Dr Foster has made outstanding contribution in the field of Psychology through his research in mental retardation and brain aging; together with Drago Valeria they did tremendous research on non-verbal learning and memory. Like his colleague, Drago is a clinical psychologist and an avid researcher. Dr. Drago is an expert on brain processes such as attention biases and neurodevelopment disorders. I obtained information on these Psychologists online.
The brain is a complex functional organ that is made up of interrelated structures. No single structure is primarily responsible for an emotion; however some structures contribute greatly to produce that particular emotional state. The neurotransmitters in the brain are interconnected so that when one part of the brain is stimulated it results in activation of other parts of the cortex through the neural network. The longitudinal-transverse and lateral anatomical axes of the brain are associated with emotion and excitement, these axes of the brain are interrelated in functioning, such that the expression and perception of emotion is carried out by the longitudinal transverse axes while the posterior regions are responsible for emotional comprehension.
The frontal and posterior lobes of the brain have a reciprocal relationship, the frontal lobe or the prefrontal area is associated with positive emotion, judgment and personality, it is primarily concerned with behaviors that are socially withdrawn in nature, however, the posterior lobe of the brain is associated with expressed behavior (Denny-Brown, 1956 pp. 295-303) The cerebral cortices have different functions which are also balanced, the left hemisphere which is responsible for sequential analysis and is linked to the right hemisphere which is responsible for holistic functioning via the Corpus Callosum.
The Corpus Callosum mediates inhibition and excitement between the hemispheres Tucker (1981, pp. 19-46). Naturally there exists a state of equilibrium between the hemispheres and it is activation on one part of the brain that causes a disequilibrium and further stimulation to the other part of the brain resulting to a shift in attention (Kinsbourne. 1970 p.147). The posterior temporal part of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is responsible for allocating attention to various stimuli that may affect the hemispheres; the left hemisphere has a proximal bias that means that when positive emotions are aroused then they will be directed inwards while the right hemisphere has a distal bias which means that when the negative emotions are aroused then they will be externalized.
Activation of the right frontal lobe by negative emotions will in turn cause inactivity in the left frontal lobe as well as the right posterior area of the brain further leading to activation of the left posterior region. For example, sadness and anger activates the right frontal lobe causing inactivity in the left frontal lobe, this means that other r emotions such as happiness are subdued and can cannot occur at that particular time.
In a study conducted to affirm that stimulation in emotion will cause a bias in attention, individuals were given the task of placing six wooden pegs on a pegboard. The pegs were labeled with negative and positive emotions, the board was divided into quarters and the participants were required to place the pegs on the pegboard however they felt. The position of each peg was analyzed in terms of its vertical and horizontal distance from the lines and the distances were then analyzed according to the placement and interaction of the pegs.
Results showed that in the study that was carried out using a sample of 138 people within the age bracket of 18 to 46 years, the placement of the pegs that were tagged with negative emotion was significantly different from those of the pegs tagged with positive emotion and were found to be concentrated on the farthest left quarter of the board. Most of the pegs that were tagged with positive emotion were found in the upper left quarter of the pegboard and the pegs that were tagged with negative emotion were found to be placed rightward relative to the position of the pegs tagged with positive emotion in the upper right quadrant.
It is human psychological nature to pay more attention to negative emotion than positive emotion and hence it can be proven that the left hemisphere is characterized by attention to negative emotion while the right hemisphere is to the contrary. The study clearly demonstrates attention bias to emotion and which parts of the brain are responsible for positive and negative emotions.
From this essay we can clearly conclude that the brain is a highly integrated complex organ with functions that are related in nature. Positive emotion and expressed behavior is associated with a bias for the left distal hemisphere while negative emotion and withdrawal behavior is associated with a bias for the right proximal hemisphere (Tomarken, Davidson, et al. 1992 p. 685)
References
Denny-Brown, D. (1956). Positive and negative aspects of cerebral cortical functions. North Carolina Medical Journal, 17, 295–303. North Carolina.
Kinsbourne, M. (1970). A model for the mechanism of unilateral neglect of space. Transactions of the American Neurological Association, 95,143–146. Minneapolis.
Tomarken, A., Davidson, R. J., Wheeler, R. E., & Doss, R. C. (1992). Individual differences in anterior brain asymmetry and fundamental dimensions of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 676–687. New York.
Tucker, D. M. (1981). Lateral brain function, emotion, and conceptualization. Psychological Bulletin, 89, 19–46. Washington.
Young children and adolescents do suffer from several psychological disorders. For instance, reports indicate that major depressive disorders (MDD) affect about 5 percent of the total population of adolescents in the United States. Depression is a severe problem among adolescents and it is characterized by alterations in moods, the behavior of the patients both at home and in school, impaired thinking among other disorders. Depression in children and adolescents can be treated by prescription of specific antidepressants. Current research indicates that physicians are recommending the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) in the treatment of MDD (Glannon, 2007, p.76). SSRIs and SNRIs are psychotropic substances capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier and exerting their effects by blocking the active reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine respectively. This lowers the concentration of these neurotransmitters that are taken up by the pre-synaptic membrane thereby increasing their concentration in the synaptic cleft and at the post-synaptic membrane. Therefore, these drugs can cause changes in the functions of the brain thereby leading to altered perceptions, consciousness, behavior, mood, and cognition.
This research paper seeks to explore the various effects of these drugs on the developing brain in children and adolescents. Additionally, the discussion will include an in-depth account of the risks and benefits of drug therapy for patients with major depressive disorders (MDD).
Effects of Psychotropic Drugs on the Developing Brain
The last 20 years have witnessed the discovery of new pharmacological substances imperative in regulating stress hormones inside and outside of the brain thereby producing desirable effects such as improved mood and cognition (Glannon, 2007, p.75). The number of patients with psychiatric complications especially among the youth is equally increasing thus necessitating the use of psychotropic drugs in treating MDD in children and adolescents. However, these drugs could have immediate and long-term effects on the developing brain.
The brain is very sensitive to drugs during the period of increased brain growth and development. This is the period that occurs within the first year of life in children and the transition period from childhood to adolescence. During this transition period, a vast number of synapses are eliminated through a process known as pruning, which is also accompanied by the development of abstract thoughts in adolescents. Since psychotropic drugs are capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier, they can cause deviations in the development of the brain thus leading to permanent changes in some neurotransmitter pathways. Research has shown the active participation of two major neurotransmitters in brain growth and development. They include acetylcholine and serotonin whose concentration in the synaptic cleft can be influenced by psychotropic drugs.
The risks and benefits of Drug Therapy
Research has supported the efficacy and usage of SSRIs and SNRIs in the treatment of MDD in children and adolescents (Mash & Barkley, 2006, p.386). These drugs exert their effects by modulating the levels of neurotransmitters in the synaptic clefts of major neurons in the brain. By so doing, they normalize the levels of the neurotransmitters at the clefts thereby improving cognition, affective and voluntary activities. When psychological disorders are left unattended, they can lead to various mental problems that can have a bearing on the pathophysiological conditions of other parts of the body outside the brain.
Despite the vast benefits of psychotropic drugs in reversing the effects caused by psychological disorders, recent studies indicate that uncontrolled usage of such drugs can have various health risks for children and adolescents. The use of SSRIs and SNRIs has been shown to induce some suicidal tendencies among adolescents in the United States. This occurrence forced the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to issue warnings in October 2004 about the increased cases of altered thoughts and behaviors among children and adolescents treated with SSRIs. By 2006, the age group affected by these drugs was expanded to include youth of up to age 25 as recommended by the advisory committee of FDA.
