Over the years, research on how the brain perceives and processes language has intensified. From as early as 1861, evidence from studies has confirmed that the brain is a fundamental component with regards to the process of learning languages. The study of the biological and neural basics of a language is referred to as neurolinguistics. Research in this field is often based on data from impaired languages. The data is used to understand the properties associated with the linguistic aspect of human existence (Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams 461).
Recent advancements in technology have made it possible for researchers to explore other methods of studying the brain. Such approaches include the use of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and functional MRI (fMRI) technologies. The tools are used by researchers to map the brain (Fromkin et al. 468).
In this paper, the author provides a critical analysis of the major linguistic parts of the brain. The parts include those responsible for language processing and creation. In addition, the author will highlight the linguistic complications that may arise due to damages or dysfunctions associated with those parts. To this end, the author will focus on damages and dysfunctions brought about by medical impairments.
Impacts of Medical Impairment on Linguistic Areas of the Human Brain
Overview
The brain is composed of two major regions. They include the left and the right hemispheres. The left region is the one responsible for language perception and processing. On the other hand, the right side is responsible for human imagination. The two sides are connected by fibers known as corpus callosum. The left side of the human body is controlled by the right side of the brain. On its part, the right side of the body is regulated by the left side of the brain. The situation is referred to as contralateral brain function (Fromkin et al. 461). Medical impairment to any linguistic part of the brain leads to various complications.
Aphasia
Aphasia is a term used to describe a language disorder brought about by damaged brain parts. The impairment is mostly caused by stroke and brain tumor (Fromkin et al. 463). Medically, aphasia is broadly categorized into two clusters. The two are fluent and non-fluent aphasias. The first category involves a situation where an individual speaks fluently but has trouble processing and understanding speech. On the other hand, patients with non-fluent aphasia understand other people well but have a problem with their own speech. They usually utter a few words, which may sound senseless. However, linguists classify aphasia according to their area of localization. The areas in reference are the regions of the brain that cause these complications.
Brocas area
The Brocas area is located at the front of the left hemisphere. It is named after a French neurologist who discovered it in 1861. Medical damage to this region leads to the development of a condition referred to as Brocas or expressive aphasia. Patients with this condition have no problem processing speech. However, they find it hard to express themselves verbally or through writing (Fromkin et al. 467). Information in the brain is usually moved to the Brocas area from the Language Axis (Obler and Gjerlow 45). In the Brocas region, the information received is arranged both grammatically and syntactically.
The organized information is then moved in form of electric pulses to the front motor areas. According to Fromkin, the motor areas are responsible for the verbal musculature (73). The musculature makes it possible for verbal expression to take place.
When the Brocas area is damaged, the brain fails to arrange a persons thoughts grammatically. People with this condition may find it hard to understand sentences whose apprehension relies entirely on syntax and grammar (Fromkin et al. 465). In severe cases, the frontal motor areas of the brain, which are adjacent to the Brocas region, may be damaged. The impairment makes it hard for the individual to move their mouth to produce speech. Since the left frontal lobe is also responsible for the activities taking place in right side of the body, most right-handed people may have difficulties when writing due to paralysis (Fromkin et al. 461).
Wernickes area
The area is adjacent to the auditory cortex. It was discovered by a German neurologist, Carl Wernicke, 10 years after the Brocas area became known (Aniruddh 56). The region is believed to be responsible for the processing of both verbal and written languages. Medical impairment to this area, such as lesions, may lead to the development of a condition known as Wernickes or receptive aphasia. Patients suffering from this condition find it hard to understand both spoken and written language.
In addition, it is hard for them to make grammatical sense while speaking. It is important to note that the speaking capability of receptive aphasics remain intact. However, they may still find it hard to express themselves when speaking (Fromkin et al. 467). The situation is attributed to the fact that even though the Brocas area remains intact, the Wernickes region still plays a vital role in the linguistic output of a person.
Patients suffering from receptive aphasia may produce sentences that may be correct with regards to syntax. However, they are overly incoherent in their semantics (Fromkin et al. 465). At later stages of this condition, the patients have problems finding the correct word to use in self-expression. In addition, they may overstep the phonetic boundary (Shanahan 30). As a result, the individual confuses closely related words. Consequently, what they say or write may be totally different from what was intended. Their ability to memorize and recite words is, however, unaffected. In addition, their writing abilities are usually intact. However, the content of their written communication makes little or no sense. It is noted that most of these patients are unaware of their disability (Shanahan 32).
Arcuate fasciculus
The Brocas and Wernickes areas are located in different lobes of the brain. However, the two areas are connected by nerve fibers, which make it possible for them to communicate (Fromkin et al. 470). The fibers in reference are known as arcuate fasciculus (Obler and Gjerlow 99). Supramarginal gyrus, also known as angular gyrus, is located above these fibers. They are found halfway between the Brocas and Wernickes areas.
Medical damage to arcuate fasciculus leads to a condition known as conductive aphasia (Aniruddh 82). Individuals with this condition are usually better off compared to those with receptive and expressive aphasias. People with this condition comprehend and process speech normally. In addition, they speak fluently and are always aware of what they are saying. Medical impairment of angular gyrus is associated with such conditions as alexia, dyslexia, and agraphia. Alexia is the inability to read. On its part, dyslexia involves problems when reading. Finally, agraphia is the inability to write (Fromkin et al. 466).
