The brain is a sophisticated tissue that regulates every body’s biological process, including thought, memories, mood, respiration, metabolism, and nutrition. The brain has three significant aspects: the brainstem, cerebellum, and cranium. The aspect of the brain functioning that compels is the cerebellum; despite being relatively diminutive in contrast to the rest of our brain, it contains more than half of the cells that make up the nervous system in the entire body (Stuss, 2020). The cerebellum helps regulate and control various processes and functions in the brain and the body.
Discussion
Executive functions refer to the mental capacities for awareness, decision-making, recalling instructions, focusing attention, and learning the skill of successful task balancing. The above is according to the article Executive Functioning and the Application of Social Skills Following Traumatic Brain Injury written by Godfrey, H. P. D. and Shum. The authors argue that, in the human brain, the prefrontal areas of the frontal cortex are principally responsible for controlling administrative processes (Godfrey & Shum, 2018). Thus, executive functions of the brain require strategies to improve their working, as discussed below. Firstly, emotional control – this helps a person to manage their emotions more effectively. It also assists them to differentiate between thoughts and feelings, thus, allowing the individual to regulate as well as restructure their emotions and judgements when faced with challenging situations.
Secondly, initiating a task –This facilitates actions and engagement. Its strategy to improve the brain’s executive functioning is to take a list of daily activities to complete and brainstorm various beginning places before sharing. Thirdly, organization – by being prepared, one can keep track of things both physically and psychologically, and to improve this tactic, one should have planners, organizational apps, and checklists to organize oneself. Finally, flexible thinking – being open-minded makes it possible to respond to the unplanned. Improving this strategy requires ensuring that a weekly diary prompts us to do precisely that—to look at issues from several angles.
Conclusion
In the above-selected article, I have learned that the brain has three main parts, and the Cerebellum being the smallest part, holds more than half of the cells that make up the nervous system. In addition, I now understand that the brain is composed of highly linked neurons organized both laterally and hierarchically, allowing for the simultaneous input, integration, and output of many substances and physiological inputs.
References
Godfrey, H. P. D., & Shum, D. (2018). Executive functioning and the application of social skills following traumatic brain injury. Aphasiology, 14(4), 433–444. Web.
Stuss, D. T. (2020). Biological and psychological development of executive functions. Brain and Cognition, 20(1), 8–23. Web.
The behaviour of human beings is determined by the brain particularly the prefrontal cortex which determines the maturity of human beings.
Adolescents in the second decade of their life are among the most hardworking compared to adults.
They are found to put so much effort to work utilizing their energies to the maximum (Dolan 2002, pp. 76). However, adolescent behaviour is found to be more violent than adult behaviour in the execution of duties. At times, some adolescents tend to behave more or less like adults but this is not the case. This essay devises mechanisms through which one can analyze the relationship between age and behaviour of human beings based on mental development. Studies by neuroscientists show that adolescents possess the ability to perform very organized work in one day but the following day they do something one did not expect them to do. It was also arrived at that the brain of an adolescent takes chronological modelling which makes them able to live by taking risks and making some inappropriate responses.
Behavioural differences of adolescents and adults brain development
The scientific study of the brain also known as neuroscience is among the greatest studies used in the analysis of actions of human beings both at their young and old ages. In the transition age from childhood to adulthood, the brain undergoes development especially at its frontal lobe which is responsible for the socialization process. If the brain development of an early adolescent is measured then compared with that of a late adolescent, it will then be discovered that the late adolescent brain will have grown significantly resulting in many differences in change of behaviour (Hooper 2000, pp. 103). What develops in the mind of an adolescent that makes them change to adults is the prefrontal cortex which is located in the frontal lobes of the brain. This part is also known as the executive of the brain which is responsible for organizing personal priorities, setting strategies and allocating attention. The development of this part of the brain is what makes adults different from teens in terms of behaviour response.
The unavailability of this ability in adolescents makes them behave in a more disorganized manner. Most of them indulge in excessive beer drinking forgetting their priories of life, some even decide to leave education for beer compared to an adult who just drinks a little beer and goes on with his planned strategies and priorities.
The growth and development of the chemical messages dopamine among adolescents take place drastically during adolescence. This part is responsible for mature judgment among adults but this at times is noticeable among late adolescents. This explains why adolescents at their early stages perform things without due concern about the results they would get. It happens that most just do a thing for their own satisfaction. Some at times take their time to jump off cliffs not aware that they may get injured but to satisfy their egos. This slow brain development of adolescents puts their lives at very high risks of death or procuring deadly diseases like sexually transited diseases due to their high levels of carelessness and failure to think of the future.
The part of the brain that handles information and critical messages and also which is responsible for helping in conceptualizing laws and rules as well as codes of social conduct and norms tends to have complex interconnections of neurons on the different parts of the cortex during adolescence. This complexity of interconnections reflects the amount of information that needs to be handled in the mind of an adolescent. Such development enables adolescents to learn and master cognitive and emotional challenges in life. This is why adolescents at this age are able to mater many things and with diverse involvement in so many activities like many friends, education, games, drinking and many other unidirectional activities (Hooper 2000, pp.137). In their twenties, adolescents reach an adult pattern with reduction of the complex interconnections to the formation of parallel processing mechanisms as adult age approaches. This is due to specific roles that adults become involved with which are relatively directional compared to those of adolescents.
