Through a recent approach done in the educational literature, brain based learning is associates with the structure and the relation of the functioning of the brain. The researchers of this approach have come up with principles concerning the brain and how it relates with learning (Kahveci & Ay, 2008).
The values of brain based learning offers a theoretical framework for an efficient learning and the teaching process, providing the best conditions in which learning occurs in the brain. These principles guide the instructors to prepare and decide on the best learning surroundings, based in neurobiology (Ozden & Gultekin, 2008).
Brain-based learning illustrates the performance of the brain and considers the rules and regulations of the brain for meaningful learning. The most vital function of the brain is to learn, which acts as any other part of the human organs. The brain has limitless capability for learning.
Therefore, the functions of the brain are vital for the efficiency of learning. This means that in order to have effectual learning, the brain must be functioning well (Kahveci & Ay, 2008). The instructors, who perform their duties in teamwork with the neurobiologists, combine their facts concerning the functions of the brain and they adapt them to the learning principles of the brain (Ozden & Gultekin, 2008).
Principles and strategies of brain-based learning
One of the principles based on the brain learning suggests that effectual learning is only achievable trough practicing and taking into considerations the real life events. Through this, the brain will be more expressive and will uphold the processes in search of meaning and patterning (Ozden & Gultekin, 2008).
Research has shown that when the brain conveys its pattern making behavior, it will create coherency and the meaning. When the learning activity associates with the physical experience, learning becomes efficient. In addition, an environment of total immersion in a multitude of complex interactive experiences makes learning possible.
This comprises the traditional methods used in instructing and the analysis as part of the larger practices (Lackney, 2011).
Research done concerning the brain reveals that association of the brain and emotions helps individuals to recall and remember the memories preserved in the central nervous system. The limbic system and the neo-mammalian brain happen to be the home place where emotions originate. The Sensory data relayed to the thalamus in the midbrain acts as a relay station to the sensory cortex (Lackney, 2011).
The two organs that are integral to the learning procedure and the individuals’ capability to stay focused in their surroundings are the amygdala and hypothalamus. The emotional stimulus highly stimulates the interpretation of curriculum in both the student and the teacher.
From this, two opportunity routes may happen, one involving the conscious brain, which comprises the prefrontal cortex and the other one including the shorter, faster route, which comprises of the amygdale (Rushton & Juola, 2008).
An environment that offers the students with choice and empowerment, enhanced by the usage of hands-on, differentiated instruction, permits the students to be responsible for their learning, thereby involving several parts of the brain.
With such surroundings, there is a possibility of provision of aid in the thickening of the myelination sheaf, development of neurons and stimulation of serotonin and other neurochemicals, which enhances the child’s welfare. The development of the brain, supported by efficient teachers, encourages children to make new discoveries in strategized surroundings that enhance student autonomy (Rushton & Juola, 2008).
The brain friendly places are where the learning in the brain occurs, normally called the brain-based classrooms. These learning classrooms happen to be the perfect learning environments where the brain roles and responsibilities in learning occur in terms of training and learning procedures.
In these classes, learners get submerged into difficult and stressful experiences. Most people assume that in the brain classrooms, learners are unique and the previous knowledge given to them acts as a baseline to new learning.
Utilization of different strategies in learning is of paramount importance for it will enable the learner to feel safer in the learning surroundings and it will provide the learners with different explanations. This will also enrich learning and the educators will have wider knowledge for the learning process (Ozden & Gultekin, 2008).
To activate emotions and learning, the brain requires difficulties or a surrounding that creates stress. Generation of stress in the brain enhances a survival imperative. However, too much stress and anxiety hinders chances created for learning. On the other hand, too little stress makes the brain to be more relaxed and comfortable and this enhances easy learning.
Relaxed alertness is a term that refers to the brain state for optimal learning. This means that as the designers and the instructors require creating opportunities that are not only secure to learn, they also flash some emotional interests through celebrations and performance of rituals (Lackney, 2011).
Conclusion
Brain-based learning is a perfect strategy for helping students in all levels enhances their learning capabilities. Pioneers of this learning strategy developed twelve basic principles of the brain that helps in producing efficient learning.
Brain-based learning also stresses the importance of exercising the brain as a major strategy of this approach. In addition, it utilizes the purpose of emotions and stressful circumstances, which help in the earning process. This approach also comprises of learning environments for instance brain-based classrooms where instructors and students engage in an interactive process.
References
Kahveci, A. & Ay, S. (2008). Different Approaches –Common Implications: Brain-Based And Constructivist Learning From A Paradigms And Integral Model Perspective. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 5, 3, 124-129.
Lackney, J.A. (2011). Twelve Design Principles Based on Brain-based Learning Research. Web.
Ozden, M. & Gultekin, M. (2008).The Effects of Brain-Based Learning on Academic Achievement and Retention of Knowledge in Science Course. Electronic Journal of Science Education, 12, 1: 3-19.
Rushton, S. & Juola, A. (2008). Classroom Learning Environment, Brain Research and the No Child Left behind Initiative: 6 years later. Early Childhood Educational Journal, 36, 87-92.
The taste bud also referred to as the receptors of taste is mainly found on the tongue as well as the upper side of the mouth close to the pharynx. The basic tastes are bitter, sour, sweet and salty. In line with Crooks and Baur, the sensitivity to amino acids causes a different sensation called “umami” (2010).
The nerves below the taste glands transfer sensations to the brain, therefore the functioning of the sense of taste correlates to that of smell. Greater number of taste buds enhance better tastes since it increases sensitivity, for instance, women have more taste glands that men and are thus more sensitive to taste and smell than men (Crooks and Baur, 2010).
The lining of smell receptors in the nose cavity also has a link to the olfactory nerve that transmits sensations to the brain. The structure of the nose is special and according to Kar and Kar, the structure makes the organ to be termed “vomeronasal” due to suspicious of influencing the reproductive system (2005). Human nose is thus the main organ that determines taste and smell.
Brain’s Chemical Reactions to Taste and Smell
The body’s natural lubrication and smell of sexual fluids determines attraction as well as partiality to the sexual partner. These are body chemical substances that the sexual partner either perceive or imagine through the smell or taste. The cavity is made of sensitive nerve endings that receive and transmit the pleasurable stimuli to the brain.
Origin and Existence of Sexual Stimuli
Most sexual stimuli originate from central nervous system but the most fascinating factors involve how the brain is able to organize the sexual behaviours. Taste is one of the main factors that influence sexual stimulation. Both men and women experience stimulation very differently due to the differences on the concentration of taste buds.
The differences are both psychological and physical as more discoveries emerge in the haunt for understanding the causes of sexual dysfunctions. The studies are providing chances of exploring and discovering how various components of sexual arousal can occur. One of the main influences of sexual arousal is taste, which as discussed above has a very close link to smell. The diagram below shows various parts of the brain and the responses to stimuli.
Taste and smell initiates the mediation of the thoughts, emotions, and fantasies required for arousal. A smell can also trigger the memory of an exciting fantasy. According to Kar and Kar, the limbic system, hypothalamus is a predominant part of the human brain that plays a vital role in sexual arousal (2005). There are neurotransmitters that receive stimuli from various sense organs such as the nose and tongue, which have high influences on sexual responses as well as arousal.
Taste as a Facilitator of Sexual Arousal
Dopamine (a “catecholamine neurotransmitter”) is the main facilitator of sexual arousal in both men and women but serotonin (a compound in the brain and other body organs that acts as a neurotransmitter) provides the restrain from arousal (Kar and Kar, 2005).
