediate, auditory immediate, auditory delayed, auditory recognition delayed, visual delayed and general memory and working memory.

Four complementary auditory processes composite can as well be computed to be employed in evaluating memory processes when stimuli are presented via auditory (Clinical Psychology, 2010, p. 35).

Visual–spatial abilities are vital for a wide variety of activities such as parallel parking a car, interpretation of a map and tossing a baseball from the outfield to a base. Majority of neuropsychologists that try to evaluate visual-spatial abilities assess performance on some WAIS-IV subtests, for example the Block Design subtest.

A number of exceptional tests of these abilities are also presented. For instance, the evaluation of Line Orientation Test obliges examinees (such as Mary) to point out the pair of lines on a response card that correspond to the two line on the stimulus card (Clinical Psychology, 2010, p. 36).

Several forms of TBI can also have an effect on knowledge of language. For example, Mary complained that when the class was given a writing assignment in English, all the other students finished on time but she had not even finished the introductory paragraph.

It is quite clear that the TBI she suffered affected her language skills. The WAIS-IV test however cannot be used to assess her language skills. The test would require that Mary repeat phrases, words and sentences to evaluate her articulation problems and word substitution.

Her language skills can be evaluated by the Receptive Speech Scale of the Luria- Nebraska. Mary would be required to react to verbal instructions.

On the other hand, the neuropsychologist may decide to refer Mary’s case to speech and language pathologists if the screening assessment shows that Mary has difficulties in language comprehension (Clinical Psychology, 2010, p. 36).

The use of Stroop Color and Word Task to assess cognitive functioning

The Stroop Color and Word Task can be used to evaluate cognitive speed and working memory in Mary’s case. Inhibition of automatic reading abilities is usually ascertained using the Stoop test. The test is made up of three cards, each having 10 rows of objects.

The initial card demands the examinee to read words that refer to some colors, for example, blue, red and yellow. The second card consists of squares printed in diverse colors (for example, a yellow square) and the examinee is required to identify the colors.

The last card contains words that denote to names of various colors but these words are presented in a different color from what the word stands for. The examinee is usually required to identify the color of the word in the third card (Hurks, 2003, p.128).

The Stroop test is assumed to gauge numerous facets of information processing such as concentration, response intrusion and inhibition. The Stroop test can also be used to assess Mary’s cognitive flexibility. Mary complained of poor concentration and memory loss while in class.

Her current level of cognitive abilities can thus be assessed using the Concept Shifting task. The task comprises of five cards. During the first phase, Mary could be offered card A&B and requested to strike out successively numbered circles in card A and then strike out similar number of successively lettered circles in card B.

In the third card (card C), Mary would be asked to strike out a similar number of repeatedly numbered and letter circles on the card by interchanging between the two series (for example, 1-A, 2-B,).

Lastly, in card 1-O and 2-O, Mary will be required to strike out the identical number of empty circles as fast as she can to assess her speed.

Thus, the concept shifting tests can be used to assess several features of information processing such as cognitive flexibility, attention, motor skills, visual formation and visual-motor tracking (Hurks, 2003, p.128).

Recommendations for accommodations and rehabilitation

Persons who suffer from a traumatic brain injury are usually compelled to make a lot of changes in their lives due to the injury. Normally, when the injury sustained is severe, comprehensive periods of psychotherapy are required before a child can resume learning.

Granted, many people do not regain their complete abilities and functioning they had before the brain injury. Nonetheless, with suitable support and sufficient accommodation, majority of TBI victims, including young children like Mary are able to resume employment or school and be successful.

For individuals with TBI, the idea of resuming work or studies may at first appear daunting. However, there are several suggestions that can simplify this process. For example, the Department of Vocational Rehabilitation (VR) offers services to TBI victims who intend to resume their duties at workplace.

VR psychotherapists offer job training, assist a TBI victim get a suitable position and provide them with necessary support to enable them succeed in their duties. The VR efforts to help TBI victims have been boosted by the Ticket to Work program.