SSRIs acts by selectively blocking the 5-HT receptors for serotonin thereby increasing the concentration of serotonin in the synaptic cleft. Since serotonin is useful during brain development, it is advisable not to administer these drugs to children and pregnant mothers. Studies have shown the occurrence of severe brain damages in newborn babies when SSRIs are used on pregnant women especially during the last semester of pregnancy.
Effects of Psychotropic Medication on Neural Development
The development of the nervous system involves several changes in the structure of neurons. This takes place through a series of stages which include, “proliferation, migration, differentiation, myelination, and synaptogenesis” (Kalat, 2007, p.123). Proliferation is the first stage in the development and it involves the production of new cells that later divide and re-divide to give rise to neurons and glia. Since psychotropic drugs can access the site of cell proliferation, they cause a change to the cell’s genetic make-up thereby making a major difference in the outcome of the process. After the cells have been produced and divided, they have to migrate to other parts of the nervous system, a process that is dependent on certain chemical pathways. Since Psychotropic drugs can alter certain neurotransmitter pathways, they can influence the movement of these cells either negatively or in a useful manner.
Conclusion
The paper has elaborated on the major effects of psychotropic drugs on the developing brain in children and adolescents. It has also shown the positive and negative effects of drug therapy as opposed to psychotherapy in the treatment of psychological disorders such as major depressive disorders (MDD).
Despite the numerous advantages of drug therapy in the improvement of psychological disorders, it is worth noting that these drugs can have far-reaching side effects on the users especially children and adolescents. Therefore, patients should be careful about how they use the drugs to avoid unnecessary complications and the emergence of unusual diseases.
What are some techniques or research methods used to examine the link between the brain and behavior? What are some findings in biological psychology that can result in or have resulted from these techniques or research methods?
The human brain and its link to behavior have become a major area of study that most psychologists, histologists, and physiologists have developed much interest in, bearing in mind that the brain influences how individual acts, feels, or thinks. Neurological studies indicate that there are diverse methods and well-known techniques such as genetic methods, neurochemical methods, and experimental ablation, among others through which the brain and its relationship with behavior can be analyzed. It is against this premise that this paper examines research techniques and methods used in studying the brain and behavioral characteristics.
Experimental ablation
Carlson (2010) points out that most researchers today prefer experimental ablation as a research method as it is effective in investigating brain functions and determining how it influences behavior. In this research method, a researcher destroys some tissues of an organism’s brain and observes its subsequent behavior through lesion studies. This study is based on the rationale that certain behavior functions of an organism are controlled by certain areas of the brain, and when that area is destroyed via the research technique, an organism ceases to perform or behave in its normal way. From the experimental ablation, it is evident that different circuits or regions of the brain perform certain functions responsible for an organism’s behavior.
Stimulating and recording neural activity
Besides experimental ablation, researchers have also used stimulation of neural activities to study the relationship between the brain and behavior patterns. Carlson (2010) points out that the functions of the brain are controlled by circuits of neurons that prompt behavioral responses and different perceptions. Recording of neural activities are done chronically after surgery or acutely during surgery.
However, findings indicate that acute recording is not effective since an anesthetized animal has a limited behavioral capacity (Carlson, 2010). In addition, chemical or electrical stimulation of neural activities is also done to certain areas of the brain to determine how it affects an animal’s behavior. Findings from stimulation point out that unlike experimental ablation, activates and enhances the behavior of an organism.
Neurochemical methods and Genetic methods
Neurochemical and genetic methods are mostly used when a researcher intends to determine human behavior through the location of neurons. Carlson (2010) points out that neurons possess receptors and produce neurotransmitters that secrete chemicals during certain situations. Findings indicate neurons secrete chemicals when an organism is faced with certain circumstances, and these trigger certain behaviors.
On the other hand, behavior characteristics among organisms, such as mental disorders, personality variables, and talents, are genetic (Carlson, 2010). Carlson further indicates that genetic factors determine an organism’s physiological difference and development. By using twin studies and adoption studies to analyze how heredity influences behavior, it is evident that brain development is affected by a defective gene. This scientifically causes neurological abnormality and subsequent behavioral deficits (Carlson, 2010).
What are the major underlying assumptions of physiological psychology? What effect do these assumptions have on psychology?
The study of the mind and how it influences behavior has been surrounded by diverse assumptions from psychologists who either employ empirical methods to support their studies or deductive methods in opposition (Carlson, 2010). One significant assumption is on the role of unconscious and human experience. Trait theorists argue that the personality an individual has is founded on dynamic interactions of the super-ego, ego and id (Carlson, 2010). They assume using factor analysis that human behavior and personality are guided by traits such as psychoticism, neuroticism and introversion-extroversion. Such an assumption is important in that prompts more research into psychology and human behavior.
Another assumption is related to biopsychosocial model which assumes that a mental process or behavior is impacted on by social, psychological and biological factors that are dynamically interrelated. Such aspects include emotions and cognitions that affect moods, and biological factors that influence of genes, cognitive abilities and brain development (Carlson, 2010). This assumption is vital as it adds weight to the findings of most researchers on the influence on the behavior of an organism.
Reference
Carlson, N.R (2010). Physiology of behavior (10th ed.) New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
Rae-Dupree in the story “Innovative Minds Don’t Think Alike,” and Carey in “You’re Bored, But Your Brain is Tuned in” have successfully used rhetorical techniques to establish inversions to the ordinary forms of thinking. Some of the rhetorical devices employed for this objective include sarcasm, paradox, repetition, and contrast.
Rae-Dupree, for instance, makes use of the device of paradox to challenge established traditions that instill standardized systems of knowledge, which leave little room for alternative thoughts. The phrase, “The curse of knowledge,” is a paradox that inverts the connotations of progress and other positive attributes associated with knowledge. The substance of this paradox is to present a negative association with established schools of knowledge.
The author’s intention through this paradox is to discourage the tendency of experts to rely exclusively on their knowledge and encourage them to open up to other possibilities outside their areas of professionalism. In other words, the author seeks to decentralize the system of thinking by strengthening other alternatives. Rae-Dupree also uses contrast by creating a system of difference between the flexible thinking habits of “Renaissance thinkers,” Rae-Dupree versus the fixed forms of thinking as practiced by most modern experts.
The intention of this contrast is to support the underlying thematic concern of this argument that the creation of new knowledge is a process that relies on the creative and determined departure from fixed knowledge as presented by experts. To reinforce this argument, the author also makes use of the rhetoric device of sarcasm through the argument that sometimes scientists only create knowledge that only benefits fellow scientists.
Carey, in her story, celebrates the value of boredom as a supple terrain that is most conducive for the growth of new knowledge. Sarcasm and paradox are used to showcase how moments of boredom must be accepted as normal and even useful processes in the cognitive development of humans. The paradox is captured in the very title of the article in the words “bored but your brain is tuned in.” It is a paradox to imagine how a bored brain might be tuned in. The element of sarcasm is illustrated in the placing of boredom at the most official and formal of settings for instance in Prime Ministers sitting “with frozen smiles through interminable state events”. Another instance of sarcasm is in the author’s imaginative illustration of bored scientists poring through “meaningless data”.
The device of paradox has been employed in the explanation that boredom is a useful neural process that can be used constructively in learning and creativity. The aspect of deriving interest by looking at mud can be classified as both sarcasm and paradox, in the sense that it evokes some sense of amusement and mystery. The essence of sarcasm and paradox is the creating of new forms of imagination. The intention is to highlight some positive value in ordinary phenomena.