The diagram shown below indicates the position of dopamine in the brain. For this reasons, although the sense of touch seems to dominate majority of the stimulation among other senses, the taste and smell elicits one of the main erogenous sensory region due to high concentration of nerve endings.
People respond and react uniquely to stimulation of taste. They also respond in accordance with sexual experiences and the significance of the erotic stimulus. However, sexual arousal through natural smell and taste faces various challenges due to the cultural sensitivity to matters concerning health or personal hygiene.
The senses of smell and taste are nevertheless major contributors of human responses. Scientifically feelings can travel from the sensual organs to the brain that sends the information to the sexual organs thus eliciting sexual responses. The diagram below shows the possible pattern for the romantic and maternal love as influenced by both taste and smell as indicated by Crooks and Baur, (2010).
“Comprehensive Textbook of Sexual Medicine” Thesis Statement
This book mainly focuses on the brain in relation to sexual arousal. The writers mediate through the power of thoughts, memories, emotions and fantasies in influencing arousal. According to the writing, sexual arousal depends on power of thoughts, memories, emotions, and fantasies.
Main ideas
One of the main ideas presented by the authors involves the processes of determining and ranking the senses of sexual arousal. According to the writing, the sense of touch dominates other senses. This is for the reason that there are various points of the skin that presents highly responsive tactical pleasing points. These areas such as palms or lips have high concentration of nerve endings and therefore the writer compares the zones to other erogenous areas of the body that have little or no erotic significance during sexual activities. Furthermore, the writers’ positions the sense of sight second from touch, since it is also a provision of stimulus that most people find to be sexual fascinating. The writers also compare the visual responses of men versus women.
Another key idea presented by the book involves the sense of smell and taste and the role this plays in influencing sexual arousal. The main predicament raised by the writers in this case involves the negative consideration of these stimuli during sexual activities due to the traditional and cultural concerns on issues relating to hygiene. Other concerns raised involve comparing the human beings to other animals, majority of which have a strong link of sexual odours to the reproduction.
The writers discuss the role played by hormones in determining sexual behaviours. At this point, there is deeper analysis and comparison between the male and female hormones.
The writers addresses the issue of sexual responses and provides a significant analysis of responses, for instance through analysis of reaction of persons in different age groups.
Evidence in Support of Main Ideas
On sexual arousal, the writers indicate that various stimuli in the brain influence arousal and response for instance the dopamine and serotonin.
The writers are also keen to note that majority of the evidence presented on issues concerning influence of taste and smell on sexual arousal is still tentative particularly the concern that the body produces pheromones that double as sexual attractants.
The writers also indicate how most people are quick to indicate and emphasize on various fundamental differences especially sexual responses between males and females.
There is enough evidence on the issue of sexual arousal differences that are linkable to different orientations particularly the age differences.
“Our Sexuality” Thesis Statement
Neurotransmitters are the main determinants of the formation of sexual patterns, caused by various simulative sense of taste.
Main Ideas
The writers emphasize the functions of the brain one being the important role in human sexual arousal due to the psychological impact of smell as well as taste.
The emphasis also focuses on the limbic system and hypothalamus part of the brain as predominant structures responsible for sexual arousals.
The text has highlighted the neurotransmitters that receive stimuli from various sense organs and the influences the neurotransmitters have on sexual responses as well as arousal.
The text has a clear distinction between Dopamine and Serotonin as forms of neurotransmitter, which provides humans with a control over arousal.
Evidence in Support of Main Ideas
The sexual functioning requires coordination of activities in various body organs such as negotiation of the sensory system.
Change of the cortex, adjustment of activities in the endocrine as well as the limbic system, and incentive of the nervous system are the main sexual arousal coordinating aspects.
The book presents the anatomical changes of neurotransmitters.
According to the writers, Dopamine is a “catecholamine neurotransmitter” that facilitates human sexual arousal while serotonin is a compound in the brain and other body organs that acts as a neurotransmitter to provide human control over sexual arousal.
References
Crooks, R, and Baur, K. (2010). Our Sexuality. California, CA: Cengage Learning.
Kar, N, and Kar, G. C. (2005). Comprehensive Textbook of Sexual Medicine. New Delhi, India: Jaypee Brothers Publishers.
Nicholas Carr comes up with an argument on the effects of computers on human intelligence. The technology writer claims that the Internet has turned the human brain into toys by reducing their ability to process information. He states that the brain becomes lazy and weak unable to make even the simple contemplations. Researchers from University College London support his studies because they have the same observations with peer-reviewed sources.
The researchers determined that people go online to avoid the traditional reading that eases access to information. Internet is becoming the primary source of information and the writer notes that this is affecting peoples’ ability to read books. Carr uses pathos directly to connect the readers to his arguments. The writer explores every detail in the effects of computers making the reader think that something needs to be changed.
The author thinks that he can no longer issue quick judgments. His brain is becoming weak each day he faces the computer. Carr states that he can no longer enjoy reading books because his concentration diminishes daily. Use of pathos in his argument is a good way to engage the reader’s mind into getting a clear picture of the worrying situation.
In the same way, the writer is unable to go beyond what the Internet provides, weakening his brain from exploring inner details. On the positive side, the writer recognizes that the Internet helps him save time while searching for complex information. Carr warns readers from this habit as it diminishes their ability to carry out their own tasks like researching from books (Stansbury, 2008, 102).
Carr captures the mind of his audience by using familiar issues and movie scenes. Besides the movies, his arguments are embedded in imagery and relatable analogies. The writer also uses metaphors to capture the minds of his audience.
Use of pathos is most common in Carr’s arguments and this has helped capture the mind of the audience and help clarify his points. According to Carr, every benefit has a price attached to it and sometimes the price may be more than the item. In his argument, the writer notes that the Internet is taking over the human mind.
Carr uses Ethos appeals in his argument. This help captures the mind of his audience. Ethos mostly focuses on the speaker and here the technology writer dominates the talk. As he clarifies his points, the writer applies ethos to help his audience capture the inner details of his argument. According to Carr, computers have eroded human mind leaving them with little power to concentrate. This has affected students in schools as they can no longer come up with reliable research using their books.
Use of logos dominates Carr’s argument where he relates the problem posed by the Internet to the real issues. Carr uses logic and facts to explore the problem and this enables the audience to get a clear picture of the issues. He notes the learners are unable to concentrate in class since they are used to getting quick answers through the Internet.
Use of logic and facts has played a great role in perfecting the writer’s essay. The audience is attracted and eager to hear the adverse effects caused by the Internet. The audience is also able to relate the issues in the argument with the effects caused by computers. Logos appeal is also applied where the writer used familiar movie scenes to direct the readers to the real effects of the Internet on their brains. In his well-thought evidence, the readers are able to get the points being given by the author (Stansbury, 2008, 102).
Logos appeal is also witnessed where Carr uses proof from various scientific researches to clarify the changes in the study methods of students. Learners can no longer go through pages in a book because their concentration is affected by the Internet. He claims that the Internet has negative effects on the mind by diminishing its capacity for contemplation. Carr gives a clear example where he writes that he can no longer read a longish article.
The author notes that the Internet has greatly tempered with the people’s critical thinking skills. Most people are unable to read long articles as they used to decades ago. Although Carr is criticizing the Internet, he believes that his argument will help people out of this danger.
He supports his study by relating the effects to the real issues being observed in the current world (Stansbury, 2008, 102). Young people are unable to engage in critical decision-making because they are used to summarized and quick answers. Carr states the learners no longer want to dive in the sea of words but act like a guy on a Jet Ski. People want to take shortcuts to get any information as it is already available on the Internet.