The human brain during adolescence is the part of the body that is rapidly developing as adulthood approaches. This has been confirmed by neuroscientists through Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), a technique that has been used to study brain development from adolescence to adulthood. Many biological changes take place in the brain during adolescence including the thickening of the grey matter as well as increasing the white matter in the brain (Giedd 1999, pp. 115). The close levelling of the grey matter and the white matter in adolescents brings out an increasing level of maturity based on the actions associated. This automatically changes the behaviour from a more disorganized manner to a more organized and focused behaviour just like adults. The growth of the brain however can be influenced by either genetic or environmental factors. These may include bacteria, viruses, education, peers, drugs, nutrition and many others.
The MRI studies have shown how the adolescent brain is activated during some life situations. Normally, adolescents are very violent and easily carried away by emotional situations. The Magnetic Research Imaging research centre found that high emotions among teens were a result of activation of their amygdala which is the mental part responsible for experiencing and reacting to fear and danger. The amygdala is however absent in adults’ brains (Rausch 1998, pp. 97). Compared to adults, during emotions, a different part of the brain was found to be active. Their frontal cortex which is associated with thought and judgment was found to be activated at times of anger or danger. This frontal cortex is normally absent in adolescents but develops towards adulthood. The reaction of adults was classified as intellectual while those of adolescents were said to be out of personal guts.
During adolescence, teens frontal cortex is not normally functional but lags behind while still developing to maturity. Studies have been done by observing changes that occur during reasoning when an adult or an adolescent suffers brain damage. It was found that adults who suffer brain injury affecting their frontal cortex tend to be more impulsive and are easily destructed from their tasks thus lack sustained attention and suffer from short memory (Hooper 2000 pp.126).
This observation clearly gives the reason why adolescents possess a problem in inhibiting impulses. This was supported by the fact that in adolescents circuits needed for the control of impulses are not fully developed making it hard to sustain impulses.
In this study, it was also found that adults with damaged frontal cortex became hard to adapt to changing environments. This ability is associated with the frontal cortex which develops with age towards adulthood. In adolescents due to their developing frontal cortex, exhibit a problem in adapting to environmental changes in life even affecting their ability to change from situations. This is why many adolescents who are drug addicts are unable to change.
Connected with this premature development of the prefrontal cortex, it also affects the ability to plan for the future and the consequences of the line of action taken (Fieldman 1990 pp.47). Therefore, adolescents tend to make their decisions guided by emotions not taking into consideration the outcome of such a resolution. In addition to this, studies have found that the absence of the prefrontal cortex among adolescents makes them arrive at decisions guided by immediate outcomes and rewards.
Conclusion
Scientific studies and research have found that adolescents are never the same as adults in behaviour. The differences are based on the fact that the adolescent brain especially the part that controls the ability to make sound decisions in complex situations, the ability to control impulses and the making of good planning is not fully developed to maturity. Neuroscientists confirmed that this maturity happens in the third decade of life among human beings.
Social research recommends that teenagers should be in the hands of responsible adults or institutions that can help them learn adult behaviour.
In relation to laboratory animals, at their adolescent age, they are found to be very active just like adolescent human beings.
References
Hooper, C. (2000) Adolescent emotions and behavior. New Jersey, Erlbaum.
Fieldman, S. (1990) Adolescent development. Cambridge, Harvard Uni. Press.
Giedd, J. (1999) Brain development in adolescents. Florance, Routledge.
Hooper, C. (2000) Adolescent development psychology. Oxford, OUP.
Rausch, M. (1998) Neuroscience of emotions of human beings. Cambridge, MIT Press.
The purpose of the article is to investigate the structural changes in the human brain caused by a learning environment. The study took place in London, where taxi drivers, judged as average people with average Intelligent Quotients (IQs), took part. From the results of the study, the researchers identified that the human brain takes certain structural changes if a learning experience proves successful. However, for people that fail to go through a learning experience successfully, there are no structural changes to the brain.
Methods
The study used a longitudinal research approach to collect data to make final conclusions and suggestions. In the study, 79 male taxi drivers participated. The investigation started after their initial registration to start the training and after they graduated to become fully qualified taxi drivers. According to previous research studies, in the process of learning about the streets of London, taxi drivers documented a higher growth in the Gray Matter (GM) compared to other individuals. As a result, this particular study was to check if the previous findings were true and to what extent. The test showed that more than 50% of the taxi driver trainees failed to qualify.
Not all the 79 subjects investigated at the start of the training went on to pass eligibility. Instead, 39 qualified while the rest dropped out at some point of the training. MRI Scanning and Cognitive tests were applied to make sure that all the participants were in perfect health. In addition, the scans were put in store for future reference to identify the difference between the scans at the end of the learning process.
Results and Findings
According to the study results, it was identified that trainees that failed to go through the training successfully did not experience brain structural changes. For example, the hippocampal plasticity changes in the brain were observed in the drivers after three to four years experience as taxi drivers. Acquiring the knowledge about London had an impact on the posterior hippocampus. On the other hand, the hippocampus creates a unique space for storing memories about the streets of London and navigating through them.
With the demands of the spatial memory in the brain, the posterior hippocampus and the anterior hippocampus develop a diverging nature to accommodate the memory.