The value of these kinds of information lies in their power to disable conventions and create room for alternative systems of cognition. The device of rhetoric invites the reader to have a fresh examination of the universe and develop a critical appraisal of ordinary reality. These forms of information are also useful in the sense in which they help in the development of existing schools of thought. This results from the alternative forms of perspective that prod scholars, experts, and other creators of knowledge into revising and modifying traditional assumptions and methods.
Works Cited
Carey, Benedict. You’re Bored but Your Brain in Tuned In. New York Times. 2008. p.1.
Rae-Dupree, Janet. Innovative Minds Don’t Think Alike. New York Times. 2007. p.1.
Perception is one of the aspects of cognitive psychology. The vision encompasses the eye gathering raw sensations which fall onto the retina and the eventual perception of the sensation in terms of shape, color, motion as well as different dimensions of objects. It is described that vision begins with the whole body during movement, of the eyes, the head, or the entire body, as the body seeks to acquire information at depth (Stafford & Webb, 2005). In some cases, decisions on eye or body movement precede conscious recognition, and this vision can be said to be interactive, and it is composed of feedback loops both in the early and late visual perception.
It is recognized that there is no orderly path of processing a raw visual signal, and often the brain processes and uses information as soon as it reaches it without waiting for all the information to be available. This forms part of the early processing of visual information, and when the perception is processed to the point of consciousness, it becomes possible to conceptualize the whole object instead of just seeing the aspects of vision (e.g., color, shapes) that are available to the eye. At conscious perception, it results that some objects are more conspicuous than others (Stafford & Webb, 2005). This paper examines how the eye senses a signal from the outside world and sends these to the brain’s visual cortex and the resultant processing of visual signals into meaningful information.
The retina
The retina is located at the back of the eye and acts as a sensory surface as it bears the photoreceptors, which not only detect light from outside but also convert the light into electrical signals. The eye is protected by the white, which itself is the continuation of the dura mater, which covers the central nervous system.
The retina is, in fact, taken to be “a piece of the brain that has grown into the eye” (PhysOrg.com, 2006, para 2). Upon detecting light, the retina goes ahead to process neural signals where the electrical signals are carried by the ganglion cells into other parts of the brain. Early visual processing is performed within the retina by other nerve cells, while the optic nerve, which is composed of the axons of the ganglions among other support cells, conduct aggregated signals into the brain for further processing (PhysOrg.com, 2006).
The photoreceptors are distributed considerably in the retina, with the fovea (which is the center of the eye) having no signal aggregation onto a single cell. At the fovea, there is a high resolution, and the uncompressed signal is taken to the optic nerve together with other signals from other photoreceptor cells. The optic nerve which conducts information to the brain from the eye is of a size that makes it make a hole in the field of vision as it quits the eyeball, and this hole is called the blind spot. The human retina transmits the visual data to the brain at a very high speed, which is estimated to be 10 million bits per second (PhysOrg.com, 2006).
Hemispheres as mirror images of each other
Just before the optic nerves enter the brain, and optic chiasm is formed by meeting and splitting the optic nerves of each eye. Mirror images of the two hemispheres are created where the right hemisphere is linked to the right halves of the retina. On the other hand, the left hemisphere is linked to the left halves of the retina. The importance of this change of events is to remove confusion by enabling only one hemisphere to make a comparison of the same scene as perceived by both eyes. Otherwise, it would be impossible to have access to information that is necessary for processing the depth of the perception.
From the optic chiasm, the visual message is transmitted into the visual cortex at the back of the brain, where comprehensive visual processing occurs (Stafford & Webb, 2005). It is important to note that nerves that have a connection to the temple side of the retina do not change their path to the visual cortex, and their path is considered to be relatively simple. This is in contrast to nerves with a connection to the nasal side of the retina, which requires a cross over to occur at the center of the brain and later the formation of the optic chiasma. These differences are used to explain why certain conditions affect certain areas of vision only (Morgan, 2008).
Visual discrimination
As earlier mentioned, photoreceptors are in different densities in the retina, with the fovea being highly packed, and there has the highest resolution. The peripheral vision has a lesser resolution, but the photoreceptors can still differentiate various kinds of light. The peripheral vision is, therefore, more capable of recognizing brightness than color. Color discrimination is best done at the fovea since this is where virtually all photoreceptors with color discrimination capability are located (Stafford & Webb, 2005).
Before getting to the visual cortex, the information is relayed via a lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), which acts as a stop in each of the hemispheres. Grouping of similar colors and the same orientation takes place at the visual cortex, and the lateral occipital complex aids in grouping the similarities. A contrast with the background is also enabled. Then follows cognition of the generated objects, and any other feature that is found after processing visual information is added to the existing data, and the depth of information is enhanced. The cortex does late visual processing, and the cortex is able to make out visual information that can be related to language, emotions as well as the memory, thus incorporating the whole brain in vision (Stafford & Webb, 2005).
Conclusion
The visual world is perceived by the eye and the brain through a complex visual processing system. The system involves the sensing of light from outside by the photoreceptors in the retina and consequential transmission of the light to the visual cortex of the brain via the optic nerve. The retina performs early visual processing while the cortex performs late visual processing and eventually makes sense of the perceived signals. The fovea is important in discriminating color and eventual vision due to highly-packed photoreceptors. It is evident that the visual system is a complex one involving not only the brain but also the eyes as primary receptors, the head, and the entire body. The environment is also part of the vision system, and also important is the fact that the visual processing system is undoubtedly a complex one.
Reference List
Morgan, S. (2008). The complete optometric assistant. Philadelphia, PA: Butterworth Heinemann Elsevier.
Active learning in childhood and at school positively affects brain development. Adults’ brains actively use the knowledge gained in the first 12 years of life, which makes it an especially important factor in an improved educational environment at an early age. Children and adolescents who, due to their social activity, have received training experience in a good emotional and supportive environment have positive changes in the structure of the brain in middle age.
Early environment and methods of information cognition affect the brain structure of people growing up in an environment with socioeconomic problems associated with multiple social challenges. However, the human brain is plastic, and individual training seriously affects it more than innate predispositions. It is known that even at the age of 60, learning affects the brain, but not as effectively and quickly as at the age of 15 and 20 (Matthew et al., 2019). The brain retains some capacity for plasticity throughout a person’s life (Rong, 2020). Effective learning and development depend not only on an individual approach but also on applying basic knowledge about the brain. Active learning, additionally, can be supported by two main things – sleep and emotions (Woolfolk, 2017). It is essential for the teacher to create an environment with good psycho-emotional background and not overload the brain of active students, allowing them not to sit up late on homework.
A well-chosen teaching strategy at school focused on the brain will make education more qualitative, increasing literacy among people. Achievements in neuroscience and cognitive have helped me better understand the work and structure of the human brain and develop fundamentally new teaching methods. If you start applying new approaches from an early age, then a person will become more flexible in learning new things by a more mature age.
References
Matthew, T. M., Gwen, M., & Paul S. (2019). Mixed methods in educational psychology inquiry. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 57(4), 1-8.
Rong, S. (2020). The three faces of interests: An integrative review of interest research in vocational, organizational, and educational psychology. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 116(2), 1-47.
Woolfolk, A. E. (2017). Educational psychology (13th ed.). Pearson.