In some cases, a person may experience both receptive and expressive aphasias. The condition is referred to as global aphasia. It is due to extensive medical damage to the frontal and parietal lobes. In some cases, patients with global aphasia also experience paralysis on their left side. As a result, they have problems when writing. Linguistic comprehension and expression is also greatly reduced. The same applies to the individuals ability to repeat.
Transcortical sensory aphasia
Another rare form of linguistic impairment is the transcortical sensory aphasia. The condition is not as a result of medical damage to any linguistic part of the brain. On the contrary, it occurs when the three major linguistic parts of the brain (the Brocas, Wernickes, and arcuate fasciculus areas) are separated from the rest of the brain. The situation mainly occurs due to insufficient vascular composition, which leads to impaired blood supply (Fromkin et al. 45). Patients with this condition exhibit extensive memorizing abilities. In addition, they can repeat long sentences. However, their writing and reading abilities are absent even when no paralysis of the limbs is experienced (Aniruddh 77).
Conclusion
Over the years, studies conducted on the brain have made it possible for linguists to better understand how this organ works. The studies provide information on how the brain helps people to communicate and perceive language. There was a time when study of this organ involved mere observations of physical traits of a person. However, recent technological advancements have made it possible for researchers to study the brain more efficiently. The development has provided linguists with better understanding of the parts of the brain tied to linguistics. Technological advancement also provides information on complications that may arise due to medical impairment of such regions.
Works Cited
Aniruddh, Patel. Music, Language, and the Brain, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.
Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams. An Introduction to Language. 8th ed. 2007. Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth. Print.
Fromkin, Victoria. Brain, Language, and Linguistics, Brain and Language 71.1 (2000): 72-74. Print.
Obler, Loraine, and Kris Gjerlow. Language and the Brain, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print.
Shanahan, Daniel. Language, Feeling, and the Brain: The Evocative Vector, New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2007. Print.
Over the years, research on how the brain perceives and processes language has intensified. From as early as 1861, evidence from studies has confirmed that the brain is a fundamental component with regards to the process of learning languages. The study of the biological and neural basics of a language is referred to as neurolinguistics. Research in this field is often based on data from impaired languages. The data is used to understand the properties associated with the linguistic aspect of human existence (Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams 461).
Recent advancements in technology have made it possible for researchers to explore other methods of studying the brain. Such approaches include the use of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and functional MRI (fMRI) technologies. The tools are used by researchers to map the brain (Fromkin et al. 468).
In this paper, the author provides a critical analysis of the major linguistic parts of the brain. The parts include those responsible for language processing and creation. In addition, the author will highlight the linguistic complications that may arise due to damages or dysfunctions associated with those parts. To this end, the author will focus on damages and dysfunctions brought about by medical impairments.
Impacts of Medical Impairment on Linguistic Areas of the Human Brain
Overview
The brain is composed of two major regions. They include the left and the right hemispheres. The left region is the one responsible for language perception and processing. On the other hand, the right side is responsible for human imagination. The two sides are connected by fibers known as corpus callosum. The left side of the human body is controlled by the right side of the brain. On its part, the right side of the body is regulated by the left side of the brain. The situation is referred to as contralateral brain function (Fromkin et al. 461). Medical impairment to any linguistic part of the brain leads to various complications.
Aphasia
Aphasia is a term used to describe a language disorder brought about by damaged brain parts. The impairment is mostly caused by stroke and brain tumor (Fromkin et al. 463). Medically, aphasia is broadly categorized into two clusters. The two are fluent and non-fluent aphasias. The first category involves a situation where an individual speaks fluently but has trouble processing and understanding speech. On the other hand, patients with non-fluent aphasia understand other people well but have a problem with their own speech. They usually utter a few words, which may sound senseless. However, linguists classify aphasia according to their area of localization. The areas in reference are the regions of the brain that cause these complications.
Brocas area
The Brocas area is located at the front of the left hemisphere. It is named after a French neurologist who discovered it in 1861. Medical damage to this region leads to the development of a condition referred to as Brocas or expressive aphasia. Patients with this condition have no problem processing speech. However, they find it hard to express themselves verbally or through writing (Fromkin et al. 467). Information in the brain is usually moved to the Brocas area from the Language Axis (Obler and Gjerlow 45). In the Brocas region, the information received is arranged both grammatically and syntactically.
The organized information is then moved in form of electric pulses to the front motor areas. According to Fromkin, the motor areas are responsible for the verbal musculature (73). The musculature makes it possible for verbal expression to take place.
When the Brocas area is damaged, the brain fails to arrange a persons thoughts grammatically. People with this condition may find it hard to understand sentences whose apprehension relies entirely on syntax and grammar (Fromkin et al. 465). In severe cases, the frontal motor areas of the brain, which are adjacent to the Brocas region, may be damaged. The impairment makes it hard for the individual to move their mouth to produce speech. Since the left frontal lobe is also responsible for the activities taking place in right side of the body, most right-handed people may have difficulties when writing due to paralysis (Fromkin et al. 461).
Wernickes area
The area is adjacent to the auditory cortex. It was discovered by a German neurologist, Carl Wernicke, 10 years after the Brocas area became known (Aniruddh 56). The region is believed to be responsible for the processing of both verbal and written languages. Medical impairment to this area, such as lesions, may lead to the development of a condition known as Wernickes or receptive aphasia. Patients suffering from this condition find it hard to understand both spoken and written language.