The recipients of the program are now able to select an Employment Network to present services to enable them (TBI victims) access and preserve employment (Bubar, n.d., p.1).

Children who suffer from TBI are also taken care of. For instance, children who experience brain damage while pursuing their education are entitled for transition services associated to employment via Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.

The Area agencies that form a segment of the Developmental Services System have a duty to offer employment related services for TBI victims aged below 21. Moreover, the American with Disabilities Act (ADA) grants protects individuals and children with TBI related disabilities from all forms of discrimination.

The ADA provides for equal opportunities and rights for TBI victims with respect to their education and employment pursuits (Bubar, n.d., p.2).

All employment and education institutions are required by law to provide suitable accommodations to enable TBI employees and students (like Mary) work and learn successfully. For example, the school must modify the learning environment to enable the student with TBI disabilities learn better (Bubar, n.d., p.2).

This adjustments are necessary for the student because the effects of TBI diverge significantly over time and may affect the victim’s concentration threshold, balance coordination, emotional control and short or long-term memory. Accommodations must be availed to the affected student at no charges.

Some of these accommodations include:

• shortened learning hours; tape recorder for memory aid;
• adjusted equipment such as desk chairs;
• rest breaks to avert exhaustion and stimulus overwork; modified learning programs;
• availability of leisure places where the student can have a quite time alone (Bubar, n.d., p.3).

Thus, rational accommodation must be made when a TBI student participates in educational and extra-curriculum activities. Assistance such as sign language interpreters must be provided if the affect student requires them.

Developing a Prognosis for TBI victims

There are several factors to be considered when developing a prognosis. A diagnostic perspective is usually done in TBI cases and entails an evaluation of the probability of structural brain injury, developing an intracranial hematoma and providing suggestions for CT scanning.

For instance, a recent study utilized a prediction rule to make out a subset of individuals who had minimal risk for intracranial injury that CT scans not necessary.

These kind of diagnostic results are chiefly relevant among patients whose intracranial pressure is examined in the intensive care units but such predictive rules have not been established. For victims with moderate and severe TBI, the prognosis of clinical result is critically important (Lingsma & Roozenbeek, 2010, p.543).

Age is one of the major forecasters of mortality and functional result in TBI. According to numerous studies, old age is closely associated poor result. The correlation between age and outcome becomes progressively poor when the victim is aged above 35 years (Lingsma & Roozenbeek, 2010, p.544).

Other demographic features such as ethnicity and sex are also related with the outcome after the occurrence of TBI. For example, men are highly likely to face TBI due to their high propensity for road traffic mishaps (Lingsma & Roozenbeek, 2010, p.545).

The correlation between outcome and ethnic background after TBI generated contentious debates until a Meta analysis was carried out over 5300 patients from diverse cultures. The results of the study showed that black patients had a lower outcome compared to their Asian and White counterparts.

Although the basis for this correlation is provisional, they may be due to disparities in genetic composition, resulting in diverse reaction to brain injury and variations in access to medical care (Lingsma & Roozenbeek, 2010, p.545).

References

Ara, A. & Bhat, I. (2010). Traumatic Brain Injury; Case experience as a model for learning and literature review. Web.

Clinical Psychology. (2010). Methods of Neurological Assessment. Web.

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Lingsma, HF & Roozenbeek, B. (2010). Early prognosis in traumatic injury: from prophesies to predictions. Lancet Neurol Journal. 9, 543-554.

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Executive Summary

The human body system is highly complex. Most important, it adapts to meet various body needs through various functional systems. The nervous system, for instance, has some specialized functions. However, these functions are impaired when the system is injured. The purpose of this biological essay was to demonstrate how the human body system, specifically the nervous system, could enhance recovery after the brain injury as most neuroscience researchers have shown. After TBI or stroke, notable molecular, cellular, and network structures undergo regeneration to support and allow undamaged sections of the brain to reorganize and support impaired functions. These processes illustrate the adaptive and resilient nature of the human body system. There are recovery events that demonstrate plasticity of the brain, for instance. It is, however, imperative to note that adaptive could be beneficial or detrimental based on neurorehabilitative conditions (inhibiting or facilitating conditions). Today, neuroanatomical and neurophysiological alterations in the motor system triggered after an injury now offer novel ways to understand post-injury plasticity, as well as opportunities for therapeutic interventions for injured patients.