Conclusion
Brain structural changes in adulthood occur under specific conditions. For example, concomitant structural changes in the brain develop with the growing need for the brain to learn and acquire new knowledge. In addition, adults also experience an improvement in memory with increasing demand for the memory spatial. However, the availability of extra memory domain in a part of the brain costs other areas of the brain to suffer from a deficiency. As a result, performance levels in one part of the brain grow while in another part, the performance shrinks.
Personal Take on the Research Study
I make a positive review of the study and its outcome. With the follow-up of the trainees that made it through the training, I observe that the survey used the right data and information to come up with a conclusion. However, it has a limitation because it does not highlight factors that cause other trainees to fail. From the study findings, I have gained an insight concerning why some people excel in one aspect yet fail in another. To my understanding, as these individuals seek to perfect one area, they cause a deficiency in another aspect of the brain because creating a positive development in a part of the brain causes a deficiency in another. As a result, the structure of the brains turns out as unbalanced.
Human beings are being guided by their brain and nervous system as they interact with other species in their environment. There are some exceptional characteristics that allow the nervous system to direct human behavior: complexity, integration, adaptability, and electrochemical transmission. The brain’s complexity helps a person carry out a number of tasks—breathing seeing, moving—simultaneously. This is with the aid of billions of nerve cells participating. The brain also integrates a large amount of information gathered by the sense organs. Also, the brain and the nervous system together serve as an agent for human being’s adaptation to the constantly changing world. Lastly, the nervous system and the brain function essentially as an ultimate information processing system, which is powered by electrical impulses and chemical messengers (Santrock, 2003).
The brain is divided into four divisions: The hindbrain, which is located at the rear of the skull, the midbrain which is located between the hindbrain and the forebrain (a region where many nerve-fiber systems rise and fall in order to connect the higher and the lower portion of the brain), the forebrain, which is the highest level of the brain, and the spinal cord, which can be found at the spinal column (Santrock, 2003).
The forebrain may be considered as the most important and the most studied division of the brain. Most human experiences would not be possible without the forebrain. It contains the limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus), which is responsible for both memory and emotion; the thalamus, which is a very important organizer and sender of information; the basal ganglia which function as a coordinator of voluntary movements, and the hypothalamus, which monitors pleasurable activities such as eating, drinking, and sex. The forebrain also includes the cerebral cortex. Which functions for the highest mental activities such as thinking, analyzing, and planning (Santrock, 2003).
Most studies that were conducted by psychologists focus on specific parts of the forebrain and how they may be accounted for certain behaviors or how interventions may be conducted in these areas to improve existing behaviors. One study done by Bucci and Chess (2005) showed that the regulation of the changes in attentional processing of a conditioned stimulus involves specific parts of the forebrain such as the amygdala (its central nucleus, specifically) and the projections of the basal forebrain cholinergic towards the posterior parietal cortex. Their study examined how the posterior parietal cortex influence “attentional orienting behavior”. The study found out that even if the PPC was damaged, the attentional behavior is not diminished. These kinds of study may be given more attention to identifying how exactly the PPC affect associative learning and attention processing (Bucci and Chess, 2005).
“Another study, by Fortier et al (2008), was done to examine the ability of abstinent alcoholics and matched control participants to acquire learned responses during delay discrimination and discrimination reversal. The said behavior was then associated with the participants’ drinking history and neuropsychological performance. It has been found that alcoholics who learned the initial discrimination were impaired in acquiring the new conditioned stimulus after the tones reversed; this is a phenomenon that has previously been linked to specific forebrain structures. The researchers suggested that the presence of alcoholic-related associative behaviors that interfere with the ability to acquire other information about other adaptive associations may play a very important role in the alcohol addiction” (Fortier et al, 2008).
Why do psychologists pay much more attention to the forebrain than the other divisions of the brain? Psychology is the study of behavior, affect and cognition, and apparently, all of these processes happen in the forebrain. From the lobes to the hypothalamus, psychologists find many surprising links from the brain’s activity to specific behaviors.
References
Bucci, D. J. & Chess, A. C. (2005). Specific changes in conditioned responding following neurotoxic damage to the posterior parietal cortex. Behavioral Neuroscience. Vol. 119(6) 1580-1587.
Fortier, C. B., Steffen, E. M., LaFleche, G. et al (2008). Delay discrimination and reversal eyeblink classical conditioning in abstinent chronic alcoholics. Neuropsychology. Vol. 22 (2) 196-208.
Santrock, J. W. (2003). Psychology 7th edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Motivation is defined as the driving force or impetus behind behavior, thoughts and actions. Motivation energizes behavior and gives it direction towards a goal. The goal is always to satisfy a need, for example, hunger, thirst, pain avoidance, temperature regulation and elimination. At a higher level the motivation energizes behavior towards achievement, competence, affiliation, esteem and in this case quitting drinking (Gregon, Lefrancois, & Lard, 2003). The brain consists of many parts that function as an integrated whole. The major parts are the medulla, pons, and midbrain (collectively called the brain stem), the cerebellum, the hypothalamus, the thalamus, and the cerebrum. The brain parts are all interconnected and work together. There are specific parts of the brain which are involved in motivation. The limbic system regulates motivation and it is made up of parts known as the amygdale and the hippocampus. These parts helps human beings to learn what sorts of experiences and actions to go for and which ones to keep off. Just as in motivation, it helps humans to know exactly from where to get motivation; extrinsic or intrinsic.