In conclusion, Carr’s argument is beyond the truth and explores the real issues being observed on the fast-growing computer technology. The article is well organized making it easy for the audience to capture the facts given by the author. Use of Appeals like ethos and logos has also played a great role in simplifying the essay because it relates the effects to logical things. Computers have transformed people from being able to think because they are used for quick responses in research.
Works Cited
Stansbury, Meris. “Rethinking research in the Google era: Educators ponder how the Internet has changed students’ reading habits.” eSchool Issues (2008): 1-2. Web. 24 Sept. 2013.
The brain – is wider than the sky by Emily Dickinson at first glance is relatively simple but explores many significant topics, which are much expressed by the use of similes and metaphors. In particular, these themes include human experience, nature, and God. All of it is woven together to show the wonder and importance of the human mind. Throughout three stanzas of the poem, Dickinson makes three comparisons of the human brain to the outside world. The first stanza is devoted to comparing the former with the sky: “The Brain – is wider than the Sky “(Dickinson, 2004). The author says that there are no boundaries for the human mind, unlike the sky, and it includes the whole universe: “For – put them side by side – The one the other will contain” (Dickinson, 2004). This metaphor conveys to the reader that a person has unlimited possibilities to explore the world around him. Simultaneously, the second stanza compares the brain to the sea: “The Brain is deeper than the sea” (Dickinson, 2004). It also allows the author to transfer the idea of the superiority of human reason. Apart from collating the brain to the sea, Dickinson also uses a metaphor comparing the former to a sponge: “The one the other will absorb – As sponges – Buckets – do “(Dickinson, 2004). Thus, the author says that as sponges can take water from a bucket, the brain can contain infinite amounts of different information. Finally, the third stanza is the most difficult in the poem. The author makes a double comparison in it: “The Brain is just the weight of God -… And they will differ – if they do – As Syllable from Sound “(Dickinson, 2004). Dickinson says that the distinction between the human mind and God’s energy will be analogous to the difference between sound and syllable. To summarize, it is impossible to overestimate the significance of the similes and metaphors Dickinson uses to convey people’s enormous capabilities and their minds, which everyone should remember and appreciate.
Over the years, research on how the brain perceives and processes language has intensified. From as early as 1861, evidence from studies has confirmed that the brain is a fundamental component with regards to the process of learning languages. The study of the biological and neural basics of a language is referred to as neurolinguistics. Research in this field is often based on data from impaired languages. The data is used to understand the properties associated with the linguistic aspect of human existence (Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams 461).
Recent advancements in technology have made it possible for researchers to explore other methods of studying the brain. Such approaches include the use of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and functional MRI (fMRI) technologies. The tools are used by researchers to map the brain (Fromkin et al. 468).
In this paper, the author provides a critical analysis of the major linguistic parts of the brain. The parts include those responsible for language processing and creation. In addition, the author will highlight the linguistic complications that may arise due to damages or dysfunctions associated with those parts. To this end, the author will focus on damages and dysfunctions brought about by medical impairments.
Impacts of Medical Impairment on Linguistic Areas of the Human Brain
Overview
The brain is composed of two major regions. They include the left and the right hemispheres. The left region is the one responsible for language perception and processing. On the other hand, the right side is responsible for human imagination. The two sides are connected by fibers known as corpus callosum. The left side of the human body is controlled by the right side of the brain. On its part, the right side of the body is regulated by the left side of the brain. The situation is referred to as contralateral brain function (Fromkin et al. 461). Medical impairment to any linguistic part of the brain leads to various complications.
Aphasia
Aphasia is a term used to describe a language disorder brought about by damaged brain parts. The impairment is mostly caused by stroke and brain tumor (Fromkin et al. 463). Medically, aphasia is broadly categorized into two clusters. The two are fluent and non-fluent aphasias. The first category involves a situation where an individual speaks fluently but has trouble processing and understanding speech. On the other hand, patients with non-fluent aphasia understand other people well but have a problem with their own speech. They usually utter a few words, which may sound senseless. However, linguists classify aphasia according to their area of localization. The areas in reference are the regions of the brain that cause these complications.
Broca’s area
The Broca’s area is located at the front of the left hemisphere. It is named after a French neurologist who discovered it in 1861. Medical damage to this region leads to the development of a condition referred to as Broca’s or expressive aphasia. Patients with this condition have no problem processing speech. However, they find it hard to express themselves verbally or through writing (Fromkin et al. 467). Information in the brain is usually moved to the Broca’s area from the Language Axis (Obler and Gjerlow 45). In the Broca’s region, the information received is arranged both grammatically and syntactically.
The organized information is then moved in form of electric pulses to the front motor areas. According to Fromkin, the motor areas are responsible for the verbal musculature (73). The musculature makes it possible for verbal expression to take place.
When the Broca’s area is damaged, the brain fails to arrange a person’s thoughts grammatically. People with this condition may find it hard to understand sentences whose apprehension relies entirely on syntax and grammar (Fromkin et al. 465). In severe cases, the frontal motor areas of the brain, which are adjacent to the Broca’s region, may be damaged. The impairment makes it hard for the individual to move their mouth to produce speech. Since the left frontal lobe is also responsible for the activities taking place in right side of the body, most right-handed people may have difficulties when writing due to paralysis (Fromkin et al. 461).
Wernicke’s area
The area is adjacent to the auditory cortex. It was discovered by a German neurologist, Carl Wernicke, 10 years after the Broca’s area became known (Aniruddh 56). The region is believed to be responsible for the processing of both verbal and written languages. Medical impairment to this area, such as lesions, may lead to the development of a condition known as Wernicke’s or receptive aphasia. Patients suffering from this condition find it hard to understand both spoken and written language.
In addition, it is hard for them to make grammatical sense while speaking. It is important to note that the speaking capability of receptive aphasics remain intact. However, they may still find it hard to express themselves when speaking (Fromkin et al. 467). The situation is attributed to the fact that even though the Broca’s area remains intact, the Wernicke’s region still plays a vital role in the linguistic output of a person.
Patients suffering from receptive aphasia may produce sentences that may be correct with regards to syntax. However, they are overly incoherent in their semantics (Fromkin et al. 465). At later stages of this condition, the patients have problems finding the correct word to use in self-expression. In addition, they may overstep the phonetic boundary (Shanahan 30). As a result, the individual confuses closely related words. Consequently, what they say or write may be totally different from what was intended. Their ability to memorize and recite words is, however, unaffected. In addition, their writing abilities are usually intact. However, the content of their written communication makes little or no sense. It is noted that most of these patients are unaware of their disability (Shanahan 32).
Arcuate fasciculus
The Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas are located in different lobes of the brain. However, the two areas are connected by nerve fibers, which make it possible for them to communicate (Fromkin et al. 470). The fibers in reference are known as arcuate fasciculus (Obler and Gjerlow 99). Supramarginal gyrus, also known as angular gyrus, is located above these fibers. They are found halfway between the Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.
Medical damage to arcuate fasciculus leads to a condition known as conductive aphasia (Aniruddh 82). Individuals with this condition are usually better off compared to those with receptive and expressive aphasias. People with this condition comprehend and process speech normally. In addition, they speak fluently and are always aware of what they are saying. Medical impairment of angular gyrus is associated with such conditions as alexia, dyslexia, and agraphia. Alexia is the inability to read. On its part, dyslexia involves problems when reading. Finally, agraphia is the inability to write (Fromkin et al. 466).