Introduction

The human body system has changed over time to transform itself into a complex ecosystem made up of complicated web of smaller sub-systems, each focused on meeting specific body requirements, individually and as an integrated unit. Generally, the system works without human cognition or intervention. However, any disruption of balance and power of the human body has some advance effects. The nervous system, as component of the body system, is constituted in a manner that allows for vital recovery and resilience after critical functions are affected by injuries in an adult brain. For instance, following stroke, the most striking and sudden recovery in a motor activity takes place in less than 30 days, although case of moderate and critical stroke may last for about 90 days (Dancause and Nudo 273). The recovery patterns following focal traumatic brain insult are the same, but diffused insults usually need elongated periods. The neural bases responsible for the recovery, specifically when certain rehabilitative therapies are not available, have interested researchers and clinicians for several years (Nudo 887). In the last 25 years, for instance, contemporary neuroscience studies, including neuroanatomical, neurophysiological, and neuroimaging have greatly concentrated on this issue, resulting in amazing findings based on the extent of structural and functional plasticity of the central nervous system. The purpose of this biological essay is to demonstrate how human body system, specifically the nervous system, can enhance recovery after the brain injury.

Theoretical Perspectives

Some theoretical aspects have been fronted to explain the recovery in the absence of rehabilitation – a case referred to as spontaneous recovery. Three basic theoretical explanations have been proposed. First, during the diaschisis when the remote components linked to the area of the insult normally experience temporary reduced metabolism and blood supply, it is generally observed that the recovery process could be responsible for this phenomenon. Second, alteration in muscle and joint kinematic activities are noted after the cortical damage, and compensatory activities are usually introduced to perform roles in either restrained or critically various ways. Finally, the nervous system is subjected to a recovery process involving local and distant regeneration. While it is acknowledged that the process is adaptive, cases of maladaptive plasticity may also take place. Research activities focused on post-injury adaptive plasticity using “long-term potentiation, long-term depression, unmasking, synaptogenesis, dendritogenesis, and functional map plasticity” (Dancause and Nudo 273) have increased over the past years and are perhaps the most exhilarating aspects in the area of neuroscience because of their suggestions for comprehending and handling insult-related functional shortfalls.

The theory of vicariation has been advanced to explain different plasticity means responsible for functional recovery. That is, the ability of a given section of the brain to temporarily intervene for another. Given that the current views of brain structures appreciate the cerebral cortex as distributed in hierarchical manner, vicariation does not essentially need a completely unrelated feature to take over functions lost after the insult. Instead, other linked distributed components of the brain support functions of the impaired parts. In fact, it is demonstrated that the motor cortex of fully-grown mammals alters its functional patterns as a reaction to cortical insults (Dancause and Nudo 273).

Plasticity and Resilience

Resilience reflects the dynamic ability involving positive adaptation following a critical adversity. Implied within this idea are two major factors: (1) exposure to a severe adversity of threat; and (2) the realization of positive adaptation irrespective of the extent of the insult (Luthar, Cicchetti and Becker 543). Hence, these studies demonstrate the resilience nature of the human body system through brain plasticity after some adverse events. Years of research in the cerebral cortex have shown multiple physiological and anatomical instances of cortical plasticity. In fact, most cortical areas have demonstrated such plasticity, including the motor cortex and somatosensory cortex. These areas are extremely imperative for comprehending motor recovery processes after brain insults. These processes related to plasticity result from multiple endogenous and exogenous factors, but behavioral experience is noted as extremely critical. Behavioral needs are responsible for influencing budding features of every cortical area. Major activities noted are mainly replication and sequential coincidence. For instance, skilled motor functions that need the exact sequential coordination of muscles and joints have to be developed through repetitive processes. Repetitive processes are believed to facilitate the development of distinct modules in which the conjoint function is represented as a whole.