In addition, it is hard for them to make grammatical sense while speaking. It is important to note that the speaking capability of receptive aphasics remain intact. However, they may still find it hard to express themselves when speaking (Fromkin et al. 467). The situation is attributed to the fact that even though the Brocas area remains intact, the Wernickes region still plays a vital role in the linguistic output of a person.
Patients suffering from receptive aphasia may produce sentences that may be correct with regards to syntax. However, they are overly incoherent in their semantics (Fromkin et al. 465). At later stages of this condition, the patients have problems finding the correct word to use in self-expression. In addition, they may overstep the phonetic boundary (Shanahan 30). As a result, the individual confuses closely related words. Consequently, what they say or write may be totally different from what was intended. Their ability to memorize and recite words is, however, unaffected. In addition, their writing abilities are usually intact. However, the content of their written communication makes little or no sense. It is noted that most of these patients are unaware of their disability (Shanahan 32).
Arcuate fasciculus
The Brocas and Wernickes areas are located in different lobes of the brain. However, the two areas are connected by nerve fibers, which make it possible for them to communicate (Fromkin et al. 470). The fibers in reference are known as arcuate fasciculus (Obler and Gjerlow 99). Supramarginal gyrus, also known as angular gyrus, is located above these fibers. They are found halfway between the Brocas and Wernickes areas.
Medical damage to arcuate fasciculus leads to a condition known as conductive aphasia (Aniruddh 82). Individuals with this condition are usually better off compared to those with receptive and expressive aphasias. People with this condition comprehend and process speech normally. In addition, they speak fluently and are always aware of what they are saying. Medical impairment of angular gyrus is associated with such conditions as alexia, dyslexia, and agraphia. Alexia is the inability to read. On its part, dyslexia involves problems when reading. Finally, agraphia is the inability to write (Fromkin et al. 466).
In some cases, a person may experience both receptive and expressive aphasias. The condition is referred to as global aphasia. It is due to extensive medical damage to the frontal and parietal lobes. In some cases, patients with global aphasia also experience paralysis on their left side. As a result, they have problems when writing. Linguistic comprehension and expression is also greatly reduced. The same applies to the individuals ability to repeat.
Transcortical sensory aphasia
Another rare form of linguistic impairment is the transcortical sensory aphasia. The condition is not as a result of medical damage to any linguistic part of the brain. On the contrary, it occurs when the three major linguistic parts of the brain (the Brocas, Wernickes, and arcuate fasciculus areas) are separated from the rest of the brain. The situation mainly occurs due to insufficient vascular composition, which leads to impaired blood supply (Fromkin et al. 45). Patients with this condition exhibit extensive memorizing abilities. In addition, they can repeat long sentences. However, their writing and reading abilities are absent even when no paralysis of the limbs is experienced (Aniruddh 77).
Conclusion
Over the years, studies conducted on the brain have made it possible for linguists to better understand how this organ works. The studies provide information on how the brain helps people to communicate and perceive language. There was a time when study of this organ involved mere observations of physical traits of a person. However, recent technological advancements have made it possible for researchers to study the brain more efficiently. The development has provided linguists with better understanding of the parts of the brain tied to linguistics. Technological advancement also provides information on complications that may arise due to medical impairment of such regions.
Works Cited
Aniruddh, Patel. Music, Language, and the Brain, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.
Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams. An Introduction to Language. 8th ed. 2007. Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth. Print.
Fromkin, Victoria. Brain, Language, and Linguistics, Brain and Language 71.1 (2000): 72-74. Print.
Obler, Loraine, and Kris Gjerlow. Language and the Brain, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print.
Shanahan, Daniel. Language, Feeling, and the Brain: The Evocative Vector, New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2007. Print.
A couple of decades ago, criminologists ignored the role that biochemical conditions and brain activity played in determining criminal tendencies towards certain individuals. A clique of them argued that an individuals predisposition towards crime was strictly dictated by the environment in which he or she was brought up and or physical characteristics. However, recent studies suggest that there is a strong link between an individuals biochemical makeup and brain activity and the tendency to engage in criminal activities.
The studies were initiated soon after the researchers realized that the environmental theory had serious limitations. It was observed that when a group of people was exposed to similar environmental pressures, only a few of them engaged in crime while the rest did not. Thus, bio-criminologists unanimously agreed that there were those biochemical factors that affected peoples behaviors and that there was a possible correlation between brain activity and violence.
Is it a probability or a fact that biochemical factors such as nutrition or allergies can cause an individual to engage in crime? The brain cannot function properly in the absence of mandatory levels of minerals including vitamins. During early childhood development, and inappropriate diet could lead to nutritional deficiencies for a child which in turn will result in serious behavioral, mental, and physical problems. Researchers observed that an improved diet improved a childs concentration and overall cognitive abilities.
Such a child showed improved performance in school and showed very little or no delinquency. Furthermore, the researchers identified causes for cognitive difficulties, depression, and maniac disorders as a direct result of deficiencies of minerals such as peptides, calcium, sodium, potassium amino acids, and other essential nutrients. The foregoing mental problems were certain to increase an individuals tendency towards engaging in violent behavior. It was also observed that insufficient or total lack of vitamins C, B6, and B3 caused people to engage in anti-social behavior (Waller, 2009).