The process of aging is accompanied by many changes. Some changes are significant while others are less significant and can not be easily detected. One of the most significant changes which occur as a natural part of aging can be seen in a decrease in cognitive abilities.
These decreases are seen in the absence of any disease process which may affect the brain. These disease processes can include legions in the brain as a direct result of brain injury which may occur from the prolonged abuse of alcohol as in the case of Korsakoff’s syndrome. Barring injuries such as this, there is a decrease in cognitive abilities which is seen as a direct result of changes within the brain structure as well as adaptive compensation in the aging population. The changes occur on many levels and are evident in the changes in the levels of neurotransmitters, myelination of the individual neurons, processing speeds and performance on various tests. The changes which occur vary depending on the brain structure affected.
For example changes in the prefrontal lobe affect the performance of executive tasks. Executive tasks are tasks that involve the utility of working memory and activities such as planning and scheduling.
Main text
In order for one to examine the natural changes occurring to the brain as a direct result of aging, it is prudent that this examination begins with a close look at the changes occurring on the neuronal level and taking place at the synapses. Synaptic changes are directly related to the speed at which humans process information and thus they have significant implications on cognitive abilities. Evidence of brain changes can be seen as early as the middle age in that there is a decrease in the number of neurotransmitter binding sites, as well as a decrease in the level of neurotransmitters present in the brain synapses.
Dopamine neurotransmitters are responsible for the adjustment of movement in the basal ganglia as well as other very important systems within the brain. More specifically, the level of dopamine is directly responsible for Parkinson’s disease. Parkinson’s disease is the resultant of a significant drop in dopamine. This drop is much more significant than the drop attributed to the normal aging process, however, it does account for the fact that there is a propensity for Parkinson’s to be seen in the aging population.
In addition to the age-onset effects of Parkinson’s disease, decreased levels of dopamine and its effects on dopamine neurotransmission can be seen in higher cortical functioning. These effects are not readily evident, however, experimentation does illustrate that there are deficits that occur as a direct result of aging. Those deficits can be ameliorated by a change in lifestyle. This change in lifestyle was one that was illustrated by Kramer, Hahn, Cohen, Banich, McAuley et. al. (1999).
Kramer, Hahn, Cohen, Banich, McAuley et. al. (1999) examined executive function among older adults. They studied 124 adults between the ages of 60 and 75 years old who did not engage in regular exercise. The study subjects were randomly assigned to two exercise groups. One group was assigned to aerobic exercise in the form of walking while the other group was assigned to do anaerobic exercise—stretching and toning.
The executive functioning of the study subjects was examined before the six months of exercise and after the six months of exercise. The results of the study indicated that there was a significant difference between the scores of the two groups in that the group assigned to aerobic exercise did show an improvement in executive functioning. It was determined that executive functioning task was limited to the frontal and prefrontal cortex of the brain.
This region can be stimulated by exercise and as such, the cognitive deficits involving these regions can be affected by the level of activity. This study illustrates that a change in lifestyle can be effective in reversing some of the changes in the brain which result in the cognitive deficits of the elderly. Furthermore, there is a body of research that indicates that in order to prevent age-related cognitive deficits, it is prudent to increase brain as well as physical activity.
This can be done by older adults through the process of constant education and maintaining a level of physical activity. Essentially, older adults who return to college do experience age-related cognitive deficits to a lesser degree than their counterparts who do not attend institutions of higher learning.
In further examining the age-related decrease in dopamine receptors, one can see that this decrease appears to be a direct result of atrophy of the neurons.
As the neurons atrophy as a direct result of age, there is a loss in the number of synapses. This loss of synapses which occur as a result of the death of neurons affects many brain systems but does not affect all brain systems.
For example, the cerebellum may experience neuron loss after the age of sixty (60). This may be evident in dementia which is seen in many elderly individuals and is often indistinguishable from Alzheimer’s disease in its early stages.
Another age-related effect in the brain structures and in cognition can be seen in the slowing of response time as one age. The slowing of response time is evident both in motor response and in response to cognitive tasks. These effects are very individualized and can most accurately be depicted in the action potential achieved by the neurons within the central nervous system. The action potentials speak directly to the rate at which processing occurs within an individual. The action potential is an extremely complex entity in that it can vary within the same individual at different times. Furthermore, the motor responses of older adults are significantly slower than those of younger adults. This is not limited to motor response but can extend to some cognitive tasks as well.
This brings to task the notion of compensation. In order for older adults to accommodate their deficits, it is prudent for them to take measures.
In addition to the cognitive deficits which occur as a direct result of the atrophy and final death of some nerve cells, increased demyelination of some nerve cells has been cited as a reason for the age-related declines in mental and cognitive abilities. Myelin is the fatty covering of the axon of neurons. It facilitates the efficient conduction of neuronal impulses along the neurons in a manner such that when an action potential is reached, the impulses jump from node to node in a myelinated neuron. This form of action is called saltatory conduction and only occurs in myelinated neurons. It allows for the rapid transmission of impulses in that the impulses do not have to travel the full length of the neuron in order for results to be seen.
In the case where the previously myelinated neurons become delineated, neuronal responses are extremely slow when compared to their myelinated counterparts. In any case, the responses do not occur as a direct result of the loss of action potential. Essentially, changes in myelination occur as a natural response to aging.
Conclusion
Overall, aging is a natural process—one that cannot be prevented and one that is not always greeted with enthusiasm. It is one that dictates that there are both physical and mental changes that occur as a result of the slow degradation of an aging body. As individuals age, there are both cognitive and memory changes that occur in the central nervous system. Much of the changes can be attributed to the atrophy of some localized brain cells and their final death as well as the decreased dopamine, the neurotransmitter.
These deficits are most evident in the processing speeds as well as some other areas of cognition. The lion’s share of this represents the normal aging process, however, when dopamine levels become abnormally low, one can see the signs of Parkinson’s disease. In addition to Parkinson’s disease, there are a number of brain ailments that are predominantly present in the aging population. These ailments include dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.
Despite the prevalence of these diseases in the elderly, some measures can be taken in order to prevent the atrophy of brain cells. One such measure is aerobic exercise in the form of walking and another is to assure that the brain remains active. Essentially, it is prudent for the brain as well as the body to remain active as one age. Such activity can ameliorate the effects of aging.
While no universally accepted definition of aggression exists, the definition suggested by Moyer is one of the most commonly used. Aggression is defined as “overt behavior with the intention of inflicting damage or other unpleasantness upon another individual” (Moyer, 1968). In fact, one cannot imagine modern life without aggression. Everyone is affected by it one way or another. People may be directly engaged in aggression themselves, they can serve as its target, they can be observers of it in others, or control its emergence and growth.
Needless to say, aggression causes considerable problems at different levels, from societal to personal; they range from sensational violence commonly described in the media to everyday episodes affecting everyone. Official statistics shows the increase in crimes caused by aggression. For example, US police reports of criminal acts in 1990 show one violent crime appeared every 17 seconds. If compared to the statistics of 1986, the rates of violence have increased by more than 20 %. In the mid 1990s, FBI statistics shows that the rates are rising at about 9 percent annually. One should keep in mind that this statistics does not include private, non-reported aggression which has, unfortunately, become a part of every day life (Renfrew, 1997, p.3).
To change this drastic situation sufficient knowledge in the field of aggression is required. The current paper is concerned with the biology of aggression, particularly the role of brain in aggression.