A part of limbic system known as the deep limbic system which lies near the center of the brain acts as a source of drive that keeps people to be goal oriented and creates the desire to achieve. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) also controls motivation and attention. The functions of the prefrontal cortex are normally referred to as “executive functions”. Research studies have shown that any damage to the prefrontal cortex leads to disruption in motivation and attention. The prefrontal cortex is crucial for carrying out goal directed (motivated) behavior. This part of the brain is basically important for long term goals that require planning, working memory; this is very important in quitting drinking. Quitting drinking in itself is a long term goal that requires planning and implementation. The PFC will therefore be fully involved during this process of quitting drinking.
The left frontal cortex which is the control center for positive, outward-reaching emotions related to setting and working towards goals.LFC is also very important in inhibition of over activation of the amygdala which leads to demotivation (Colin, & Shelia, 2001). In order to explain the role of the brain in motivation, it will be important to look at the brain reward system. Human motivation depends on the brain reward system which is a dopamine pathway. This pathway begins with the release of serotonin from the hypothalamus; this stimulates the release of dopamine from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) from where it travels to amygdale, nucleus acumbens, and parts of the hippocampus. This then stimulates the attention and motivation circuits. The stimulation of attention and motivation circuits makes tasks more interesting, and as in this case, an individual will be focused and even interested more towards quitting drinking (Colin & Shelia, 2001).
Intrinsic factors
Apart from the brain factors, there are extrinsic factors and intrinsic factors which are involved in motivation to quit drinking. Research has shown that heredity plays an important role in alcoholism. This has been proven in cases where a child born to an alcoholic father later turns to an alcoholic. Another example is where by twins born to alcoholic parents and given up for adoption and living separately turns to be alcoholics. Studies like this tend to lend weight to the hereditary argument. In this case, it will not be easy for one to quit drinking and his/her efforts to quit drinking will be thwarted however much he/she tries to quit. This will impact negatively on the motivation to quit drinking. Intrinsic factors can be explained using the cognitive approaches to motivation where cognitive theorists believe that behavior is determined by an individuals thinking and not by rewards or punishment he/she anticipates.
They argue that behavior is initiated and regulated by inner plans and not by external events. Cognitive theorists tend to see people as active, curious and always searching for information to solve personally relevant problems which in this case is drinking alcohol (Myers, 1996). Some of the internal factors that may push one towards quitting drinking are alcohol health related problems such as liver cirrhosis. The individual may decide personally to quit drinking because of the health problems and suffering that alcohol has caused him/her. One may also decide just to quit drinking without any reason but just a personal decision, an internal desire that is driving him/her to quit drinking. This desire is normally not having any external influence or force. It may be called a “holistic experience” that creates an intense feeling and desire to quit drinking (Severy, Brigham, &Schlenker, 2001).
Extrinsic factors
The motivation to quit drinking is greatly influenced by environmental factors which include the people surrounding the individual trying to quit drinking, availability of alcohol, the type and nature of friends the person associates with, and the available support to quit drinking. In cases where the people who are close to the individual are alcoholics it will be very difficult for him/her to quit drinking as he/she may be influenced by their habit of taking alcohol. He/she may be tempted to drink alcohol so long as the people who are close to him continue drinking. In case these people also want to stop drinking, he/she may get support to quit drinking not individually but with their help as they will support one another. Another awkward situation is where by alcohol is readily available, for example, alcohol is kept in the house and therefore the individual can access it without any struggle (Severy et al, 2001). This will hinder the motivation to quit in that the individual can access alcohol at any time and at no cost. Quitting drinking alcohol needs a lot of social support and rehabilitative services as it is associated with other adverse effects such as alcohol withdrawal syndrome.
One of the factors that will also determine if one may or may not quit drinking therefore impacting negatively on the motivation to engage in quitting drinking is how or what the person associates alcohol withy. If alcohol or drinking is associated with good things or positive behavior such as courage, satisfaction then it will not be easy to quit drinking as these feelings or experiences which are associated with drinking will be no more but in cases where drinking alcohol is associated with bad experiences such as a past road traffic accident, failing in life, then these may create a drive to quit drinking. There are other factors which are associated with extrinsic motivation, these are reward and punishment. These will either impact negatively or positively on motivation to engage in quitting drinking. They may both give an individual the external drive to engage in quitting drinking knowing very well that they will either get a reward after quitting or get punished if they do not quit drinking. This type of motivation may not be effective in people who are not extrinsically motivated or people who do not care whether they are rewarded or punished (Gregon, Lefrancois, & Lard, 2003). Motivation to engage in quitting drinking depends on several factors and as shown above includes brain factors/functions, external and intrinsic factors. These factors are integrated and may influence one another. It is therefore important for one to consider all these factors if he/she wants to fully quit and recover from drinking.
References
Colin, B., & Shelia, J. (2001). The Oxford Companion to the Body: Limbic system. Oxford University Press. Web.
Gregon, J. D., Lefrancois, G. G., & Lard, J. D. (2003). Adolescent Psychology: Motivation. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Myers, D. G. (1996). Social psychology. 5th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill.