A study conducted at a state penitentiary concluded that there was a direct correlation between violence and diets high in carbohydrates and sugar. The two interfered with a persons normal behavior by increasing rates of aggression. In the penitentiary, the youths were unwittingly fed with a diet low on sugar and carbohydrates and the results were appalling. After some time, there was a 50% decline in violence among the youths being experimented on. Nevertheless, some studies suggested the contrary in that crime due to sugar and carbohydrate factors were certainly not serious and that some people became less aggressive when they took more of the two (Decker, 2007).
How a persons brain metabolizes glucose can lead to antisocial behavior especially if there is an anomaly when sugar is taken. It is worth noting that apart from all other body organs, the brain is the only one that utilizes glucose to nurture all its energy needs. If glucose levels fall below essential levels required for the brain to function properly, an individual could develop a brain disorder called hypoglycemia. This condition is characterized by symptoms ranging from phobias, anxiety, mood swings, temper tantrums insomnia, and acute depression. Serious crimes such as rape, assault, suicide, and even homicide have been attributed to hypoglycemia. Moreover, studies have shown that most of the habitually violent inmates in penitentiaries suffered from hypoglycemia (Klein, 2006).
Why is it that men are more predisposed towards violence than women? The answer lies in hormones and neurotransmitters. Androgens are higher in men than they are in women thereby explaining why they are more violent. However, as they age, the levels of this hormone decline and so is their tendency towards engaging in violent behaviors. The adolescent stage is when the production of androgen is at its highest. Chemicals such as steroids artificially increase the level of this hormone in the human body.
High levels of androgen lead to aggressive behavior. One of the most common androgens (male hormones) is testosterone. Paradoxically speaking, medical intervention can expose female children at an early age to too much testosterone thereby making them more violent while on the other hand, male children may have their testosterone levels reduced through drugs during early stages thereby making them less aggressive. Androgens are known to cause brain seizures that can lead to increased temper. Other hormones like progesterone in females can lead to increased violence or antisocial behavior especially during menstruation when the levels are high (Waller, 2009).
Trouble arises whenever the human brain is affected by neuroallergies. This is certain to cause depression, aggression, and hyperactivity. When presented with negative stimuli, people suffering from near allergies are more likely to engage n violence. Neuroallergies are mostly caused by chocolate, eggs, milk, nuts, corn, etc. Studies show that rates of homicide are high in countries with lots of corn. The culprits often experience severe stress due to their brains reaction to allergy (Klein, 2006).
Aggressive and antisocial behavior among people can come about as a result of exposure to certain chemical elements in the environment e.g. mercury, food dye, artificial coloring, chlorine, copper, etc. Lead poisoning also causes violence. Studies have shown that areas with high rates of homicide and other forms of violence had a lot of lead in the air. Lead led to low levels of IQ among adolescents which caused them to be more violent. Such adolescents had concentration problems, were delinquent, aggressive, and had inadequate language skills due to high amounts of lead in their bones (Decker, 2007).
Due to space constraints, it would be difficult indeed to exhaust other different ways that are equally important in which biochemical conditions and brain activity are linked to crime in such a vivid detailed manner as would be necessary to completely inform the reader. To such an extent, the article will forthwith outline any other manner in which the foregoing factors are linked to crime and will leave it up to the reader to engage in further outside research in case he or she needed more information on the same.
Indeed, studies have shown that when electrical impulses given off by brainwaves (EEG or electroencephalograph) are higher than usual, this leads to abnormal activity of the brain and the victim is highly likely to engage in very serious violent crimes. Others include children whose brain is affected while still in the womb of mothers who took alcohol and other harmful substances. Such children show deviant behavior and are unable to fathom the long-term consequences of their reckless actions. Abnormalities in cerebral structure can also lead to episodes of violent rage. The affected individuals can either commit suicide or homicide. Finally, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD), brain tumors, brain injury, abnormal levels of neurotransmitters e.g. dopamine, serotonin, and brain structure are directly linked to crime (Klein, 2006).
References
Decker, S. (2007). Expand the use of police gang units. Criminology and Public Policy, 6 (4), 729734.
Klein, M. (2006). Street Gang Patterns and Policies. Secaucus, NJ: Chart well Books, Inc.
Waller, I. (2009). Less Law, More Order. Westport, CT: Praeger.
The human body system is highly complex. Most important, it adapts to meet various body needs through various functional systems. The nervous system, for instance, has some specialized functions. However, these functions are impaired when the system is injured. The purpose of this biological essay was to demonstrate how the human body system, specifically the nervous system, could enhance recovery after the brain injury as most neuroscience researchers have shown. After TBI or stroke, notable molecular, cellular, and network structures undergo regeneration to support and allow undamaged sections of the brain to reorganize and support impaired functions. These processes illustrate the adaptive and resilient nature of the human body system. There are recovery events that demonstrate plasticity of the brain, for instance. It is, however, imperative to note that adaptive could be beneficial or detrimental based on neurorehabilitative conditions (inhibiting or facilitating conditions). Today, neuroanatomical and neurophysiological alterations in the motor system triggered after an injury now offer novel ways to understand post-injury plasticity, as well as opportunities for therapeutic interventions for injured patients.