Possible explanations for brain plasticity in adults are currently available in neuroscience studies. It is observed that brain development involving guidance cues depends on activity-dependent axonal sprouting (Nudo 887). Two notable stages have been observed in development of thalamocortical joints. During the initial stage, the axonal regulation molecules are responsible for leading “thalamocortical axons to their respective destinations” (Nudo 887). These processes could be driven by spontaneous neural process. In the second stage, cortical function controls “axonal development found in the cerebral cortex, influencing topological connectivity outcomes” (Nudo 887). Further, postnatal axonal division features located in the cerebral cortex have some links with the sensory affiliated stimulus function maybe by starting molecular retrograde signals (Dancause and Nudo 273). Brain insults have shown the availability of long-range axonal sprouting once believed to be absent in adult mammals. Today, however, available evidence has shown the relevance of cortical activities for axonal developing in adult brain after injuries. It is observed that variations in post-infarct behavioral experiences could affect the specific neuron preferred for local and detached developing axons by separately activating function-specific cortical parts.

It is imperative to recognize that content-based reinforcement is vital for the required brain plasticity to take place in cortical neurons of fully developed mammals. Specifically, limited contacts with sensory stimuli result in slight or no prolonged alteration in receptive area features.

Many broad approaches involving motor map composition have been shown, and they are assumed to influence the motor cortex capabilities to encode motor skills. First, motor maps are viewed as subdivided with several, intersecting movement representations. Second, the nearest features located in cortical motor maps are extremely interlinked through a compact network of fibers of intracortical (Nishibe et al. 2221). Finally, motor maps are highly changeable and may be altered by multiple inherent and external factors. Overall, these elements offer a basis through which the development of new muscle synergies by alterations in the intracortical connectivity of specific movement representations may occur.

Since 1980s, major scientific discoveries have changed and shaped thinking regarding cortical plasticity. Specifically, neurophysiological research focused on the somatosensory cortex is responsible for current knowledge. Previously, it was widely recognized that functional plasticity took place in the cerebral cortex of growing animals. Current studies have shown that the topographic arrangement of the depiction of skin surfaces found in the somatosensory cortex of a mature monkey usually changes after peripheral nerve damages, behavioral training, or disuse. These findings support the concept of vicariation, and they are drivers of further research in neurophysiological and neuroanatomical plasticity in damaged and typical cerebral cortex. Afterwards, other studies were done in other areas of the sensory involving the cerebral cortex and the motor cortex in both humans and animals (Dancause and Nudo 273). All findings indicated stronger support for the concept that plasticity of cortical maps is a common factor of the cerebral cortex even in full-grown animals, and the principle of temporal coincidence and behavioral factor are responsible for budding features of cortical units irrespective of their distinct cortical area.

Supposing that plasticity and behavioral traits are interconnected, as it seems, then these findings are vital for comprehending recovery processes after injuries involving peripheral and central nervous system injuries. It is possible to trace the development of topographic maps in animals and, hence, it can serve as a biological marker for nerve recovery after injuries. In addition, by analyzing cellular and molecular relations of map alterations, it could be possible to more explicitly comprehend neural processes involving neuroplasticity, and finally manage these processes for effective rehabilitation of injured persons.

Injury Plasticity in the Motor Cortex

In most neurological diseases, deficiencies in motor functions are common. Nevertheless, it is observed that a fully developed CNS of adults can retain a significant ability to recuperate and adjust after serious insults to the brain.