Being an outcome of various causes (biological, psychological, social and others) aggression originates from the brain. While there is no sufficient knowledge on the effects of every part of the brain in aggression, two areas of the brain that cause aggression have been defined: the amygdala and the hypothalamus. The amygdala is an area that causes aggression whereas the hypothalamus is a regulator in aggression. The knowledge of brain mechanisms is important for understanding the evolution and dynamics of aggression.
The amygdala is a part of the limbic system that is involved in motivation and emotion. In fact, there are two amygdalae in the human brain: one in each hemisphere, particularly within the temporal lobes (Aggelton, 1968). It releases hormones into the brain when a person receives a stimulus; this causes an emotional reaction which, in its turn, can produce physical reaction.
It is important to note that stimulating the amygdala can cause two opposite reactions and this process depends on the nature of stimulus. Studies with monkeys showed that stimulating the amygdala can cause a docile animal to become aggressive and an aggressive animal to become docile. According to Aronson (1999), when the monkey that is stimulated has access to less dominant monkeys it will become aggressive.
On the other hand, if the monkey under experiment is around more dominant monkeys, it will either put up its defenses or run away (Aronson, 1999, p.270). In each case, as soon as the stimulation to the amygdala is stopped, the abnormal actions of the monkey cease. The study has also shown that if monkey’s aggressive action is already taking place, an electrical charge to the amygdala immediately stops the negative behavior.
This concept of different reactions to a stimulus can be applicable to humans, as well. The classical example is the one where two people are fighting. If one person feels bigger and more dominant than another, he or she will apt to attack. Meanwhile, if the latter person feels less dominant than the former, then he or she will either put up a fight or go away. In the case when both people feel equally dominant the fight will go on. The fight can be avoided if the participants feel they are less dominant, hence, they will not feel the power to engage into the fight.
The role played by amygdala in failing to regulate aggression is demonstrated by the following case. In August, 1966, 25-year old student of the University of Texas, Charles Whitman, killed 14 people from the top floor of the school’s observatory tower with a high-powered rifle. Actually, he proceeded to shoot at 31 people, 14 of them were killed. Also, police discovered the bodies of Whitman’s wife and mother in their homes. In the notes that the killer left he mentioned that he had been experiencing “unusual and irrational thoughts” and wondered if his rage could be explained by some sort of physical abnormality. Whitman turned to be right – there was a walnut-sized tumor found pressing into his amygdala. The cancerous growth caused his abnormal behavior (BlogMeister, 2007).
A thorough examination of the human brain anatomy and its physiology can help experts foresee aggressive behavior or impulse control disorders in preschool aged children. For instance, in a study presented in November 2007 at the Society for Neuroscience conference in San Diego, scientists have studied brain activity in a small group of boys that were considered “reactively aggressive” wherein, according to their definition, means that they used to punch others or break something but afterwards they felt sorry about it (Singer, 2007). Boys who could control their behavior also took part in the experiment.
The subjects were shown the images of threatening faces, those who failed to control themselves had greater activity in the amygdala compared to those who could control their behavior. The study showed that the reactively aggressive boys feel more fearful when they look at angry faces, and it reflects in the increased activity in the amygdala.
Further studies, conducted by Raine and his colleagues have shown that the prefrontal cortices of murderers and people with antisocial behavior were smaller than those of controls. Moreover, all those people had both structural and functional impairments in their prefrontal cortices (Goode, 2000).
As aggression is significant in terms of social regulation and social interaction, it involves the cortex of the frontal lobes of the brain. Since the frontal cortex is associated with the amygdala and the hypothalamus, the frontal cortex influences these brain centers that control aggression. A damaged frontal lobe causes overt behavior in humans. Patients with this problem react impulsively, do not plan beforehand their behavior and do not foresee its consequences. They tend to have short tempers, always respond to minor provocation and cannot control their emotions (Anderson et al., 1999, pp.1032-1037).
The hypothalamus is another part of brain that plays a significant role in aggression. It is located below the thalamus, just above the brain step and links the nervous system to the endocrine system via hypophysis. The hypothalamus is believed to be a regulator in aggression. The experiments have shown that hypothalamus causes aggressive behavior when electrically stimulated (Hermans et al, 1983). For instance, in a study by Hermans et al (1983), over 400 sites in the hypothalami of 270 male rats were electrically stimulated with the purpose to call fights between the rats. As a result, the localization of the electrodes that induce fights differed from the localization of electrodes where no fights were induced.
A non-parametric discriminant analysis was used to detect and test the differences in localization of the electrodes. The procedure allowed delimiting areas within the hypothalamus with different probability to induce aggression. In addition, the experiment helped to discriminate between the lowest thresholds for attack behavior and those where the fiercest forms of attack behavior are induced (Hermans et al., 1983). Moreover, the research showed that the hypothalamus has receptors that help to determine the levels of aggression depending on these receptors’ interactions with neurotransmitters such as serotonin and vasopressin.
Changes in the level and metabolism of serotonin impact affective behavior in general and aggressive behavior, in particular. The studies of suicidal and impulsive aggressive behavior in humans focus on the role of serotonin since there is a correlation between low serotonin concentration in the brain and aggressive behavior. Manipulation with serotonergic system influences aggressive behaviors. Namely, depletion of brain serotonin increases aggression and enhancing of brain serotonin reduces aggression. Actually, there exists a class of drugs acting on serotonin, these serotonergic-enhancing drugs, known as “serenics” reduce aggression (Olivier, 2000, pp. 207-217).
As far as vasopressin and serotonin are concerned, one more research acquires special significance:
Studies in several species of rodents show that arginine vasopressin (AVP) acting through a V1A receptor facilitates offensive aggression, i.e., the initiation of attacks and bites, whereas serotonin (5-HT) acting through a 5-HT1B receptor inhibits aggressive responding. One area of the CNS that seems critical for the organization of aggressive behavior is the basolateral hypothalamus, particularly the anterior hypothalamic region. The present studies examine the neuroanatomical and neurochemical interaction between AVP and 5-HT at the level of the anterior hypothalamus (AH) in the control of offensive aggression in Syrian golden hamsters.
First, specific V1A and 5-HT1B binding sites in the AH are shown by in vitro receptor autoradiography. The binding for each neurotransmitter colocalizes with a dense field of immunoreactive AVP and 5-HT fibers and putative terminals. Putative 5-HT synapses on AVP neurons in the area of the AH are identified by double-staining immunocytochemistry and laser scanning confocal microscopy. These morphological data predispose a functional interaction between AVP and 5-HT at the level of the AH. When tested for offensive aggression in a resident/intruder paradigm, resident hamsters treated with fluoxetine, a selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor, have significantly longer latencies to bite and bite fewer times than vehicle-treated controls.
Conversely, AVP microinjections into the AH significantly shorten the latency to bite and increase biting attacks. The action of microinjected AVP to increase offensive aggression is blocked by the pretreatment of hamsters with fluoxetine. These data suggest that 5-HT inhibits fighting, in part, by antagonizing the aggression-promoting action of the AVP system (Delville et al, 1997).
Brain dopamine is another neurochemical implicated in aggression. According to numerous animal studies increasing brain activity creates a state in which animals are inclined to respond aggressively to stimuli in the environment. Therefore, management of violent patients is impossible without resorting to therapeutic agents like antagonists of dopamine receptors. We should also admit the fact that dopamine has important role in reward and punishment that is considered to be the real reason why dopamine contributes to the display of aggression.
Further, noradrenaline correlates with aggressive behavior. Medicine has studied this correlation and has found noradrenergic receptor blockade extremely useful in treatment of violent patients.