Introduction
The human body system has changed over time to transform itself into a complex ecosystem made up of complicated web of smaller sub-systems, each focused on meeting specific body requirements, individually and as an integrated unit. Generally, the system works without human cognition or intervention. However, any disruption of balance and power of the human body has some advance effects. The nervous system, as component of the body system, is constituted in a manner that allows for vital recovery and resilience after critical functions are affected by injuries in an adult brain. For instance, following stroke, the most striking and sudden recovery in a motor activity takes place in less than 30 days, although case of moderate and critical stroke may last for about 90 days (Dancause and Nudo 273). The recovery patterns following focal traumatic brain insult are the same, but diffused insults usually need elongated periods. The neural bases responsible for the recovery, specifically when certain rehabilitative therapies are not available, have interested researchers and clinicians for several years (Nudo 887). In the last 25 years, for instance, contemporary neuroscience studies, including neuroanatomical, neurophysiological, and neuroimaging have greatly concentrated on this issue, resulting in amazing findings based on the extent of structural and functional plasticity of the central nervous system. The purpose of this biological essay is to demonstrate how human body system, specifically the nervous system, can enhance recovery after the brain injury.
Theoretical Perspectives
Some theoretical aspects have been fronted to explain the recovery in the absence of rehabilitation a case referred to as spontaneous recovery. Three basic theoretical explanations have been proposed. First, during the diaschisis when the remote components linked to the area of the insult normally experience temporary reduced metabolism and blood supply, it is generally observed that the recovery process could be responsible for this phenomenon. Second, alteration in muscle and joint kinematic activities are noted after the cortical damage, and compensatory activities are usually introduced to perform roles in either restrained or critically various ways. Finally, the nervous system is subjected to a recovery process involving local and distant regeneration. While it is acknowledged that the process is adaptive, cases of maladaptive plasticity may also take place. Research activities focused on post-injury adaptive plasticity using long-term potentiation, long-term depression, unmasking, synaptogenesis, dendritogenesis, and functional map plasticity (Dancause and Nudo 273) have increased over the past years and are perhaps the most exhilarating aspects in the area of neuroscience because of their suggestions for comprehending and handling insult-related functional shortfalls.
The theory of vicariation has been advanced to explain different plasticity means responsible for functional recovery. That is, the ability of a given section of the brain to temporarily intervene for another. Given that the current views of brain structures appreciate the cerebral cortex as distributed in hierarchical manner, vicariation does not essentially need a completely unrelated feature to take over functions lost after the insult. Instead, other linked distributed components of the brain support functions of the impaired parts. In fact, it is demonstrated that the motor cortex of fully-grown mammals alters its functional patterns as a reaction to cortical insults (Dancause and Nudo 273).
Plasticity and Resilience
Resilience reflects the dynamic ability involving positive adaptation following a critical adversity. Implied within this idea are two major factors: (1) exposure to a severe adversity of threat; and (2) the realization of positive adaptation irrespective of the extent of the insult (Luthar, Cicchetti and Becker 543). Hence, these studies demonstrate the resilience nature of the human body system through brain plasticity after some adverse events. Years of research in the cerebral cortex have shown multiple physiological and anatomical instances of cortical plasticity. In fact, most cortical areas have demonstrated such plasticity, including the motor cortex and somatosensory cortex. These areas are extremely imperative for comprehending motor recovery processes after brain insults. These processes related to plasticity result from multiple endogenous and exogenous factors, but behavioral experience is noted as extremely critical. Behavioral needs are responsible for influencing budding features of every cortical area. Major activities noted are mainly replication and sequential coincidence. For instance, skilled motor functions that need the exact sequential coordination of muscles and joints have to be developed through repetitive processes. Repetitive processes are believed to facilitate the development of distinct modules in which the conjoint function is represented as a whole.
Possible explanations for brain plasticity in adults are currently available in neuroscience studies. It is observed that brain development involving guidance cues depends on activity-dependent axonal sprouting (Nudo 887). Two notable stages have been observed in development of thalamocortical joints. During the initial stage, the axonal regulation molecules are responsible for leading thalamocortical axons to their respective destinations (Nudo 887). These processes could be driven by spontaneous neural process. In the second stage, cortical function controls axonal development found in the cerebral cortex, influencing topological connectivity outcomes (Nudo 887). Further, postnatal axonal division features located in the cerebral cortex have some links with the sensory affiliated stimulus function maybe by starting molecular retrograde signals (Dancause and Nudo 273). Brain insults have shown the availability of long-range axonal sprouting once believed to be absent in adult mammals. Today, however, available evidence has shown the relevance of cortical activities for axonal developing in adult brain after injuries. It is observed that variations in post-infarct behavioral experiences could affect the specific neuron preferred for local and detached developing axons by separately activating function-specific cortical parts.
It is imperative to recognize that content-based reinforcement is vital for the required brain plasticity to take place in cortical neurons of fully developed mammals. Specifically, limited contacts with sensory stimuli result in slight or no prolonged alteration in receptive area features.
Many broad approaches involving motor map composition have been shown, and they are assumed to influence the motor cortex capabilities to encode motor skills. First, motor maps are viewed as subdivided with several, intersecting movement representations. Second, the nearest features located in cortical motor maps are extremely interlinked through a compact network of fibers of intracortical (Nishibe et al. 2221). Finally, motor maps are highly changeable and may be altered by multiple inherent and external factors. Overall, these elements offer a basis through which the development of new muscle synergies by alterations in the intracortical connectivity of specific movement representations may occur.