The spontaneous recovery takes place once a person suffers an injury involving the CNS (Nudo 887). Hence, it is imperative to comprehend primary mechanisms involved in natural recuperation of functions as the first phase toward the creation of effective change interventions that could enhance the pace of recovery and full restoration of functions. It is observed that insults restricted to a specific part of the motor take place only in distinct “middle cerebral artery (MCA) strokes and focal traumatic brain injury or neurosurgical resections” (Nudo 887). However, some data obtained from animal models have shown that they can be used to demonstrate mechanisms involved in the motor recovery after the central nervous system injury.

Although recovery on different outcome measures takes place naturally following the insult, some aspects of the recovery may be realized because of behavioral compensation. For instance, it is a well-established fact that in human stroke compensatory movements of the trunk are used to compensate for reaching. Factors, such as enhanced disuse of impaired parts alongside elevated use of proximal may explain changes in a map topography. In the case of a rat model, for instance, the area of the caudal forelimb sustained injuries, but when natural recovery or rehabilitative training was not available, behavioral performance to determine ability to reach some pellets was conducted, and it improved with time. Nevertheless, after five weeks post-injury, it was observed that the rat still had some vital deficiencies. During this period, the rat had rostral forelimb area with the regular size as the forelimb. However, experimental maps showed the redistribution of features of the forelimb. For instance, there were reduced digits, but elongated proximal features. Therefore, when behavioral training is not available, the plasticity found in the normal parts of the motor will take place spontaneously, which largely shows the progress of compensatory motor structure, instead of an actual recovery of the original kinematic structure (Hara 4).

The advancement of the recovery itself can be viewed as a process of learning and restoration of impaired function, as well as adaptation and reparation of secured, remaining functions (Nudo 887). These recovery processes, learning and restoration depict resilience of the nervous system after injuries. Therefore, it demonstrates that the neurophysiological processes that promote learning in the unharmed cortex should facilitate motor relearning and adaptation once the brain is injured (Nudo 887). Overall, as several research findings demonstrate, there is an obvious role of the neural plasticity, which ensures both natural and directed functional recoveries following an injury of the nervous system.

Opportunities to Advance Neuroplasticity Principles after an Injury

As previously observed, after an injury to the nervous system that affects the brain through stroke or trauma, successive molecular and cellular activities are set into action in nearby tissues, which result in impermanent or enduring alterations in the anatomy and physiology of the involved components. Most of these changes are pathological outcomes of the insult, such as edema, and they could have possibly adverse outcomes (Nudo 887). However, most these adaptive developments could start early after the injury has occurred, result in low rates of pathophysiological activities, or cause neuroplastic alteration resulting in some forms of function restoration. While there is no in-depth comprehension of these events at the molecular, cellular and network points because of the emerging nature of the field, adequate information is now found to assist in evaluating various hypotheses regarding influences of certain post-injury interventions on the recovery of functions and their related neuroanatomical and neurophysiological foundation (Matteo et al. 11).

The experiment involving the altered mouse subgroups without Nogo receptor has demonstrated a great possibility for improving “neuroanatomical plasticity processes following nerve damage” (Nudo 887). Nogo is recognized as a protein that prevents the growth of axonal, and mice without receptor acquire their motor function after the injury effectively relative to controls.

Given the availability of massive evidence to support the claims of brain plasticity following neuronal injury and that behavioral accounts could change neuronal formations and function in normal and injured brains, it is now obvious and imperative to apply neuroplasticity principles as the basis for a broad range of therapeutic interventions to enhance recovery (Carmichael 895). It is however noted that timing and dose are necessary to ensure that effectual, evidence-based intervention systems are available to enhance recovery. Timing and dose should account for events at the molecular, cellular, and network stages (Nudo 887).

Relative to other drug-related interventions for brain injury, the behavioral training approach is also most effective at certain periods. Protein is generally the major element required for neural sprouting and control. Protein upregulation is usually observed shortly after the injury has occurred. Clinical studies have also shown that outcome measures could be revamped even several years after injuries, but the best period for improvement is associated with time during optimal reorganization initiated by the insult. For instance, it is observed that axonal development may start after three days, and it becomes fully developed within one month. Further, genes that enhance and inhibit neuronal are regulated during post-injury periods. It is also recognized that events that are responsible for neurogenesis only last for limited time. Hence, there is a vital need to comprehend how behavioral experience changes recovery processes in various way after a given period. Similarly, any harmful outcomes of behavioral therapies that could occur too early during treatment also require further analysis. Notably, specific type and motor activity event could be vital for controlling the neural environment and in influencing regenerative activities or neuronal loss cascades dominating during the initial phases after brain injuries.