In some cases, a person may experience both receptive and expressive aphasias. The condition is referred to as global aphasia. It is due to extensive medical damage to the frontal and parietal lobes. In some cases, patients with global aphasia also experience paralysis on their left side. As a result, they have problems when writing. Linguistic comprehension and expression is also greatly reduced. The same applies to the individual’s ability to repeat.
Transcortical sensory aphasia
Another rare form of linguistic impairment is the transcortical sensory aphasia. The condition is not as a result of medical damage to any linguistic part of the brain. On the contrary, it occurs when the three major linguistic parts of the brain (the Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and arcuate fasciculus areas) are separated from the rest of the brain. The situation mainly occurs due to insufficient vascular composition, which leads to impaired blood supply (Fromkin et al. 45). Patients with this condition exhibit extensive memorizing abilities. In addition, they can repeat long sentences. However, their writing and reading abilities are absent even when no paralysis of the limbs is experienced (Aniruddh 77).
Conclusion
Over the years, studies conducted on the brain have made it possible for linguists to better understand how this organ works. The studies provide information on how the brain helps people to communicate and perceive language. There was a time when study of this organ involved mere observations of physical traits of a person. However, recent technological advancements have made it possible for researchers to study the brain more efficiently. The development has provided linguists with better understanding of the parts of the brain tied to linguistics. Technological advancement also provides information on complications that may arise due to medical impairment of such regions.
Works Cited
Aniruddh, Patel. Music, Language, and the Brain, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.
Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams. An Introduction to Language. 8th ed. 2007. Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth. Print.
Fromkin, Victoria. ‘Brain, Language, and Linguistics,’ Brain and Language 71.1 (2000): 72-74. Print.
Obler, Loraine, and Kris Gjerlow. Language and the Brain, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print.
Shanahan, Daniel. Language, Feeling, and the Brain: The Evocative Vector, New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2007. Print.
Criminologists and psychiatrists underline that the brain and its functionality have a great impact on the behavior of individuals and their traits. Some individuals are characterized by a strong belief that they have something that can be called “strict genes”. The combination of these factors can affect the lives of many people. The combination of these things is projected to affect the quality of human life. It means that some of the criminals are not able to take control of their impulses. No matter how angry these people are they often find something that may stop them from taking anger out on the other people. An interesting idea has been once mentioned by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) who voiced the idea that some humans have natural drives and urges that are repressed by the inner forces. Many people are fully unconscious of their inner desires. Freud claims that all humans have criminal tendencies (Wright et al 2008). These tendencies are repressed because of a long period of socialization that comes as a result of the fact that the major tendencies that are present in society remain to be curbed. The effect is caused by the development of inner controls. Many of these things are learned through childhood experiences.
Following Wright et al (2008) brain functions determine the level of aggression and violence in every individual. “Because the hippocampus is a primary memory structure and regulatory unit of the brain, it is easy to imagine that a damaged or malfunctioning hippocampus would produce various implications for predisposing one to developmental problems throughout life, such as learning disabilities, poor school/work performance, and so on” (p. 81). This research has once indicated that the theory can indicate to people that they have several inherited traits. Many of these traits are rather specific in their number. Criminal behavior is not always specific since it is projected to deal with several important factors. One of these factors is criminal activities that range from petty theft to mass murder (Wright et al 2008).
The relation between brain functions and crime is complex, involving consideration of brain functions and actual effects on the individual (e.g., expectations of increased aggression, impaired judgment, decision-making, and interpersonal skills), situational correlates (e.g., locale, time of day, or night), and cultural factors (e.g., SES, widespread notions regarding neuropsychological effects and its social cue properties). Brain functions are typically studied by event analysis (e.g., police or medical records or reports), or from the retrospective accounts of incarcerated offenders. Each approach has disadvantages, most notably incomplete or inaccurate records for the former method, and sampling and recall biases for the latter. The current state of knowledge is not such that causal inferences regarding brain functions and crime can be made (Beaver, 2008). Researchers suggested that brain functions associated with the perpetration of property crimes differ according to whether the crimes are premeditated or opportunistic. Excessive alcohol consumption and psychological disorders have been shown to have deleterious effects on most organ systems, to be a major cause of fatal and nonfatal injury, and to contribute to a range of psychological and social problems (Wright et al 2008).
Gilbertson et al (2002) researched the problem of posttraumatic stress disorder and found that: “None of the “stay-at-home” twins had experienced PTSD, and of the combat veteran twin counterparts who were diagnosed with PTSD, there was a statistically significant likelihood that they had a smaller hippocampus than their counterparts. In the veterans who were affected, hippocampal volume was 10% smaller on average than that of others who had seen combat” (Wright et al 2008, p. 81). It is becoming increasingly clear that the relative risks and benefits of brain functions are likely to vary across the life span. During adolescence and early adulthood, motor vehicle crashes represent the most serious consequences as well as the leading cause of mortality for this age group (Wright et al 2008).
Although a considerable amount is known concerning the effects of brain dysfunctions on health broadly defined, much more needs to be known concerning elucidating the mechanisms underlying the consequences of trauma. Interpretation of many associations is complicated by a variety of third variables and unmeasured confounders and vulnerability factors that are important determinants of stress effects. Stress and brain dysfunction are often accompanied by other “risky” or outright health-damaging behaviors and isolating unique effects are frequently difficult. Similarly, as previously noted, many individuals who tend to behave violently probably also tend to experience other psychological and social problems, and associations between brain disorders and many adverse psychosocial outcomes (e.g., disrupted family life, impaired work performance, crime, psychological disorders) are difficult to disentangle. Thus, clinicians are often limited in their ability to ascribe a causal role to the brain (Beaver, 2008). Taken together, twin and adoption studies have provided very strong evidence for the role of both genetic and environmental factors in the pathogenesis of violence. Nevertheless, these methodologies also have been criticized for issues such as poor measurement of environmental influences, and inattention to nonshared environmental effects, and indirect genetic effects such as correlations and interactions. “Unfortunately, criminological research has not examined structural or functional problems with most of the brain regions discussed above, particularly those of the limbic system. However, likely, trauma to or developmental problems in such structures and/or functions have significant influences on criminal tendencies” (Wright et al 2008, p. 92).
The demonstration of major single-gene effects for diseases such as Huntington’s and muscular dystrophy has motivated a great deal of research aimed at identifying specific markers for psychiatric disorders, including alcohol abuse and dependence. A particular subtype of dehydrogenase (ADH) isoenzyme has been found to vary in different ethnic groups and is associated with differential sensitivity to alcohol. For example, individuals with the B, subunit (approximately 65% of the Asian population) appear to oxidize alcohol faster than those with the R, subunit (most Caucasians) resulting in higher levels of acetaldehyde (initial metabolite) which may lead to tissue damage (Beaver, 2008). Genetic linkage studies attempt to identify within-family associations between a genetic marker and a particular disorder, which would suggest the existence of a disorder- susceptibility locus close to the marker site. Rising methodological concerns about association studies have led to an increased focus on genetic linkage methods (Wright et al 2008).