Since 1980s, major scientific discoveries have changed and shaped thinking regarding cortical plasticity. Specifically, neurophysiological research focused on the somatosensory cortex is responsible for current knowledge. Previously, it was widely recognized that functional plasticity took place in the cerebral cortex of growing animals. Current studies have shown that the topographic arrangement of the depiction of skin surfaces found in the somatosensory cortex of a mature monkey usually changes after peripheral nerve damages, behavioral training, or disuse. These findings support the concept of vicariation, and they are drivers of further research in neurophysiological and neuroanatomical plasticity in damaged and typical cerebral cortex. Afterwards, other studies were done in other areas of the sensory involving the cerebral cortex and the motor cortex in both humans and animals (Dancause and Nudo 273). All findings indicated stronger support for the concept that plasticity of cortical maps is a common factor of the cerebral cortex even in full-grown animals, and the principle of temporal coincidence and behavioral factor are responsible for budding features of cortical units irrespective of their distinct cortical area.
Supposing that plasticity and behavioral traits are interconnected, as it seems, then these findings are vital for comprehending recovery processes after injuries involving peripheral and central nervous system injuries. It is possible to trace the development of topographic maps in animals and, hence, it can serve as a biological marker for nerve recovery after injuries. In addition, by analyzing cellular and molecular relations of map alterations, it could be possible to more explicitly comprehend neural processes involving neuroplasticity, and finally manage these processes for effective rehabilitation of injured persons.
Injury Plasticity in the Motor Cortex
In most neurological diseases, deficiencies in motor functions are common. Nevertheless, it is observed that a fully developed CNS of adults can retain a significant ability to recuperate and adjust after serious insults to the brain.
The spontaneous recovery takes place once a person suffers an injury involving the CNS (Nudo 887). Hence, it is imperative to comprehend primary mechanisms involved in natural recuperation of functions as the first phase toward the creation of effective change interventions that could enhance the pace of recovery and full restoration of functions. It is observed that insults restricted to a specific part of the motor take place only in distinct middle cerebral artery (MCA) strokes and focal traumatic brain injury or neurosurgical resections (Nudo 887). However, some data obtained from animal models have shown that they can be used to demonstrate mechanisms involved in the motor recovery after the central nervous system injury.
Although recovery on different outcome measures takes place naturally following the insult, some aspects of the recovery may be realized because of behavioral compensation. For instance, it is a well-established fact that in human stroke compensatory movements of the trunk are used to compensate for reaching. Factors, such as enhanced disuse of impaired parts alongside elevated use of proximal may explain changes in a map topography. In the case of a rat model, for instance, the area of the caudal forelimb sustained injuries, but when natural recovery or rehabilitative training was not available, behavioral performance to determine ability to reach some pellets was conducted, and it improved with time. Nevertheless, after five weeks post-injury, it was observed that the rat still had some vital deficiencies. During this period, the rat had rostral forelimb area with the regular size as the forelimb. However, experimental maps showed the redistribution of features of the forelimb. For instance, there were reduced digits, but elongated proximal features. Therefore, when behavioral training is not available, the plasticity found in the normal parts of the motor will take place spontaneously, which largely shows the progress of compensatory motor structure, instead of an actual recovery of the original kinematic structure (Hara 4).
The advancement of the recovery itself can be viewed as a process of learning and restoration of impaired function, as well as adaptation and reparation of secured, remaining functions (Nudo 887). These recovery processes, learning and restoration depict resilience of the nervous system after injuries. Therefore, it demonstrates that the neurophysiological processes that promote learning in the unharmed cortex should facilitate motor relearning and adaptation once the brain is injured (Nudo 887). Overall, as several research findings demonstrate, there is an obvious role of the neural plasticity, which ensures both natural and directed functional recoveries following an injury of the nervous system.
Opportunities to Advance Neuroplasticity Principles after an Injury
As previously observed, after an injury to the nervous system that affects the brain through stroke or trauma, successive molecular and cellular activities are set into action in nearby tissues, which result in impermanent or enduring alterations in the anatomy and physiology of the involved components. Most of these changes are pathological outcomes of the insult, such as edema, and they could have possibly adverse outcomes (Nudo 887). However, most these adaptive developments could start early after the injury has occurred, result in low rates of pathophysiological activities, or cause neuroplastic alteration resulting in some forms of function restoration. While there is no in-depth comprehension of these events at the molecular, cellular and network points because of the emerging nature of the field, adequate information is now found to assist in evaluating various hypotheses regarding influences of certain post-injury interventions on the recovery of functions and their related neuroanatomical and neurophysiological foundation (Matteo et al. 11).
The experiment involving the altered mouse subgroups without Nogo receptor has demonstrated a great possibility for improving neuroanatomical plasticity processes following nerve damage (Nudo 887). Nogo is recognized as a protein that prevents the growth of axonal, and mice without receptor acquire their motor function after the injury effectively relative to controls.
Given the availability of massive evidence to support the claims of brain plasticity following neuronal injury and that behavioral accounts could change neuronal formations and function in normal and injured brains, it is now obvious and imperative to apply neuroplasticity principles as the basis for a broad range of therapeutic interventions to enhance recovery (Carmichael 895). It is however noted that timing and dose are necessary to ensure that effectual, evidence-based intervention systems are available to enhance recovery. Timing and dose should account for events at the molecular, cellular, and network stages (Nudo 887).