As mentioned above, an optimal dose is an issue that is critical for behavioral experience. The issue is imperative for not only assessing and comprehending the extent of safety for acute cases, but also understanding the dose-reaction association for rehabilitation processes across various stages involved in post-stroke intervention time and recovery. From animal models, it is possible to determine what human individuals who have suffered stroke can endure.

Conclusion

The human body system is complex, and the nervous system is a vital component of the body system. In the event of an injury, such as stroke or TBI, vital sensory motor parts are adversely affected. In this case, recovery and resilience are often noted as a function of the human body system. In fact, following an injury to the cerebral cortex, a significant fraction of the brain is affected. Consequently, there are deficiencies in motor functions. However, considerable spontaneous or natural recovery takes place after few weeks or within a month following the injury. Efforts to understand how undamaged sensory motor components can support and enhance recovery of the affected functions have been a major area of interest for neurobiological studies. As such, in the past few decades, researchers have focused on understanding the underlying principles of neuroplasticity involved in recoveries after neurological insults. It is now widely proven that brain injuries, such as the ones experienced in stroke or TBI, usually start a cascade of regenerative processes few days after an injury. Researchers have linked plasticity following injury to cellular and other sub-system events that occur during regular brain growth. Evidence is obtained from both animal and human models to indicate possible novel strategies to therapeutic treatments. Behavioral experience now offers some important aspects related to brain plasticity, recent findings, and novel approaches to recovery in the nervous system.

Hence, the brain can be reshaped following an injury to adapt or fail to adapt based on the motor experiences. Overall, plasticity indicates the adaptive and resilience nature of the human body system.

Works Cited

Carmichael, S Thomas. “Emergent Properties of Neural Repair: Elemental Biology to Therapeutic Concepts.” Annals of Neurology 79.6 (2016): 895–906. Print.

Dancause, Numa, and Randolph J. Nudo. “Shaping Plasticity to Enhance Recovery After Injury.” Progress in Brain Research 192 (2011): 273–295. Print.

Hara, Yukihiro. “Brain Plasticity and Rehabilitation in Stroke Patients.” Journal of Nippon Medical School 82.1 (2015): 4-13. Print.

Luthar, Suniya S., Dante Cicchetti, and Bronwyn Becker. “The Construct of Resilience: A Critical Evaluation and Guidelines for Future Work.” Child Development 71.3 (2000): 543–562. Print.

Matteo, Barbara Maria, Barbara Vigano, Cesare Giuseppe Cerri and Cecilia Perin. “Visual Field Restorative Rehabilitation after Brain Injury.” Journal of Vision 16.9 (2016): 11. Print.

Nishibe, Mariko, Scott Barbay, David Guggenmos and Randolph J Nudo. “Reorganization of Motor Cortex after Controlled Cortical Impact in Rats and Implications for Functional Recovery.” Journal of Neurotrauma 27.12 (2010): 2221-32. Print.

Nudo, Randolph J. “Recovery After Brain Injury: Mechanisms and Principles.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7 (2013): 887. Print.

The brain of an infant undergoes various changes after birth. In particular, one can mention that at the beginning, it weighs approximately 400 grams; however, it can grow by more than 200 percent within the next 12 months (Ashford, 2012, p. 80). At this stage, the connections between neurons are very weak, and they are not sufficient for complex cognitive activities.

This is why during infancy a newborn baby can only rely on inherited reflexes such as sucking or grasping (Ashford, 2012, p. 80). At this stage, only brain stem, spinal cord and diencephalon are well-developed while upper part of the brain only begins to grow. For instance, one can speak about such a region of the brain as cerebellum which is involved in such mental processes as attention or language.