In a review of vulnerability studies examining cognitive/neuropsychological functioning, data suggest differences in the cognitive functioning of the brain, particularly relating to deficits in verbal ability and abstraction/conceptual reasoning among brain functions. Studies conducted have also suggested reliable differences in visual-spatial learning related to temporal organization, attention, and informational encoding The main significance of these identified differences is presently unclear, although several plausible hypotheses can be forwarded. For instance, impaired verbal and problem-solving abilities may contribute to school failure, consequent loss of self-esteem, and adoption of a deviant role (Beaver, 2008). Findings of educational achievement among students with stress disorders are consistent with this notion. A second hypothesis is that cognitive deficits may lead to reduced coping abilities with consequent use of alcohol as a coping strategy. Another possibility is that alcohol consumption subjectively improves cognitive performance in some people and is thus reinforcing. This hypothesis is supported by results from several researchers who have reported that adolescents tend to believe that alcohol improves cognitive and motor performance Research suggests that brain disorders activity may characterize only one form of psychological problems. This hypothesis is also consistent with research demonstrating that low platelet activity is associated with behavioral control traits such as sensation-seeking and impulsivity. However, results from a recent study indicate that brain activity is associated with a range of factors such as cigarette and other drug use, other psychopathology, medical illness, metabolic factors, and, as noted above, personality traits. Brain activity may be a consequence of alcohol or other drug use or a non-specific indicator of a range of disorders related to impulsivity and aggressiveness (Beaver, 2008).
This essay deals with some peculiarities of criminal behavior. Under the circumstances like these, it is rather difficult for people to find any possible explanation of crime. According to recent research, crime exists due to a continual interaction between both genetic environmental factors. These factors exist independently from each other and can influence the behavior of the people. The understanding of brain functions and dysfunctions can help criminologists to identify the main trends and causes of crime and violence behavior patterns.
A couple of decades ago, criminologists ignored the role that biochemical conditions and brain activity played in determining criminal tendencies towards certain individuals. A clique of them argued that an individual’s predisposition towards crime was strictly dictated by the environment in which he or she was brought up and or physical characteristics. However, recent studies suggest that there is a strong link between an individual’s biochemical makeup and brain activity and the tendency to engage in criminal activities.
The studies were initiated soon after the researchers realized that the environmental theory had serious limitations. It was observed that when a group of people was exposed to similar environmental pressures, only a few of them engaged in crime while the rest did not. Thus, bio-criminologists unanimously agreed that there were those biochemical factors that affected people’s behaviors and that there was a possible correlation between brain activity and violence.
Is it a probability or a fact that biochemical factors such as nutrition or allergies can cause an individual to engage in crime? The brain cannot function properly in the absence of mandatory levels of minerals including vitamins. During early childhood development, and inappropriate diet could lead to nutritional deficiencies for a child which in turn will result in serious behavioral, mental, and physical problems. Researchers observed that an improved diet improved a child’s concentration and overall cognitive abilities.
Such a child showed improved performance in school and showed very little or no delinquency. Furthermore, the researchers identified causes for cognitive difficulties, depression, and maniac disorders as a direct result of deficiencies of minerals such as peptides, calcium, sodium, potassium amino acids, and other essential nutrients. The foregoing mental problems were certain to increase an individual’s tendency towards engaging in violent behavior. It was also observed that insufficient or total lack of vitamins C, B6, and B3 caused people to engage in anti-social behavior (Waller, 2009).
A study conducted at a state penitentiary concluded that there was a direct correlation between violence and diets high in carbohydrates and sugar. The two interfered with a person’s normal behavior by increasing rates of aggression. In the penitentiary, the youths were unwittingly fed with a diet low on sugar and carbohydrates and the results were appalling. After some time, there was a 50% decline in violence among the youths being experimented on. Nevertheless, some studies suggested the contrary in that crime due to sugar and carbohydrate factors were certainly not serious and that some people became less aggressive when they took more of the two (Decker, 2007).
How a person’s brain metabolizes glucose can lead to antisocial behavior especially if there is an anomaly when sugar is taken. It is worth noting that apart from all other body organs, the brain is the only one that utilizes glucose to nurture all its energy needs. If glucose levels fall below essential levels required for the brain to function properly, an individual could develop a brain disorder called hypoglycemia. This condition is characterized by symptoms ranging from phobias, anxiety, mood swings, temper tantrums insomnia, and acute depression. Serious crimes such as rape, assault, suicide, and even homicide have been attributed to hypoglycemia. Moreover, studies have shown that most of the habitually violent inmates in penitentiaries suffered from hypoglycemia (Klein, 2006).
Why is it that men are more predisposed towards violence than women? The answer lies in hormones and neurotransmitters. Androgens are higher in men than they are in women thereby explaining why they are more violent. However, as they age, the levels of this hormone decline and so is their tendency towards engaging in violent behaviors. The adolescent stage is when the production of androgen is at its highest. Chemicals such as steroids artificially increase the level of this hormone in the human body.
High levels of androgen lead to aggressive behavior. One of the most common androgens (male hormones) is testosterone. Paradoxically speaking, medical intervention can expose female children at an early age to too much testosterone thereby making them more violent while on the other hand, male children may have their testosterone levels reduced through drugs during early stages thereby making them less aggressive. Androgens are known to cause brain seizures that can lead to increased temper. Other hormones like progesterone in females can lead to increased violence or antisocial behavior especially during menstruation when the levels are high (Waller, 2009).
Trouble arises whenever the human brain is affected by neuroallergies. This is certain to cause depression, aggression, and hyperactivity. When presented with negative stimuli, people suffering from near allergies are more likely to engage n violence. Neuroallergies are mostly caused by chocolate, eggs, milk, nuts, corn, etc. Studies show that rates of homicide are high in countries with lots of corn. The culprits often experience severe stress due to their brain’s reaction to allergy (Klein, 2006).
Aggressive and antisocial behavior among people can come about as a result of exposure to certain chemical elements in the environment e.g. mercury, food dye, artificial coloring, chlorine, copper, etc. Lead poisoning also causes violence. Studies have shown that areas with high rates of homicide and other forms of violence had a lot of lead in the air. Lead led to low levels of IQ among adolescents which caused them to be more violent. Such adolescents had concentration problems, were delinquent, aggressive, and had inadequate language skills due to high amounts of lead in their bones (Decker, 2007).
Due to space constraints, it would be difficult indeed to exhaust other different ways that are equally important in which biochemical conditions and brain activity are linked to crime in such a vivid detailed manner as would be necessary to completely inform the reader. To such an extent, the article will forthwith outline any other manner in which the foregoing factors are linked to crime and will leave it up to the reader to engage in further outside research in case he or she needed more information on the same.
Indeed, studies have shown that when electrical impulses given off by brainwaves (EEG or electroencephalograph) are higher than usual, this leads to abnormal activity of the brain and the victim is highly likely to engage in very serious violent crimes. Others include children whose brain is affected while still in the womb of mothers who took alcohol and other harmful substances. Such children show deviant behavior and are unable to fathom the long-term consequences of their reckless actions. Abnormalities in cerebral structure can also lead to episodes of violent rage. The affected individuals can either commit suicide or homicide. Finally, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD), brain tumors, brain injury, abnormal levels of neurotransmitters e.g. dopamine, serotonin, and brain structure are directly linked to crime (Klein, 2006).
References
Decker, S. (2007). Expand the use of police gang units. Criminology and Public Policy, 6 (4), 729–734.
Klein, M. (2006). Street Gang Patterns and Policies. Secaucus, NJ: Chart well Books, Inc.
Waller, I. (2009). Less Law, More Order. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Human brain forms a comparatively small but very important part of a human being. It practically controls every action that a person performs. Consciously or subconsciously all other body organs depend on the brain to behave in any particular way. The brain is therefore a crucial organ, and if anything happens to it, the whole body will come to a stop. Notably, the brain is divided into two portions with each having various distinct roles. Nevertheless, sometimes it is very difficult to differentiate between the functions of the two theories.