Apart from vasopressin, many other peptides, that act as neurotransmitters are found in the brain. Though alternations in several of them are known to change aggression, there is no single one that is specifically associated with it. Thus, current studies of aggression should investigate the existence of such components. Further research in the field under consideration should continue to throw light on the role of brain in aggression.
Though the existing knowledge enables us to say that aggression originates from the brain, there is a need to continue the research in this area. A thorough understanding of the link between the brain and aggression will contribute to the general understanding of the complexity of aggression which, in turn, would lead to direct help to those who try to control it in either animals or humans.
References
Aggleton, P. (1968). The amygdala. Wiley-Liss. Amygdala. Web.
Anderson W. et al. (1999). A damaged frontal lobe causes overt behavior in humans [Electronic version]. Nature Neuroscience 2, 1032 – 1037.
Aronson , E. (1999). The social animal (8th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
BlogMeister. (2007). Amygdala abnormalities linked to violent aggression. Web.
Delville, Y. et al. (1997). Vasopressin/Serotonin Interactions in the Anterior Hypothalamus Control Aggressive Behavior in Golden Hamsters. Web.
Goode, E. (2000). Study of 21 men with antisocial disorder finds less gray matter [Electronic version]. New York Times, A-4.
PT, a 24-year-old, unmarried Caucasian male, on leave from his OIF posting in Iraq, was apparently normal till he met with an ATV accident recently and now has presented with difficulties of mobility, memory deficits, speech impairment, difficulty in concentration, cognitive impairment, and pain of his right shoulder and a blurred vision. He can be described as a pleasant person with good insight into his cognitive deficits and the able handling of his mobile phone conveyed the picture of a positive thinking individual whose mental status was apparently steady and willing to undertake more for quick recovery, the right kind of patient.
His coping strategies appeared to be good. The war had not given him any injuries though he had faced 5 mortar blasts. Though the speech was a problem, PT narrated the history of the accident himself and what followed after from what his family told him. While on block leave from duty in Iraq, he had gone riding on an ATV and was later found hurt and unconscious by the police who took him to the hospital. Hospitalization at Loma Linda VA lasted 3 months though he believed that it was just a week ago where he was treated for TBI and the accompanying hemiplegia and other associated problems.
There was no memory of the accident. The last thing that he remembered was his ride. He was not wearing a helmet then. Then he was treated at Pavo Alto VA PTRP Program from where he reached Dr. Peppers of the PM and R Department of Polytrauma in January 2008. Dr.Peppers conducted the TBI Second Level Examination and referred him to the Polytrauma Social Work Assessment and Referral where I am a service provider.
He has his mother and a stepfather, a half brother, and 2 half-sisters. His father had passed away. His guide and mentor was his stepfather. PT says he receives social and moral support from his friends and family but refrained from naming anyone. There is no positive history of college education as he is vague about it. Currently, he has no job but wishes to do something when he is discharged from the army. His financial status appears to be steady now. He has been given an insurance amount of $50000 and has a total monthly income of $ 2520. PT does his own cooking and other activities himself.
History of alcohol or tobacco use is denied and PT recollected that he had abstained for more than a year. The nicotine patch is in situ. The history of using additional Trazadone tablets was volunteered. The automobile that he drives was obtained under a false name.
Carnival activities are his style of leisure.
Dr. Peppers’ Case records of TBI Second evaluation
Case records show no evidence of neurobehavioral symptoms as history before the accident. We can assume that he was a perfectly normal healthy person before the accident. Dr. Peppers of the WLA PM and RS Polytrauma Department saw PT after his discharge from the Palo Alto VA PTRP program. The history recorded said that PT had sustained a severe, non-penetrating head injury about some months back. There was associated unconsciousness then. The patient himself had given the history. Though having residual cognitive deficits and recovering left hemiplegia, he was ambulant at arrival at Dr. Peppers’s clinic. He was executing his daily functions fairly normally and was on medications for his residual problems: Trazadone, a nicotine patch, carboxymethyl cellulose ophthalmic solution, and Buspirone.
The medical record dated 17/1/08 showed that physical examinations were within normal limits for a pulse, BP, respiratory rate, general examination, respiratory system, and gastrointestinal system. Both thumbs exhibited a dislocation and relocation but the left thumb could not be extended. Neurological examination showed that he was cooperative, awake, and alert. The speech was fluent and appropriate. The Mini-Mental State Examination score was full implying that he had no obvious cognitive deficit. Cranial nerve examinations showed involvement of the III and VIII Nerves. The right eye did not accommodate and the left only slightly.
The tongue deviated to the left. The motor system showed normal power in the muscles of the limbs on the right side. The power of the muscles on the left was slightly affected in the upper limb including the deltoid, biceps, triceps, wrist extensors, wrist flexors, finger flexors, and interosseous muscle and the power in all were 4/5 with the movement against resistance present but without any clonus. All the other muscles from the hip downwards to the toes were normal. A trace of atrophy was observed in the left thenar eminence. The sensations of light touch and proprioception in the upper and lower limbs were normal.
The heel-toe walk was very slightly affected but he did not fall. The left upper limb muscles showed normal reflexes. The patellar reflex was very brisk on the left but normal on the right. The Babinski reflex was downgoing on the left. No clonus had been noticed. The tone in the left pectoralis major muscle was slightly increased especially in external rotation and in the left finger flexors and interossei.
Flaccidity was seen. The cerebellar functions were slightly disturbed on the left (finger nose test, rapid alternating movements, heel to shin). Romberg was normal. His gait was affected. There was left forefoot inversion, hip circumduction, mildly decreased hip flexion, no toe drag, left arm flaccid in internal rotation, and pronated and held below the beltline. Subluxation was not palpated in the left shoulder. Mild tenderness was elicited over the left biceps tendon and the acromioclavicular joint. Pearson’s test was positive and Speed’s test was negative.
Consultations had been arranged by Dr. Peppers with the neuropsychologist, occupational therapist, Ophthalmologist, physical therapist, and psychiatrist. The consultation was arranged for prosthetics also.
Psychosocial Assessment
This patient had pain in the left arm due to the increased tone of the pectoralis muscle, the occasional left humeral subluxation when walking, and because the arm is hanging without support. He probably had full-fledged hemiplegia earlier but was recovering. The same could be said for the cognitive deficits which did not recover as fast.
The tangential shift in the left eye is due to the involvement of the oculomotor nerve. Blurry vision and seeing double is because of the disturbance in accommodation caused again by the involvement of IIIrd Nerve (Oculomotor) along with hemiplegia which was due to involvement of the brain in TBI. The attempt towards the normal movements of the eye, when redirected during the examination, confirms that the nerve involved and the muscles are on a recovery path.
The loss of memory about the accident is indicative of post-traumatic amnesia which is a characteristic feature of Traumatic Brain Injury (Russell, 1932). This amnesia is seen as a period of disorientation and inability to form and recall new memories. Patients show a period of continuous improvement till they can finally recover to regain the ability to form and recall new memories. The duration of post-traumatic amnesia is used as an index for predicting the severity of TBI (Ellenburg, 1996).
A better term to describe the period is post-traumatic confusion as a state of attention and memory impairments is accompanied by a disturbance of consciousness, variation in psychomotor activity, and a ‘disrupted sleep-wake cycle’ (Sherer et al, 2008). The Confusion Assessment Protocol is a good instrument to assess the different manifestations of post-traumatic confusion in early recovery from moderate or severe TBI developed by Sherer et al (2008). The CAP measures 7 symptoms of “disorientation, cognitive impairment, fluctuation in symptom presentation, agitation, nighttime sleep disturbance, decreased daytime arousal and psychotic-type symptoms” (Sherer, 2008). A diagnosis of post-traumatic confusion can be made if 4 symptoms are present or 3 with one being disorientation.