Severy, L. J., Brigham, J. C., and Schlenker, B. R. (2001). A contemporary introduction to social psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
The brain is said to be a complex organ that enables us to perform many functions among them is to think, feel, see, hear, taste and smell. In Addition it also controls our body and receives analyses and stores information. (Willingham, 2007) Cognition can be termed as the act or process of knowing. This encompasses a range of high level mental functions which include the ability to learn and remember information: organize, plan and problem-solve; focus, maintain and shift attention as necessary. It also includes understanding and using language, accurately perceiving the environment, and performing calculations. (Macmillan, 2000)
The Role of the Brain in Cognitive Functions
Cognitive processes are either natural or artificial. These processes are analysed from different perspectives from different contexts notably in the field of linguistics, psychology, anesthesia, neurology, systemics and computer science (Grafman et al, 2002).In psychology the concept of cognition is noted to be closely related to abstract concepts such as mind, reasoning, perception, intelligence; learning is among many others that describe the capabilities of the mind and the expected properties of an artificial mind. Cognition is considered an abstract property of advanced living organisms and as such studied as direct property of a brain at the factual and symbolic levels. (Harrison and Owen, 2002)
There were two major views on the localization of higher cognitive functions. Phrenology, one of the two views supposed that all cognitive and personality traits had particular areas of the brain that is in charge of each of them. This view was discarded because most its components did not conform to scientific forms. The second view said that higher cognitive functions and traits could only be kept in the cerebral cortex which functioned as a whole but any part of it could suffice to the other’s functions. It also stipulated that an effect of cognitive functions because of cortical lesions was caused by damage of tissues and not the localization of it as it were.
This approach was widely accepted until some clinical observations contradicted it specifically the observation that aphasias happened when one of the two specific areas were lesioned.The two areas are the Broca’s area and the Wernicke’s area of the cortex which are localized in the left hemisphere of the brain.(Grafman et al,2002)
The Broca’s area is found underneath the motor cortex that controls face movement and language expression. Patients with lesions in this region understand complex abstract concepts in conversations and language but their talk is unclear since the utterances are random though with proper intonation. A speech could for instance sound like “…..train came children food.
Wernicke’s area is in the left temporal auditory cortex. Patients with Wernicke’s aphasia have a problem with understanding but not hearing. Patients can understand simple requests but they cannot understand even simple conversation. These patients however unlike Broca’s produce incongruent talk. They will make complete phrases that make sense but will be out of context.
A question like “How are you feeling?” can be answered “Yesterday was a hot day.”(Grafman et al, 2002).
Harrison and Owen (2002) have said in their book that most scientists embrace a midway version between holism and phrenology especially with the discovery of association cortices. High- order processing is the work of the entire cortex while specific areas of the cortex are required for sensory input. Study of vision as a sensory system helped in finding out that a lot of processing was done by the system itself while depending on cortical localization in what is called high-order sensory cortices like detection of direction, intensity ad other combined attributes of visual stimuli. A restricted grouping of two sensory inputs named associated cortices elicited response in some areas
The associated areas of the cortex provide a base for thought and perception. However, no visible changes in behaviour is observed upon stimulation of these areas even though they obtain sensory input from the sensory system then further relay it to the motor cortex. The cortex has three areas; the first is parietotemporal-occipital cortex.It receives auditory, somatosensory and visual projection. In addition it receives high order input from their respective cortices thus thought to integrate information from these sensory modalities necessary for language (Willingham, 2007).
The story of Phineas gage as found in book helps to elaborate the functions of the brain’s parts in social behaviour and moral reasoning. Gage was working on a railroad in Vermont in 1848 when an explosion blew an iron bar through the top of his head producing massive injury to his brain more specially the frontal lobe. Edward Williams a physician who examined Gage remembered that he” talked so rationally and was so willing to answer questions, that he directed his inquiries to him rather than the men who were with him at the time of the accident and who were standing about at the time”(Macmillan, 2000).
Initial examination indicated that his motor and language control regions had been affected which turned out to be wrong. Since these parts remained functional; it shows that the brain is not modular whereby different regions performed different functions. On the other hand it is an undifferentiated mass working holistically (Boller et al, 2000).
However, Gage was said to have changed personality as opposed to his previous one. He was fitful, irreverent and indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not his custom), he was formerly thoughtful, fastidious and a responsible man. Gage’s frontal lobe which were most affected were now believed to be responsible for moral reasoning, decision-making and inhibition. His accident was hint to the major roles of the frontal lobe in social behavior and moral reasoning (Macmillan, 2000).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the various parts of the brain work together in achieving the cognitive functions which include being able to learn new concepts, for the brain to retain this information so that it can be retrieved upon need. In addition, the brain serves in controlling ones attention and in using language alongside analyzing the environment.
References
Harrison, E. J. and Owen M.A. (2002). Cognitive Deficits in Brain Disorders..Informa Health Care.
Willingham, D.T, (2007). Cognition: The thinking animal.3rd edition. Prentice Hall
Grafman, J. et al. (2002). Handbook of neurology: The role of anatomical segregation in the frontal lobe. Elsevier Health.
Boller, F., et al (2000). Handbook of Neurology: Language and Aphasia.2nd ed.Elsevier Health Sciences.
Macmillan, M. (2002). An Odd Kind of Fame: Stories of Phineas Gage. MIT Press.
Scientists have for a long time attempted to explain the mechanism of cognition in the brain. Two schools of thought have existed on this subject. The Phrenology school thought that the various cognitive abilities of the brain and personality traits are controlled by centers located on specific locations of the brain; each relatively independent of the other and controlling its respective function separately; and that damage, either accidental or iatrogenic results in dysfunction of this function only (Sizer, 1888).