The capacity to process language is associated with the development of the cerebral cortex (Huttenlocher, 2009, p. 175).There has be to be a sufficient number of synaptic contacts so that an infant could start to acquire linguistic skills (Huttenlocher, 2009, p. 175). Overall, the linguistic growth starts during the period between 12 and 24 months.

It should be mentioned that the exposure to language is crucial for the linguistic growth of a child. If an infant cannot hear human language during this period, his/her linguistic capacity can be impaired. One should take into account that the relationship between brain maturation and linguistic growth still attracts the attention of many researchers. These are the main aspect that be identified.

One should also examine how a newborn baby perceives the world. At first, it is necessary to focus on the sensations of newborn children. They have to adjust to breathing and nutrition without the umbilical cord. One should bear in mind that their vision is not very strong.

At the age of two weeks, infants can look at the objects which are located at different distances from them (Daw, 2006, p. 32). Nevertheless, an infant prefers to look at the objects which are directly in front of his/her face. This is one of the issues that should be considered.

One should also mention that a newborn child only act as explores by relying on their inherited reflexes such as grasping and sucking (Galotti, 2000, p. 503). They want to discover the properties of various objects that surround them. At the beginning, infants learn the so-called schemes or sets of actions. For instance, they learn to play with various toys.

Provided that a child finds that some kind of action brings him/her pleasure, this activity is more likely to be repeated. This mechanism is critical for the formation of a child’s behavior. During infancy, children do not have any mental representations of people or objects (Galotti, 2000, p. 503).

Therefore, their acquisition of knowledge is based on sensation and action. More complex mental processes emerge along the maturation of the brain.

On the whole, one can say that a newborn baby passes through a period when the world is totally unfamiliar. Much attention should be paid to people and material objects that constitute immediate environment of an infant. A newborn baby does not have background knowledge about them, and they are willing to act as experimenters or explorers. This is one of the main aspects that can be identified.

Reference List

Ashford, J. (2012).Brooks/Cole Empowerment Series: Human Behavior in the Social Environment. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Daw, N. (2006). Visual Development. New York, NY: Springer.

Galotti, K. (2000). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Huttenlocher, P. (2009). Neural Plasticity: The Effects of Environment on the Development of the Cerebral Cortex. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Introduction: The Main Idea

Speaking of the chapter fMRI Brain Imaging and the Experience of Sound from Morana Alač’s book Handling Digital Brains, one should mark that the author is trying to convey to the people the importance of comprising the visual and the acoustic information that the fMRI device provides in the course of the examination of the patient.

As the author explains, deciphering the information that is concealed in the sounds made by the machine is just as important as being able to read the information in the tomography picture.

Moreover, Alač emphasizes that it is only with the combination of the two that the doctor can obtain the relevant information and be completely sure that he has all the necessary facts: “In the current account of MRI visuals, this focus on the sound is the first step in indicating how scientists understand and deal with brain imaging data” (Alač 66).

Concerning the Argument Structure

It is quite remarkable that the structure of the argument in the paper provides rather insightful observation of the problem and allows the reader see the essence of the issue under discussion.

Initiating the audience briefly into the history of the researches concerning a human brain and the way a human brain works, Alač emphasizes the significance of the issue in question and shifts into the sphere of the practical appliance of the developed theories. Hence, the reader is initiated into the way MRI was created and improved, and understands the way the MRI works, learning its basic principle.

Furthermore, Alač explains the methods to learn people’s reactions to the sounds that the machine makes and the feelings they have about it: “They tried to modify somewhat the prototypical scanning procedures while teaching human cognition as an embodied process” (Alač 56). Furthermore, depicting the UCSD fMRI working principle, the author stresses the changes that have been made to comprise the information obtained from the pictures of fMRI and the sounds that can be analyzed as well.