Arguably, assignments and various functions are balanced between the two parts of the brain to ensure maximum output. The two parts of the brain are known to work in close connection thus making them almost similar. Still, the functions executed by the two parts are different.
To begin with, the right part of the brain conducts intuitive, subjective and holistic thinking (Luys, 2012). This means that it is bound to be random in thinking. On the other hand, the left part of the brain carries out thinking in a logical, rational and objective way. Therefore, human beings are either based towards subjectivity or objectivity depending on the part of the brain that they use most.
It should be stated that the left hemisphere is responsible for actions of the right muscles. On the same note, the left hemisphere controls the sensory activities and the right motor.
For example, handwriting and language are controlled by the left hemisphere. As a result, people who tend to rely more on the left brain part are usually very comfortable with language (Darvas, 2007). On the other hand, the right hemisphere controls speech and hearing processes. Therefore, people who depend more on the right side of the brain have good verbal expressions.
Another difference between the two sides of the brain is that the left side deals with information in pieces. Once information is received, the left hemisphere will break it down and then tries to understand each bit individually. Moreover, this part of the brain will arrange the various bits of the information in a chronological manner before drawing conclusions (Annett, 2013).
As a result, the left part of the brain will take a bit longer to respond to an issue. On the other hand, the right part of the brain considers any information wholesomely. Details are not given much attention and thus it starts with the answer before getting to the main problem.
The brain can also be categorized on the way it conducts its day-to-day tasks. The right hemisphere is known for the random manner in which it executes its duties. It is carrying out many assignments at the same time. Without any form of arrangement, the right brain starts with any task but can move to the next without necessarily completing the first one.
As a result, it performs a huge number of tasks in the end but not necessarily the most important ones. On the contrary, the left brain is systematic in its approach to tasks (Noite, 2008). It always has a schedule of the duties to be accomplished in their order of preference. Consequently, it completes its tasks as per its list and does so effectively.
Similarly, the left hemisphere works well with symbols. As a result, letters and words do not become a problem to it. It prefers distinctions between events and characters. Therefore, working with mathematical notations is carried out by the left brain. It is also very good at memorizing and is usually tasked with the role of retrieving information whenever required.
Al Ghraibe (2012) finds in his study that repetitive learning and thinking processes are based on the left part of the brain, while the right hemisphere works well with tangible materials and things that can be felt (Al Ghraibeh, 2012). This hemisphere enjoys words that form a sentence and prefers calculated mathematical examples to the notations. Linking one event to another is the way this part of the brain works and therefore connectedness of issues is better to it.
This brings about the difference we see in human beings (Nunez, 2010). While there are people who read once and understand issues, others have to see pictures for them to remember well what they have learnt. On the same note, people who rely more on the left hemisphere of the brain can easily be given a formula and then do a calculation. However, people who rely more on the right hemisphere have to see calculations where formulas are used in order to understand them.
When solving a problem, the two hemispheres of the brain again exhibit differences. The left hemisphere does not stop until all decisions have proof. In other words, it uses logic to come up with any decision. It plans and structures any problem in order to apply concrete and credible information.
As a result, this part of the brain prefers multiple choice tests because then it can be able to logically come up with an answer. Not only does the left hemisphere look at the causes of any problem, but also at the effects of the same (Northoff, 2004). According to Al Ghraibeh (2012), logical intelligence is related to the left hemisphere. However, the right part of the brain is always guided by emotions in any problem-solving situation.
It does not take into consideration what information is available but rather takes what feels like the right thing to do. Moreover, the right part of the brain does not like giving straightforward answers on any issue. So, it prefers open ended questions which give room for discussion. In this regard, while the left part of the brain covers talking and writing, the right hemisphere prefers drawings because they have room for manipulation.
Arguably, the left part of the brain has no problems using words for expression. People who tend to rely more on the left side of the brain are good communicators and can make good orators. The conducted studies show that linguistic intelligence is influenced by the left hemisphere (Al Ghraibeh, 2012).
On the other hand, the right hemisphere of the brain has a lot of difficulty explaining issues. Even when the picture is clear to this part of the brain about what should be said, getting the correct words to use is a problem. In this regard, people who use the right hemisphere easily get emotional when explaining themselves (Mildner, 2008). As a result, these people usually have to get a backup of every issue. They are highly likely to make notes of what they would like to say.
Additionally, the left dominated people are more obedient to the rule in place at any scenario. They do not want to be on the wrong at any given instance. As a result, they will try to know every detail regarding the laws that are present wherever they are. Due to their fear of breaking rules, these people will always set their own rules and follow them even if they are not applicable.
People whose left hemisphere dominates will always want to fit in every situation perfectly and will therefore adjust in under different circumstances (McGilChrist, 2012).
On the contrary, the right part of the brain is driven by imagination and emotions. Thus, people, whose right part of the brain dominates, learn well by attaching emotions to various aspects. When they have no emotional attachment to something, it becomes difficult for them to remember it. In many instances, they do not give much thought to the repercussions of their emotional attachments.
Considering various differences existing between the two hemispheres of the brain, it should be noted that they have several similarities. Notably, both parts of the brain execute their functions with a high degree of interdependency. Information like sensory observations is transmitted equally between the two hemispheres of the brain (Gazzaniga, 2000).
In fact, it has been proved that people whose one part of the brain has been removed due to sickness usually recover and carry out their daily chores effectively. This implies that the remaining part of the brain takes up the functions of the other part. However, it should be stated that there are some differences in the way these people behave. As far as the structure of the brain is concerned, the two hemispheres are almost the same. They are also connected by nerve fibers to enhance communication between the two.
References
Al Ghraibeh, A. M. (2012). Brain Based Learning and its relation with Multiple Intelligences. International journal of Psychological Studies, 4(1), 103-113.
Annett, M. (2013). Handedness and Brain Asymmetry: The Right Shift Theory. Oxford, England: Psychology Press.
Darvas, G. (2007). Symmetry: Cultural-historical and Ontological Aspects of Science-Arts Relations; the Natural and Man-Made World in an Interdisciplinary approach. New York, NY: Springer.
Gazzaniga, M. S. (2000). Cerebral Specialization and Interhemispheric Communication: Does the Corpus Callosum Enable the Human Condition? Brain Journal of Neurology, 123(7), 1293-1326.
Luys, J. B. (2012). The Brain and Its Functions. Memphis, TN: General Books LLC.
McGilchrist, A. (2012). The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Mildner, V. (2008). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Human Communication. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Noite, J. (2008). The Human Brain: with Student Consult Online Access. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsivier Health Sciences.
Northoff, G. (2004). Philosophy of the Brain: The Brain Problem. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing.
Nunez, P. L. (2010). Brain, Mind, and the Structure of Reality. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
There is no use denying the fact that a human being is a very sophisticated creature that has a great number of various mechanisms that regulate its functioning and behavior. Every mechanism is responsible for a certain kind of activity and performs various actions and tasks. Their efficient functioning is vital for the existence of a human being and its ability to act and live. However, it should also be said that these mechanisms are controlled by the organ that is extremely vital for any creature. Being a command center that controls all functions of the organism, the brain is the vital organ in which functioning determines the manner of behavior and a great number of other functions. That is why its traumatic injury can have a great negative impact on the life of a person.