This school of thought was largely discredited in the early decades of the twentieth century for not having a credible empirical base. The other school of thought was actually formed as an opposition to the phrenology thesis. This theorized that higher cognitive functions are localized in the cerebral cortex which functioned as a single unit; and that the severity of negative effects on cognitive functions resulting from damage of the cortex is determined by extent rather than the location of the damage. This view almost completely annihilated the former postulate of localization.
However, consequent studies went to show that indeed some of the cognitive functions were localized on specific parts of the brain. For example, aphasias, that is language distinctions, were reported to develop in subjects who had damage to certain locations of the brain known as the Broca and Wernicke areas which are located in the cerebral cortex.
These areas can be demonstrated anatomically; and are found only in the left hemisphere of the brain in over 80% of humans; the former is found below the motor cortex while the latter is located above the temporal auditory cortex.
The Broca’s area controls motor functions of the face; and thus facial expressions during conversations, damage to this area results in incoherent speech. The person can however understand even complicated conversation; but when s/he attempts to respond, they can only speak in gibberish.
On the other hand damage to the Wernicke’s area results in negative effects on the ability to understand language. While the subjects can understand simple requests directed at him/her (by including his/her name in the phrase), they usually cannot conduct a simple conversation. The condition is expressed in the responses which are incongruent; that is, although the phrases may be correctly formed, it is spoken completely out of context.
In this view, the general consensus about the function of the brain in regards to cognitive functions is that it involves a blend of both localized and diffuse organization. Studies carried out, especially on the function of vision and the role of the brain in processing sensory input arriving from the eye showed that some of the processing involved depended on a localized area on the cortex known as higher-order sensory cortices.
In addition to this, other areas, known as association cortices, were shown to respond only to sensory inputs from two sources. This does not mean that the phrenology postulation of localization of cognitive brain functions has been adopted on a wholesale basis; indeed, the major difference between this theory and the modern view of brain function is that the latter views localization as being of systems rather than functions; and that specific cognitive functions are supported by interconnection and interaction among these systems. The end result, therefore, has been a blend of the theories (Lycan, 1999).
Brain damage and Cognitive functions: The case of Phineas Gage
While working on a roadbed for the preparation of laying of a railroad in Vermont, Phineas Gage was involved in a horrendous accident that immortalized him on the pages of academic books and papers. On September 13, 1848, Gage had been assigned the duty of adding gunpowder to holes drilled on the rock in preparation for blasting; around 4.30 pm, the powder exploded accidentally driving the cylindrical tool he was used to compacting the powder through the side of his face; the rod traversed behind his left eye and exited at the top of his head and landed about 25 meters away.
The route of the rod through his head was thought to have severely damaged one or both of his frontal lobes. Gage went ahead to make an amazing physical recovery that was not expected in regards to the extent of his injuries; for example, the attending physician, John Harlow, reported that he touched his two index fingers through the hole marking the trajectory of the rod through the brain (Tranel, 2001).
Of greater interest, however, is the effect of this accident on Gage’s personality; allegedly, after complete physical recovery, his personality changed so much that people concluded that he was ‘no longer Gage’. The formerly industrious, reliable, and likable young man changed into an irresponsible and useless person who could no longer hold down a job. The authenticity of these claims has been disputed; since there was little information about the character of Gage before the accident and that some of the accounts of his behavior were written many years after his death; and were not based on direct observations; and were prone to gross exaggeration (Tranel, 2001).
However, the case of Phineas Gage opened the door to the in-depth study on the role of the brain in cognitive functions; and is the subject of reference of many neurological and psychological studies.
References
Lycan, W. G (ed.1999): Mind and Cognition: An Anthology, 2nd Edition. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishers, Inc.
Sizer, Nelson (1888): Forty years in phrenology; embracing recollections of history, anecdote, and experience: Fowler & Wells p. 194.
Tranel, Daniel (2001): Book Review: An Odd Kind of Fame: Stories of Phineas Gage: New England Journal of Medicine 344: 312.
The role of brain in learning is vital for people living in this world due to the extreme necessity in contemporary conditions of fast-growing technological prospects and ideas for life. In this respect the project is evaluated on the grounds of two journal articles with mere similar researches in terms of memory skills and capacities of the brain in learning. The paper is full of details as of the researches and their results with points on the appropriate audience and contributions which were made afterwards. Both articles are relatively modern in estimation and provide a scope of specific information as of brain activity and its phases while learning a definite material, the functions of it, and the work and significance of the memory for contemporary life. The structure of the paper falls into the discussion and evaluation of both articles in the sequential order with their summaries and findings according to the issue of brain activity. This topic was selected due to the enigmatic nature of brain opportunities which are used by a man in a little proportion to a real power of brain and every process related to it.
Discussion
First of all, it is necessary to mention the first journal article ‘Brain plasticity and behavior’ by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw in Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 49, 1998. In this article the authors are trying by means of the scientific approach to estimate the brain and behavior correlations for future working out of the proper methodology in terms of neural changes considered with the processes of behavior manifestation under different circumstances. The research takes into account such methods as Analysis of Behavior and Analysis of the Brain (Kolb & Whishaw, 1998). In this respect main efforts are directed at the question of plastic change of brain before, during, and after acquisition of skills, on the one hand. On the other hand, the researchers provide a scope of constructive reasoning about neuronal activity of the brain in the time framework of the whole life.