Relative to other drug-related interventions for brain injury, the behavioral training approach is also most effective at certain periods. Protein is generally the major element required for neural sprouting and control. Protein upregulation is usually observed shortly after the injury has occurred. Clinical studies have also shown that outcome measures could be revamped even several years after injuries, but the best period for improvement is associated with time during optimal reorganization initiated by the insult. For instance, it is observed that axonal development may start after three days, and it becomes fully developed within one month. Further, genes that enhance and inhibit neuronal are regulated during post-injury periods. It is also recognized that events that are responsible for neurogenesis only last for limited time. Hence, there is a vital need to comprehend how behavioral experience changes recovery processes in various way after a given period. Similarly, any harmful outcomes of behavioral therapies that could occur too early during treatment also require further analysis. Notably, specific type and motor activity event could be vital for controlling the neural environment and in influencing regenerative activities or neuronal loss cascades dominating during the initial phases after brain injuries.
As mentioned above, an optimal dose is an issue that is critical for behavioral experience. The issue is imperative for not only assessing and comprehending the extent of safety for acute cases, but also understanding the dose-reaction association for rehabilitation processes across various stages involved in post-stroke intervention time and recovery. From animal models, it is possible to determine what human individuals who have suffered stroke can endure.
Conclusion
The human body system is complex, and the nervous system is a vital component of the body system. In the event of an injury, such as stroke or TBI, vital sensory motor parts are adversely affected. In this case, recovery and resilience are often noted as a function of the human body system. In fact, following an injury to the cerebral cortex, a significant fraction of the brain is affected. Consequently, there are deficiencies in motor functions. However, considerable spontaneous or natural recovery takes place after few weeks or within a month following the injury. Efforts to understand how undamaged sensory motor components can support and enhance recovery of the affected functions have been a major area of interest for neurobiological studies. As such, in the past few decades, researchers have focused on understanding the underlying principles of neuroplasticity involved in recoveries after neurological insults. It is now widely proven that brain injuries, such as the ones experienced in stroke or TBI, usually start a cascade of regenerative processes few days after an injury. Researchers have linked plasticity following injury to cellular and other sub-system events that occur during regular brain growth. Evidence is obtained from both animal and human models to indicate possible novel strategies to therapeutic treatments. Behavioral experience now offers some important aspects related to brain plasticity, recent findings, and novel approaches to recovery in the nervous system.
Hence, the brain can be reshaped following an injury to adapt or fail to adapt based on the motor experiences. Overall, plasticity indicates the adaptive and resilience nature of the human body system.
Works Cited
Carmichael, S Thomas. Emergent Properties of Neural Repair: Elemental Biology to Therapeutic Concepts. Annals of Neurology 79.6 (2016): 895906. Print.
Dancause, Numa, and Randolph J. Nudo. Shaping Plasticity to Enhance Recovery After Injury. Progress in Brain Research 192 (2011): 273295. Print.
Hara, Yukihiro. Brain Plasticity and Rehabilitation in Stroke Patients. Journal of Nippon Medical School 82.1 (2015): 4-13. Print.
Luthar, Suniya S., Dante Cicchetti, and Bronwyn Becker. The Construct of Resilience: A Critical Evaluation and Guidelines for Future Work. Child Development 71.3 (2000): 543562. Print.
Matteo, Barbara Maria, Barbara Vigano, Cesare Giuseppe Cerri and Cecilia Perin. Visual Field Restorative Rehabilitation after Brain Injury. Journal of Vision 16.9 (2016): 11. Print.
Nishibe, Mariko, Scott Barbay, David Guggenmos and Randolph J Nudo. Reorganization of Motor Cortex after Controlled Cortical Impact in Rats and Implications for Functional Recovery. Journal of Neurotrauma 27.12 (2010): 2221-32. Print.
Nudo, Randolph J. Recovery After Brain Injury: Mechanisms and Principles. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7 (2013): 887. Print.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has emerged as one of the most powerful diagnostic tools in the radiology clinic. The chief strengths of MRI are its ability to provide cross sectional images of anatomical regions in any arbitrary plane and its excellent soft tissue contrast (Sunders 4).
MRI has the ability to provide functional as well as anatomical information. The nuclear energy states of certain atoms interact with incidence radio frequency photons in the presence of a statistic magnetic field. The radio frequency emission by tissue that follows the absorption of photons can be exploited to generate images (Sunders 4). MRI has become a vital diagnostic tool during the screening of the pathophysiology of brain related illnesses. This paper discusses the application of MRI in brain imaging.
Advantages of MRI in Brain Imaging
MRI has much strength as a brain imaging technique. Unlike Computerized Tomography scan (CT), MRI requires no ionization, and it has no known physical hazards in human beings (Andreasean 56).
The pictures of the brain produced by MRI are reminiscent of the postmortem brain slices seen in neuroanatomy laboratories and neuroanatomy atlases. This technique provides excellent resolution between gray matter and white matter, permitting visualization of tiny structures, such as cranial nerves, nuclei of the basal ganglia, or limbic structures such as the hippocampus (Andreasean 56).
Magnetic resonance imaging can be obtained in three planes: sagittal, coronal, and transverse. As a consequence, MRI provides a much greater potential for three dimensional reconstruction of the brain. Not only does magnetic resonance permit visualization in new planes, such as in coronal sections, but it is also free of bony artifacts (Andreasean 56).