Nevertheless, resting on the great importance of the given issue, there is a great number of articles and works devoted to the investigation of the main aspects of the functioning of the brain and the impact which the traumatic injury can have on it. Thus, it should also be said that it is quite simple to be injured and obtain serious damage even without some serious accident. That is why, it becomes obvious that not only scientists but common people should also have some information connected with the traumatic brain injuries, their main classification and the aftermath for people. Resting on these very facts, Pangilinan (2015) devotes the article to some general aspects of traumatic brain injuries, trying to outline the most important aspects of the given issue.
Besides, being oriented not only to scientists but towards the common people to, the article by Pangilinan (2015) revolves around the most important definitions and notions of the given sphere. The method chosen by the author lies in the attempt not to go into the specialized and sophisticated details of traumatic brain injury, however, to show readers the most important facts that should be known to protect themselves. The author also reviews the existing literature devoted to the chosen sphere to present clear and, at the same time, correct classification of the main kinds of traumatic brain injuries and their possible aftermath. That is why the chosen methods help Pangilinan to convey the information and cover the topic.
Thus, it should be said that in the course of the article the author manages to provide some important information connected with the issue of traumatic brain injuries. First of all, a clear and understandable definition of brain injury is given. It becomes obvious that it is the kind of trauma that makes the further existence of a person complicated and can even lead to death (Pangilinan, 2015). Additionally, the classification, which revolves around the primary and secondary injuries, is also provided by the author. Trying to suggest various types of classification, including the one that bases on the degree of severity, the author underlines the fact that it is vital to determine the precise kind of trauma as it could save the life of the patient.
Thus, it should be said that Pangilinan (2015) concludes that traumatic brain injury is a very important issue that should be investigated not only by specialists. That is why the general characteristics of various kinds of traumas are provided for common people to get to know about them. Nevertheless, the author also concludes that resting on the severity of the trauma, a person could suffer from various aftermath, starting from a headache and ending with death. That is why timely classification and ability to recognize the first symptoms of the given problem could save the life of a patient. Due to this fact, the given article could be taken as very informative and helpful.
However, at the same time, it is obvious that to investigate the issue better and understand the main mechanisms of the development of brain injuries and the main ways to help people recover from them the knowledge of their main symptoms and classification is not enough. That is why, a certain experiment should be conducted to understand some important processes that occur in the injured brain and the study, which investigates the results of this experiment, should also be organized.
With this in mind, it is possible to mention the paper by Finnie and Blumbergs (2002) devoted to the investigation of the traumatic process with the help of animal models. There is no use denying the fact that various species have been used in science to conduct various experiments for a long time. That is why this practice could be used in the sphere of traumatic injuries to investigate it better. Besides, the authors outline two main reasons for the given paper which are the fact that traumatic injuries are the leading cause of death in people under 45 and the failure of various clinical trials to achieve success in this sphere (Finnie & Blumbergs, 2002).
That is why the Finnie and Blumbergs paper revolves around various kinds of animal models and experiments connected with them. Using investigation and scientific observation as the main methods for their research, the authors outline the main peculiarities of the behavior of animals, who suffer from various kinds of traumatic brain injuries. Experiments are organized for various kinds of brain injuries that are classified by the accepted rules. Moreover, the authors create various computer models to predict the development of different kinds of traumatic brain injuries and compare their suggestions with animal models. Finally, investigation of the influence of stimuli on the process of development of injuries is also performed by the authors. Laminagram is also used in the process of investigation of the given issue to show the differences in the brains of animals.
With this in mind, it is possible to say that the authors obtain the results which show that the process of development of traumatic brain injury could be investigated with the help of various scientific methods and animal models (Finnie & Blumbergs, 2002).
Additionally, the authors conclude that the further usage of the animal models could help to improve the situation in the given sphere and obtain some information connected with the development of injuries and the process of recovery of a patient who suffers from them. The information about the pathogenesis obtained in the course of the experiment (Finnie & Blumbergs, 2002) could become very helpful for the further investigation of the issue.
Thus, it should also be said that the issue of traumatic brain injuries is studied from another perspective, which is, though, similar to the previous one. The fact is, that the process of resuscitation of patients, who suffer from traumatic brain injuries, is a very complicated and long-termed procedure. Hulme (2008) in his article underlines the fact that with the lack of scientific treatments, connected with the given sphere, the life of these patients could become very limited and complicated. That is why, he outlines the necessity of the new stimulus for the given sphere to create the approach that could help patients to resuscitate and restore their functions (Hulme, 2008). Besides, the author also cogitates about the most important methods that could be used to achieve the outlined target and help to create an efficient procedure of recovery.
Resting on all these facts, it is possible to say that the last two articles, mentioned in the given paper, suggest a more scientific approach to the issue of traumatic brain injuries, investigating it from various perspectives and conducting complicated and important experiments which could help to study the process better, while the first article presents some general knowledge of the given sphere which is clear for the common people.
Finally, it is possible to say that the information presented in the given work provides some opportunities for further discussion of the given issue. The main peculiarities of animal models and experiments connected with it could be used for the further investigation of the main peculiarities of the development of brain injuries. Moreover, taking into account the great importance of the process of resuscitation of patients suffering from brain injuries, it is possible to predict that animal models could also be used for the creation of practices that could help people to recover faster.
There is one human brain but appears to be in two halves. The first one is called the left hemisphere while the second one is called the right hemisphere depending on the orientation of the person. It has been assumed that there is only one brain and therefore there is only one person.
But in the medical field, doctors made the discovery that it is possible to split the brain so to speak by cutting the main nerve that connects the two hemispheres. Researchers were able to discover that the left hemisphere is distinct from the right hemisphere.
After medical operations of this nature, researchers conducted experiments to find out the impact of such a medical procedure. Afterwards, the scientific community had to figure out if there are indeed two personalities within one human body.
The split-brain phenomenon is not a by-product of illegal human experiments. It is the unintended result of a medical procedure for epileptic patients. This is made possible by a medical procedure called cerebral commissurotomy or split brain surgery (Moor, 1982, p.91). In a typical surgery of this nature, the nerve that connects the two cerebral hemispheres is severed (Moor, 1982, p.91).
At first glance there seems to be two kinds of brain. A series of experiments were conducted to determine if there are negative effects to split brain surgery. The initial discovery is that the two hemispheres can function independent of the other.
The main question that surfaced after the discovery can be summarized in the following query: “Are there really in the brain thus divided, two separate conscious minds, in effect two co-conscious selves sharing the one cranium (Sperry, 1984, p. 662). There are two major implications of this theory.
First of all “a split-brain patient has two separate spheres of consciousness (Moor, 1982, p.92). Secondly, “two separate spheres of consciousness are two different selves” (Moor, 1982, p.92). It is important to know the answer to this question because a split-brain phenomenon that leads to split personality then the medical practice like the split-brain method must be continued. But there are other reasons why it is important to find out if there are two individuals inside one body.
Before going any further it is important to clarify the basic design of the human brain. According to one commentary “By and large, the left cerebral hemisphere is associated with the right side of the body and the right hemisphere with the left side” (Perry, 1975, p. 229).
Both hemispheres are linked to the spinal column and peripheral nerves through a common brain stem, but they also communicate directly with one another, by a large transverse band of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum, plus some smaller pathways” (Perry, 1975, p. 229).
The normal connection did not bring out what researchers were able to discover later on. But when the nerve was cut for medical purposes scientists were able to discover something that can radically alter how people see the function of the brain.