The research considered the closely related audience familiar with biopsychology in its behavioral implementation and methods of making out the behavioral approach in its rational emotive, dialectical, and cognitive behavioral therapy. The work is concentrated over previously made conclusions and findings of contemporary psychologists and medics in peculiarities of brain-to-behavior relation.
The main approaches of how the research was done are reckoned with the experience in comparison with changes emerging in the brain and experience-dependant change and its modulation (Kolb & Whishaw, 1998). This idea is supported with the work of dendrites in difficult relations of behavior in terms of biochemical reactions. The attempts to point out changes in synaptic organization of brain are correlated with the plasticity of brain. Moreover, the significance of environmental enrichment and personal data of a human being are analyzed with the purpose to find the optimal explanation of such processes on the experimental base.
The findings of the researchers showed that “experience alters the synaptic organization of the brain in species as diverse as fruit flies and humans” with points on the work and connections of dendrites in the area of neocortex (Kolb & Whishaw, 1998, p. 45). In this respect there is a sort of recommendation to prove such investigation materials in practice of criminal and medical evaluation of how the peculiarities of peoples’ personal data as for physiological structure of neural system and brain may be interpreted further in the field of their possible inclinations.
Another journal article ‘Memory Systems in the Brain’ by Edmund T. Rolls published in Annual Review of Psychology, 2000, provides a scientific research in area of peoples’ capacities to recognize, evaluate, and interpret different pieces of information by means of memory. The researcher tries to find out how learning mechanisms are connected with the processing of information by the brain in terms of neuroscience. The author directly promotes the real driving objective for his work: “A major reason for investigating the actual brain mechanisms that underlie behavior is not only to understand how our own brains work, but also to have the basis for understanding and treating medical disorders of the brain” (Rolls, 2000, p. 599).
In the research the author is intended to straightforwardly find out the effects of brain systems throughout the use of punishment and reward reinforcers as an impetus for different states of the brain. Thereupon, the role of primary and secondary stimuli is learnt for the sake of finding truth whether input and output systems of the brain are related to the hippocampus and connected areas (Rolls, 2000). Primary reinforcers differ from the secondary ones in the research in their extent of previous study. In this respect Rolls (2000) uses a scientific approach, so that to depict and explore the participation of emotional, motivational, and behavioral approaches in their connection with biochemical reactions in the area of cortex.
The audience for the provision of this research contemplates high rates of gained experience and practice of participants with points on the neuroscience and psychology in their reciprocal relation and individual explanation of the brain in its complicated structure and functional fullness. All in all, this study accumulates a specific base of knowledge about brain from the outlook on its ability to perceive and express information due to the short-term and long-term sections of memory.
The findings showed the trend that it is possible today to determine the process happening while memorizing different modes of information without any hesitation in making conclusions of what tasks should be implemented for this purpose. In other words, the research proved that, as Rolls (2000) points out, the above described work intends to learn the quantitative measurements of different parts of the brain concerned with memory with a promise to delineate also other parts of it related to the sensory or emotional reflections as well. The recommendations are reckoned with the use of contemporary high technologies to wok out in detail the means of memory improvements due to technological approach.
Conclusion
The above mentioned analysis of two journal articles related to the topic of brain learning described a great interest of contemporary scholars in neuroscience, psychology, and biopsychology to thoroughly research the issues connected with abilities of the brain not only for just improvements of peoples’ capacities, but for curing specific diseases connected with the brain activity due to a specter of methodological procedures. Nevertheless, both researches prove the idea of behavioral demonstrations as a projection of brain activity with all positive and negative peculiarities concerned with an anatomical structure of this organ. Scholars worldwide are still known little about the capabilities of the brain, but due to a sequential work in this field the achievement of such goal will be possible little by little.
References
Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (1998). ‘Brain Plasticity and Behavior’. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 43-46.
Rolls, E. T. (2000). Memory Systems in the Brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 599.
It is to be believed that our brain is divided into two and the study of its functioning as a whole is so important to Physiologists and psychologists. One can see that Psychology is closely related to human behavior. And it focuses upon the actions of brain and nervous system. To learn more about brain, right brain/left brain specialization and the study of functioning of brain is important.
The book Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, Sixth Edition by Roger R Hock explores the mysteries behind human mind and behavior. Now, one is to be able to identify that there is a close connection between human behavior and human brain. The first chapter of the foretold book is based upon a study conducted by Gazzaniga M.S. tries to disclose the functioning of human brain.
It can be seen that the left part of our brain controls right side of our body and the right part of our brain controls left right side of our body. So it is evident that two parts of the brain perform different functions. The split brain conducted by Roger W. Sperry reveals that there exists a communication between two hemispheres of the brain. So as to understand more about the functioning of the human brain, one must try to understand human behavior, intellectual development, and the changes that happen in the brain during sexual responding etc. Roger R Hock is able to define all these through the book Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations into the History of Psychological Research, Sixth Edition.
It is pointed out that the book is helpful to understand human behavior. “explains forty of the most influential studies that have shaped our understanding of human behavior during psychology’s brief history.” (Hock 2008, p.1). To understand human behavior it is important to know deep about the functioning of the brain. It is evident that left part of brain controls the ability to use language and the right part of the brain controls spatial relationships. The result of the research was that the participants demonstrated many unusual mental abilities.