Intertwining the elements of theory with the practice and discussing the results, Alač finally comes to marking the importance of the “acoustic event” (66) and makes it clear that, when processing the information that comes from both the visual and the audio sources, doctors will be able to “hear as an fMRI practitioner” (66), which is of utter importance for further researches.

The Significance of the Research

There is no doubt that the given paper is of utter importance for the future interpretation of the fMRI results and the understanding of the way the patients feel when being examined with the help of the fMRI device. According to what Alač says, the results of the tests held so far prove to be of great significance for the further work of the new fMRI practitioners.

It is obvious that the results obtained in the course of experiments are of crucial significance: “The description of how sound functions as a pedagogical agent in the laboratory calls attention to sound as a significant quality of experience for practitioners who work with fMRI visuals” (Alač 54).

In the light of the little facts that the fMRI practitioners have when viewing only the imagery of the fMRI pictures, the importance of Alač’s research is doubtless: “Studies of MRI have emphasized the interpretation of recorded visual and numerical data, with little discussion of the acoustic experience” (Alač 55).

The Question to Answer

Why is the experience of “being in the scanner” (Alač 59), according to the author, serves as “an early step in the fMRI apprenticeship” (Alač 59)?

Works Cited

Alač, Morana. “fMRI Brain Imaging and the Experience of Sound.” Handling Digital Brains. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 49-66. Print.

The book by Vedantam explores the peculiarities of people’s brain and the way they act. The author notes that a lot of features of character are determined by people’s unconscious minds. Individuals make decisions based on their unconsciousness, and these decisions shape numerous spheres of people’s life. Healthcare is one of the most important spheres where people’s behavior can have numerous outcomes.

In the first place, the author explains the idea which is in the core of the system of healthcare. Thus, it is stated that people’s unconscious brain makes them save themselves as well as others (Vedantam, 2010). In other words, people long for saving somebody else, and this is one of the basic principles of healthcare in any society.

Admittedly, healthcare is the sphere where people save other people’s lives. Importantly, a human’s life is highly valued. For me, it was sometimes a big question of why other people wanted to save lives. The author reveals a plausible explanation to that question. People simply need to feel they can save others. Perhaps, this helps them feel they are stronger than nature itself, or they simply feel they become more complete.

It is also important that the author mentions an important principle. People are more eager to help those they know about. The example of saving a dog is very suggestive (Vedantam, 2010).

This principle is important for healthcare as well. Thus, healthcare professionals are often blamed for being rather indifferent to patients’ personal needs, and they are often inconsiderate. It is noteworthy that those people are saving lives, and they have to focus on their fight against death so that they may be a bit indifferent.

However, nurses can be more understanding and empathetic. This is quite easy as a person is eager to save somebody he/she knows well. I believe both the patient and the nurse have to be aware of this principle. They should move towards each other telling stories about themselves. They will be able to build trust. People unconscious mind makes people closer when they know each other.

At the same time, it is clear that people are still hostages of certain prejudice. The author explains that people’s unconscious mind makes them behave in specific ways. Thus, a nurse can feel somewhat hostile to a patient who has a different cultural background or vice versa. People’s unconscious mind makes them divide everybody into groups and be hostile to some of these groups.

Nevertheless, any hostility can be avoided or, at least, minimized if there is diversity among healthcare professionals. People having similar unconscious minds can be more trustful to each other. This principle should become one of the strategies in the development of the healthcare system.

In conclusion, I would like to note that the book has helped me understand that there are some laws people can never break as this is their nature. Nonetheless, I believe it is possible to become a better person and build a better society if people are aware of those laws and principles.

Unconscious mind shapes our behavior, but we can be ready to use this. I know that saving people is in people’s bones, and this can be utilized to develop an effective healthcare system. Being attentive and empathetic to each other can help patients go through their hardships, and healthcare professionals do their job.

Works Cited

Vedantam, S. (2010). The hidden brain: How our unconscious minds elect presidents, control markets, wage wars, and save our lives. New York, NY: Spiegel & Grau.