The Experiments
In one interesting study that supports the idea of brain bisection, a brain-splitting activity was performed as part of a medical procedure to treat a person’s epilepsy. In the said brain-splitting procedure the connection between the two halves of the brain was cut without injuring the brain and at the same time allowing the two halves to function correctly.
In the said procedure the optic chiasma was left intact and therefore there was no other means to connect to the two halves except through the eyes. It was therefore necessary for the researchers to create steps that would make it impossible for the right eye to see what the left eye has been shown in the subsequent experiment. The results stunned the scientific community.
The researchers flashed signals individually to the right and left eye. The signal was limited in duration and distance so that the left brain cannot access the signal intended for the right side of the brain. This procedure is known as tachistoscopic stimulation (Perry, 1975).
In one particular instance two different words were flashed to the two half fields for example the word toothbrush was flashed to right side and the word pencil was flashed to the left side. Interestingly, the right hand picked up the pencil and discarded it.
But the right hand continues to search for the toothbrush and after locating it announced that the task has been completed. In a similar fashion, the left hand rejected the toothbrush. But when it picked up the pencil, the subject also signalled to the researcher that the task has been completed. A more poignant example is given below:
A pipe is placed out of sight in the patient’s left hand, and he is then asked to write with his left hand what he was holding. Very laboriously and heavily the left hand writes the letters P and I. Then suddenly the writing speeds up and becomes lighter, the I is converted to an E, and the word is completed as PENCIL.
Evidently the left hemisphere has made a guess based on the appearance of the first two letters, and has interfered, with ipsilateral control. But then the right hemisphere takes over control of the hand again, heavily crosses out the letters ENCIL, and draws a crude picture of a pipe (Perry, 1975, p. 232).
In another experiment, a split-brain patient was shown two colours. The left hemisphere was exposed to the colour red while the right hemisphere of the brain was shown the colour blue (Preyer & Siebelt, p.138). In addition, the left hand was given a pen to right the answers to subsequent questions.
The same thing was done to the right hand. When the facilitator asked how many colours can the subject see, the reply was that there is only one colour. The subject had to answer the question by writing it down with either left or right hand. When asked to write down the colour that was observed earlier, the right hand wrote down blue while the left hand wrote down red.
It seems difficult to go against the idea that in a split-brain scenario the patient has developed two personalities based on distinct behaviour linked to the two hemispheres. It seems clear that the right hand did not know what the left hand was doing. It is critical to discover if there is indeed two persons battling supremacy in one body. However, the most logical position is given below:
An intact brain contains two cerebral hemispheres each of which possesses perceptual, memory, and control systems adequate to run the body without the assistance of the other. They cooperate in directing it with the aid of a constant two-way internal communication system.
Memories, perceptions, desires and so forth therefore have duplicated physical bases on both sides of the brain… the cooperation of the undetached hemispheres in controlling the body is more efficient and direct than the cooperation of a pair of detached hemisphere, but it is cooperation nonetheless (Perry, 1975, p. 243).
There are numerous studies that can bolster this argument. One major implication of the conclusion provided by Perr (1975) is that it is better for the two hemispheres to work together. The best way to corroborate that assertion is to focus on studies that revealed the distinct differences of the left and right hemisphere. An example is given below:
In this regard, we have found out that the right hemisphere of the patient has a sense of self, for it knows the name it collectively shares with the left. The right hemisphere has feelings, for it can describe its mood. The right hemisphere has a sense of the future, for it knows what day tomorrow is. The right hemisphere has aspirations and goals for the future, for it can describe its occupational choice (LeDoux, Wilson, & Gazzaniga, 1977, p. 419).
In another commentary the idea of two persons in one head could not be supported by facts “A more promising response to the argument begins with the observation that in actual case, the alleged two persons themselves do not believe they are two” (Davis, 1997, p.211).
In a controlled environment it is easy to show that the left hemisphere functions independent of the right hemisphere. Thus, there is a distinction that can be made between the two. However, there is not enough evidence to prove that both hemispheres can function without the other.
In order to push the study to the next level it is important for researchers to refine the experiment. It is important to continue conducting research on animals. A split-brain surgery must be made. In one of the studies that would be designed to know more about this phenomenon, researchers must try to eliminate the function of the left hemisphere and find out if the subject can still function in a normal manner. It is not clear how they can proceed but it can be argued that animal subjects may not survive such ordeal. One way to handle the problem is to kill the left hemisphere and observe if the body can be sustained with only half of the total brain capacity.
It is highly doubtable that researchers will be able to conduct experiments of this nature without experiencing a high-level of mortality. The brain is a very sensitive organ and the process of destroying one hemisphere can lead to death. If the subject cannot survive the initial phase of the experiment then it is unlikely that the said experiment can be replicated on humans. However, it is only through a more refined study can scientists truly determine if there are two persons in one cramium
One Brain and One Person
The main argument that shoots down the idea of multiple person or at least two persons in one head cannot be substantiated with facts. Even in patients that underwent special surgery there is no split-personality disorder that was documented to have occurred in the aftermath of the surgery. There is normalcy and the subject can perform normal tasks unhindered. If there are two personalities in one head then one can expect chaos.
The person with this problem cannot function normally in society. There should be evidence of agitated mental state. This should be the expected outcome if there are two forces that are battling inside the person. One of the most important arguments against the “two person” concept is the fact that split-brain surgery is considered an effective treatment modality for patients suffering from epilepsy. If there were complications and other unintended consequences because of the surgery then the medical community should have discontinued its practice.
Another important piece of evidence that would support the unified brain or one person theory is the observations made in the aftermath of a surgery that required the separation of the two hemispheres by cutting the nerves adjoining the two. According to one study, “these patients following surgery appear in ordinary, everyday behavior to be very typical, single-minded, normally unified individuals” (Sperry, 1984, p. 662).
In other studies the intelligence tests on patients that underwent brain bisection and hemidecortication showed no significant difference suggesting that one hemisphere is more dominant than the other (Zaidel, Zaidel, & Sperry, 1981). Another compelling argument is given by a group of researchers who asserted that a person cannot physically fall asleep and then at the same time swim in the ocean (Schechter, 2009, p.107).
Although the great cerebral commissure or the corpus callosum is the primary nerve that connects the two hemispheres, it is also important to point out that there are other additional connecting commissures (Churchland, 1986, p.174).
Researchers must not discount the fact that “since the brain is not divided at all in the midbrain and brain stem, there are presumably communicating routes via these structures” (Churchland, 1986, p.174). It must be made clear also that it is possible that there were no split-brain that occurred after the surgery.
In other words it is possible that the interesting research findings mentioned earlier were just temporary. It is possible that the brain can find a way to reconnect the two even without the main nerve that connects the two hemispheres.
Those who support the theory of divided self points to experimental results that shows that “the mute right brain communicates only with electrochemical means … sensory information from the patient’s left side is processed by the right side of the brain and vice versa” (Franks, 2010, p.3).
This argument can be used to favor the unified brain concept. It can be said that there are two hemispheres that may act independent of each other but having distinct sets of functions. The left hemisphere may be the main part of the brain that is in-charge of speech while the right hemisphere can be the part that is in-charge of non-verbal thought processes.
Conclusion
The split-brain surgery revealed amazing discoveries in the field of psychology and neuroscience. After numerous experiments conducted to determine the brain functions of patients that underwent split brain surgery, it was discovered that the left hemisphere is independent of the right hemisphere.
It seems that these two can function without the help of the other. However, based on observations made on normal people and those that underwent split brain-surgery, the design and function of the brain points to a unified whole. It has been discovered that the body needs these two hemispheres to work together as one.
References
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