Sleep disturbances are common following TBI, reported by 30-70% of patients (Oullet, 2007). PT has this problem and he has been prescribed Trazadone as a measure to help him sleep. 30% have insomnia syndrome characterized by frequent, pervasive
symptoms and affecting daily life. The problem could be that of falling asleep or maintaining sleep. Insomnia intensifies other TBI-related problems like cognitive deficits, pain, fatigue, or irritability. It also can be an obstacle in rehabilitation. An important part of TBI rehabilitation is preventing or treating insomnia (Oullet, 2007). The Diagnostic Interview for Insomnia obtains the description of the type of sleep problem.
The quality of life following a TBI is usually reduced. Cognitive, behavioral, and physical impairments could be accompanied by problems in the functional areas of work, interpersonal relationships, and leisure activities (Pagulayan, 2006). The health-related quality of life (HRQOL) depends on the patient’s view of his injury-related health status and his attitudes about the recovery of functioning. The HRQOL is an outcome that provides ample information about impairments and disabilities and an idea about the interventions for rehabilitation (Pagulayan, 2006). PT is a patient who is positive where HRQOL is concerned. He is cooperative and willing to comply, sometimes with a little persuasion. We can expect a favorable outcome for psychosocial interventions on his behalf. Present methods and measures do not focus on the functional domains of
social, emotional, cognitive, vocational, and physical nature for the psychosocial interventions for recovery of cognitive impairments. A method needs to be adopted to include these aspects in my work on PT. Records have identified other Axis I disorder. The Sickness Impact Profile is one measure that covers the numerous domains of functioning. PT has recognizable cognitive impairments which disturb his memory and sleep pattern, adjustment disorder, mixed anxiety and depressed mood which were diagnosed earlier at Pavo Alto VA and treatment is being continued still. All these come under Post Traumatic Stress disorder as the symptoms are persisting after a long duration of nearly a year.
Speech impairment and attention deficits are seen in PT. The neural networks subserving attention are found in the brainstem, frontal and parietal regions. Attention is considered to be a multifaceted cognitive process. Attention deficits are a major problem after TBI. To measure attention deficits accurately is a difficult task (Whyte et al, 2008).
The Moss Attention Rating Scale (MARS) is an observation rating scale of attention-related behaviors for assessment in patients with moderate to severe TBI especially for those undergoing rehabilitation. MARS is also recommended for speech-language pathologists, nurses, occupational therapists, and physical therapists. (Whyte et al, 2008).
PT had been advised to take half to one tablet of Trazadone 50 mg. at night when he had difficulty sleeping. 25 mg to 75 mg. is prescribed for insomnia. However, he had been using 2 or 3, tablets, probably because he did not have a favorable response with the small dosage. Usually, Trazadone is used for depression. Depression is caused by an imbalance of neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in the brain (Trazadone, WebMD). Trazadone acts upon the neurotransmitters by indirectly inhibiting the uptake of serotonin by the neurons in the brain and directly by increasing the action of serotonin. It can be used with other drugs for panic attacks. The normal dosage is 150mg per day. Suicidal attempts are possible with Trazadone.
The nicotine active patch 14 mg/24 hours was most probably used to encourage cessation of smoking. It could also have been to increase attentiveness in PT’s cognitive behavior. Nicotine has been found to increase attentional performance as measured by the Connors continuous performance test (CPT). Motor and memory function showed no difference (White, 1999) in his study on Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) patients. The explanation here is that loss of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors is associated with reduced cerebral perfusion in AD. Nicotinic receptor binding has been linked to cognitive performance. Transdermal nicotine has been found to increase whole-brain metabolism and improve event-related potentials in AD. The patch improved cognitive behavior in ADHD children and schizophrenia (White, 1999).
Carboxymethylcellulose eye drops are used as smoothening lubricant drops for PT’s eyes which are prone to drying due to inadequate closure of both eyes, the left more than the right..
Buspirone is being given for PT’s adjustment disorder, mixed anxiety, and depressed mood. PT desires to stop Buspirone as it does not seem to do him any good.
However, he has to necessarily continue it as he does have irritability and mood changes. Buspirone is being taken in doses of 10mg. or one tablet every morning and evening. PT must be told not to stop Buspirone as he needs it.
Recommendations
Further assessments need to be made to decide whether PT has PTSD by the definition in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV and TR. The diagnosis can be made if PT has a combination of one re-experiencing symptom, 3 symptoms of increased avoidance, and 2 symptoms of increased arousal with significant impairment in one or more areas of work, home, relationships, and leisure activities and the symptoms last for 4 weeks or more. (Hughes, 2006). The Structured Clinical Interview could be used for making the diagnosis (Kindt et al, 2007). The main recommended therapies are cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), cognitively based treatments of eye desensitization movements, and reprocessing which is also known as EDMR (Hughes, 2006).
PT may be given CBT as he has suggestive symptoms of post-traumatic amnesia, anxiety, and depression along with cognitive impairment and sleep disorders. The cognitive treatment should include ‘exposure to intrusive thoughts and images, especially hot spots’ and ‘the challenging of underlying and maintaining beliefs, assumptions and schemes’. (Hughes, 2006). The EMDR or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy (Hughes, 2006) may be done remembering that PT has a recovering paralysis of the oculomotor nerve (part of the hemiplegia) which has caused a squint in resting position but eye movements are possible when redirected.
Bilateral stimulation of the brain is the aim here. (The oculomotor nerve provides the innervation for all the eye muscles except the superior oblique and lateral rectus). Reprocessing should be focused on desensitization to recurrent images and thoughts and installation of alternative cognitions (Hughes, 2006). Imaginal exposure combined with rescripting is a new technique for noticing the change in interpretation of the trauma. It is being instituted during CBT and after (Kindt et al, 2007). ‘Dysfunctional interpretations may best be corrected by inducing new perspectives on what happened during trauma by experiencing new views and new emotions’ (Kindt et al, 2007). Traumatic memories are thus desensitized.
References
Ellenberg JH, Levin HS, Saydjari C. (1996), “Posttraumatic amnesia as a predictor of outcome after severe closed head injury. Prospective assessment”. Arch Neurol 1996; 53:782-91.
Hughes, Jamie Hacker; (2006), “Psychology and cognitive processing in post-traumatic Disorders”, Psychiatry 5:7, History, Epidemiology and Treatment, Elsevier 2006.
Kindt, Merel et al, (2007), “Perceptual and conceptual processing as predictors of treatment outcome in PTSD”, Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry Vol.38 (2007) 491–506.
Oullet, Marie-Christie and Morin, Charles M.; (2007), “Efficacy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia Associated With Traumatic Brain Injury: A Single-Case Experimental Design”, Arch Phys Med Rehabil Vol 88, Pgs 1581-1592.
Pagulayan, Kathleen F.; Temkin, Nancy R.; Machamer, Joan and Dikmen, Sureyya S.; (2006), “A Longitudinal Study of Health-Related Quality of Life After Traumatic Brain Injury”, Arch Phys Med Rehabil Vol 87, Pgs 611-618.