The method of the research was so complicated and it aimed to explore mental and perceptual capacities of the patient. Three tests were conducted and the first test was designed to examine visual abilities, second was to test tactile (touch) simulation and third was to test auditory abilities.
The research was able to prove that two different brains exist with each person’s cranium, with complex abilities. This research was able to reveal the misery behind psychological disorders like dissociative, multiple personality disorder etc. There were criticisms regarding the result of this research. The idea of right/left specification of the brain was not so easy to prove in front of physiologists and psychologists.
The significance of the research is that it was able to prove through experiments that the brain is divided into two and these two halves have many special skills and functions. Moreover, the study conducted by Gaazzaniga was able to prove that the division in human brain will not result the change in intelligence, personality and emotions.
Before summing up, the relation between human behavior and human brain is not fully exposed and future study in the fields of human psychology and physiology may reveal more facts about human brain. The problem headed by psychologists and scientists while studying about human brain is that morality and medical ethics is against the study of brain which is alive. To study the functioning of brain, it must be alive. So, beyond these moral and ethical restrictions, new researchers like Roger R Hock are able to reveal more about human brain. It is to be expected that research in the field of brain mapping and the functioning of brain may reveal more about the complex relation between the process of thought and functioning of human brain.
The human brain is probably the most complex entity that is in existence or Nature. Memory, behavior, and the way the brain cells communicate are things that are sometimes difficult to contemplate, yet these processes take place every day.
Analysis
Memory, retention, and recall are interconnected and often, influenced by the perspective of the person and associations they create for themselves. It is very relative and sometimes, false memories are created, either voluntarily or not. As emotions are always a part of human cognition, a certain predisposition and repetition of concepts lead a person to believe that something that was not present originally, was indeed there. As this area was little studied and several experiments have yielded data that cannot be heavily relied on, it stays the subject of research. The assumption is that in a specific situation the way the information is stored in the long term memory and the way it is later recalled is influenced by the person’s emotional state and their personal views, opinions, and perspectives. Stress, both positive and negative, has a great effect on the precision of recollection of events and the creation of false memories.
Traumatic experiences are remembered very vividly and emotions add certain details that might not have been present in reality. This is a valid point because a recollection of an event has several cognitive stimuli, and a person feels an individual and emotional connection to what is taking place. In the case with a simple word remembering, people do not have exposure to the situation or the emotional meaning of the words. For example, the word “betrayal” could mean one thing to someone who knows about it hypothetically, in comparison to someone who has lived through it a long time ago, and it could be even more meaningful to a person who has experienced it recently. The brain very much works on associations, for better storage and recall of information. A connection between two events or concepts, uniting them according to their similarities or specific differences, creates a link that makes it easier for the brain to remember (Hogenboom, 2013).
Psychology has long tried to pinpoint the definitive and singular reasons for human behaviors and attitudes. There are very many common variables, but each individual is unique in the end. Mimicking others is one of the links in an enormous chain of individuality that makes up each person. It is very true that the proximity of individuals heightens the sensitive nature of interaction within the human world. It is clear that people are very much connected to the family, relatives, friends, and partners and so, they gain great knowledge and illustration of what these people want in their life. This gives a person a closer look and comparison in regards to their own personality and wants. A suggestion is made that there is a possibility of the person who is most admired becoming the “obstacle” for the observer. This suggests a negative nature of closeness and relation between people.
But, an important point is that humans are social beings, and cooperation, together with mutual dependence and help are inevitable. There are many examples of people being more successful through positive competition and unity of interests where one person does not let greed and egoism to overtake their existence. It becomes clear that people will always compare themselves to their environment and others, which will lead to new efforts and imagination of each individual and collective humanity. Another confirmation that mimicry and competition is an important and needed part of the world is that it is present throughout the animal kingdom, where cruelty and violence should not be necessarily labeled as greedy and selfish. It is interesting that lower animals and humans have been known to mimic each other in behaviors and instincts. This shows that the repetition of seen behaviors is one of the simplest forms of action evident in all of nature (Thomas, 2013).
One of the most interesting discoveries made was about the communication between brain cells, axons, through their synapses. It was thought that there is a physical connection between each axon that was needed for the transfer of information. In reality, there is a gap between the end of the axon, its tip, and the dendrites of the next axon. Chemicals are being released by one axon and they float to the receptors of the next axon. The chemicals that are produced, neurotransmitters, are a sort of boats that carry their own information. Those chemicals that were not absorbed by the receiving axon, return to the source, the sending axon and are recycled.
The amount of repetitions of the chemicals being sent determines the strength of the signal. If a person wants something in a minor way, the signal is sent once or twice, and the receiving axon does not respond in a major way. But, in case the signal is repeated constantly, the axon is bombarded with chemicals, thus causing a conscious response from a person. This is what determines the cognition of a person. It is still unclear how a person’s mind or brain can hold so much information. It has been supposed that a person has unlimited potential. An amazing fact is that such a small entity as a cell can hold so much information and have significant energy to send impulses that affect the whole body. All the systems and different parts of the brain are connected, and studies have shown that trauma to a certain area will be compensated by another part. There are also cases when the loss of a connection between the brain divisions has led to the loss of speech, cognition, memory, and senses (Axon, 2013).
Conclusion
Even though people understand more about the human brain and behavior, there is still a lot to learn, which leaves the human brain one of the most mysterious and little-studied entities.