Sherer, Mark; Yablon, Stuart A.; Nakase-Richardson, Risa and Nick, Todd G.; (2008), “Effect of Severity of Post-Traumatic Confusion and Its Constituent Symptoms on Outcome After Traumatic Brain Injury”, Arch Physical Medical Rehabilitation, Vol.89, Pgs 42-47.
White, Heidi K. and Levin, Edward D.; (1999), “Four-week nicotine skin patch treatment effects on cognitive performance in Alzheimer’s disease”, Psychopharmacology, Vol 143, Pgs 158-165.
Whyte, John et al, (2008), “The Moss Attention Rating Scale for Traumatic Brain Injury: Further Explorations of Reliability and Sensitivity to Change”, Arch Phys Med Rehabil Vol 89, Pgs 966-973.
Psychological research has become instrumental in modern society because it helps researchers to learn more about the functioning of the brain. The key to understanding psychology is research, which in some ways makes it easier for psychologists to assist people who are having trouble or recommends a brand-new idea to improve how we go about doing things like learning, parenting, or even establishing a new business. The functioning of the brain is diverse and requires adequate knowledge in order to understand the changes that occur in a person’s ability to think in a certain way. From newborn development to the behavior of social groupings, psychology scholars look into a wide range of subjects.
The scientific method is used by psychologists to conduct systematic and empirical research. Forming an idea and then testing it are the two main areas that this scientific approach may be broken down into. This paper explores psychological research with reference to Phineas Gage, who had an accident that damaged his head. The paper establishes the functioning of the brain and its role in making decisions about certain aspects of life.
Importance of Psychological Research
Psychological research establishes evidence-based strategies that can be relied on to solve issues that affect the well-being of people and enhance their lives positively. The field of psychology is diverse. Psychologists diagnose and treat patients, conduct basic and applied research, advise communities and organizations, and teach aspiring psychologists and those who plan to pursue other fields of study. They gauge personality and intelligence. Many psychologists are also medical professionals. They evaluate the health and functioning of the mind and behavior (Spielman et al., 2020).
Other psychologists investigate how people interact with one another and with technologies and try to strengthen these interactions. For instance, the case of Phineas Gage reveals that the brain has different parts that play varied roles in the functioning and reasoning of a human being. Therefore, psychologists explore the brain part that is injured and its role in making decisions. In Gage’s case, the damaged part of the brain was the frontal cortex, which affects personality and ability to make decisions. Therefore, the research on Gage’s accident and brain damage helped in establishing the parts of the brain and how they function.
Psychological research helps to improve critical thinking and reasoning toward identifying solutions to difficult situations in life. A psychology degree is useful for a variety of reasons. Students of psychology develop their critical thinking abilities and learn how to apply the scientific method. The active application of a set of abilities to information for the interpretation and evaluation of that information is known as critical thinking. In a world full of conflicting “facts,” many of which are intentionally deceptive, the capacity to evaluate information and determine its validity and utility is crucial (Spielman et al., 2020).
For instance, keeping a skeptic’s mindset, identifying one’s prejudices, applying reason, asking the right questions, and making observations are all examples of critical thinking. Most issues in modern life require critical thinking in order to solve them. In solving all the issues that affect human beings’ life, the brain and how it functions play a crucial role. Therefore, psychological research must be prioritized in modern society to identify the functioning of the brain and some phenomena that can be triggered to enhance the thinking capacity and capabilities of the brain.
Approaches to Research
Psychologists rely on different methods and techniques to conduct research activities in order to gain adequate knowledge concerning the brain and how it functions. For example, psychologists might rely on longitudinal research to examine the behavioral pattern change in an individual and the role of the brain in the changes. In a longitudinal study, the same subjects are periodically examined to look for any changes that might happen over time. In longitudinal studies, a sort of correlational research, researchers watch and gather information on numerous factors without attempting to change them. For instance, researchers observed the changes in Gage’s thinking capacity and ability to make decisions after the accident and eventually established the importance and functioning of the frontal cortex (Cherry, 2022).
Case studies also help in psychological research. A case study is a type of research methodology that produces a thorough, multifaceted understanding of a complex problem in its actual setting. It is a well-known research strategy that is widely applied in a range of fields, especially the social sciences. The case study of Phineas Gage helped psychological researchers to gain in-depth knowledge about the functioning of the human brain.
Another approach to psychological research is cross-sectional studies. A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which a researcher gathers information from a wide range of people all at once. In a cross-sectional study, variables are observed without being changed by the researcher. In the case of Phineas Gage, the psychologists could only observe and record the changes regarding the damage to his brain but could not influence the changes. Psychological research can also be approached through naturalistic observation, which entails a research strategy used by psychologists and other social sciences are naturalistic observation (Cherry, 2022).
This method involves watching individuals’ spontaneous behavior in unstructured settings and studying it. Simply said, the researcher takes note of what they observe in any way they can. Naturalistic observation identifies how changes in behavioral patterns and the functioning of the brain can be affected by the natural environment. The other major approaches to psychological research include surveys and archival research. In the survey method, researchers seek people’s thoughts and opinions about a certain phenomenon before making decisions.
Analyzing Findings
In psychological research, analysis of findings entails the evaluation of acquired data using logical and analytical reasoning to spot trends, correlations, or patterns. Phineas Gage’s accident case entails a deep analysis of the findings and results obtained from the case to understand the functioning of the brain. Psychologists test a hypothesis or an educated prediction about what they believe will happen using the evidence they have gathered. Researchers can assess the chance that a hypothesis should be accepted or rejected using this kind of statistical analysis (Kenny, 2019).
Analyzing findings helps researchers to determine the efficacy of the research activity and how the research question has been answered by the research. The analysis of findings in psychological research can be done through the correlation method. Although there may be a correlation between two or more variables, causality and effect are not always implied by this correlation. Correlation between two variables simply indicates that when one changes, the other variable also changes in a similar way and intensity. Because it enables us to determine the strength and direction of correlations between two variables, correlational research is helpful. However, the correlation has its limitations because proving a connection only provides us with limited information regarding causation and effect.
Ethics
According to the American Psychological Association’s Ethics Code, psychologists who perform research must inform participants about the study’s goals, methods, and procedures. The rights of the participants to refuse to participate and to withdraw from the research after it has begun, as well as the expected effects of doing so. In order to carry out successful psychological research, the researchers must adhere to the informed-consent rules. The informed-consent rules require that the researcher ensures that the research participants fully understand the details of the research and its purpose before taking part. The researchers should conclusively explain to the research participants why certain research is being conducted and its intended outcome. Confidentiality of data is also essential in psychological research. For instance, the case of Phineas Gage entails personal information and details that required consent from the research participant or the people closely related to him (Cherry, 2022). Data ought to be held confidentially until the owners’ issue permission to have the data publicly shared. Failure to adhere to the APA code of ethics might affect the outcome of research negatively.
Conclusion
Because it enables researchers to better understand how the brain functions, psychological research has become crucial in contemporary culture. Research is the key to understanding psychology, which in some ways makes it simpler for psychologists to help individuals who are experiencing problems or suggest a brand-new idea to enhance how we approach things like learning, parenting, or even starting a new business. Understanding the changes that take place in a person’s capacity to think in a certain way necessitates adequate knowledge of the varied ways in which the brain functions. Psychological research can be conducted through various approaches; longitudinal research methods, case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, cross-sectional studies, and archival research. Psychological research helps researchers to identify vital details about the brain and how it functions. For instance, the case of Phineas Gage helped to identify that the brain is made up of different parts that function differently.