Bone, in fact, cannot be visualized well with MRI. However, with MRI it is possible to look into the posterior fossa, a region that is obscured by bone artifacts on other diagnostic regimes such CT scan (Andreasean 56). Further, with this technique, fine shades of tissue abnormality can be identified very well.
Basic Principles
Magnetic resonance employs principles which govern electricity and magnetism. This technique exploits the inherent magnetic field produced by the nuclei of some atoms (Andreasean 56). By far, the most common of these is hydrogen, which is composed of a single proton. Because hydrogen is widely distributed in the body, it forms the basis of MRI.
In addition, hydrogen produces a strong signal. MRI induces a magnetic field to the nuclei in one plane, thereby creating a non random magnetization that is strong enough to measure. Protons have their own specific spin and wobble, which can be excited by a radio signal broadcast at their specific frequency known as Larmor frequency, by a radio field transmitter.
The gradual decay in this resonance is then measured by a radio frequency receiver. The radio frequency signal can then be converted by computer to shades of gray, white, and black corresponding to the strength of the signal, and used to make images or pictures.
Components of MRI Signal
The MRI signal is produced by three different components which include proton density, T1 relaxation time, and T2 relaxation time (Andreasean 56). Proton density reflects the number of protons present in a particular tissue (Andreasean 56).
On the other hand, T1 relaxation time is an exponential growth constant that reflects the return of magnetization of protons to their equilibrium state in the Z axis (Andreasean 56). In addition, T2 relaxation time is an exponential decay constant that reflects the loss of signal strength as dephasing of spin occurs after excitation (Andreasean 56). These components are often defined by Bloch equation.
Interpretation of the MRI Signal
The signals emitted are turned into images by assigning various shades of gray, white, and black to tiny blocks of tissue according to their difference in signal intensity. Generally, if the signal is strong, the image will be brighter. Several factors influence signal intensity. They include proton density, decreased T1, and increase T2 (Andreasean 56).
Tissues with a short T1 relax and return to equilibrium more quickly and therefore give off a brighter signal. Tissues with a long T2 stay in phase longer and give out a brighter signal. Therefore, one must know whether the image is T1 or T2 weighted in order to interpret it. Most pathological processes lengthen T1 and T2 (Andreasean 56). This is attributed to an increase in water content in those tissues (Andreasean 56).
Clinical Applications
A variety of conditions of the brain can be detected using MRI. Examples of brain conditions which can be detected by MRI include bleeding, cysts, tumors, developmental and structural abnormalities, inflammatory conditions, swellings, or problems associated with blood vessels (Andreasean 56).
In addition, MRI can be useful in evaluating problems such as persistent headaches, dizziness, weakness, and blurry vision or seizures, and it can help detect certain chronic diseases of the nervous system, such as multiple sclerosis (Rosenbloom 364).
MRI is vey helpful in the diagnosis of brain tumors. It gives detailed information on cellular structure, vascular supply, and tumor anatomy (Rosenbloom 366). In addition, MRI provides essential details which reveal the location of the tumor, the type of the tumor, and the size of the tumor.
MRI thus necessitates the effective diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment of brain tumors. The imaging of brain tumors using MRI can be produced in several ways. It can be achieved through Diffusion weighted MRI, perfusion weighted MRI, diffusion tensor MRI, intraoperative MRI, and awake cranial anatomy with MRI (Rosenbloom 367).
Rosenbloom argues that this technique is vital in the identification of defects in the brain, which are as a result of alcoholism. In addition, MRI is essential in the identification of changes that occur due to soberness and recurrence. MRI has shown that alcoholism causes shrinkage in the frontal cortex, 1 underlying white matter, and cerebellum and expansion of the ventricles (Rosenbloom 368).
Rosenbloom also notes that these changes are reversible with abstinence, although some appear to be enduring (368). Imaging studies have shown that the brain has the potential to compensate for cognitive inadequacy. The myriad concomitants of alcoholism, the antecedents, and the consumption patterns each may influence the observed brain changes associated with alcoholism, which tend to be deleterious with increasing age ( Rosenbloom 368).
The complex features of alcoholism limit the comprehension of the mechanism of alcoholism induced neuropathology. However, in vivo longitudinal MRI brain studies can be used to understand the development and scope of alcohol dependence (Rosenbloom 368).
In addition, Edith, Adron and Adolf, argue that multidisciplinary studies have played a key role in the examination of brain function, structure and attending factors.
These studies have been instrumental in evaluating alcohol related damage to the brain. Most importantly, these studies have necessitated the identification of substrates which initiate alcohol related neuropathology. A majority of these studies have concentrated on the neuropsychological sequelae of alcoholism.
This has led to the evaluation of a pattern of sparing and impairment, which has been instrumental in understanding functional deficits. These studies have elucidated the component processes of memory, problem solving, and cognitive control, as well as visuospatial, and motor processes and their interactions with cognitive control processes (Edith, Adron and Adolf 127).
The main advantage of MRI in brain imaging science, according to Edith, Adron and Adolf is that it has necessitated the analysis of the course brain of structural changes during periods of drinking, and abstinence, and relapse (127).
MRI studies in patients with phenylketonuria revealed white matter alternations that correlated to most recent blood phenylalanine concentrations as well as brain phenylalanine measured by magnetic resonance spectroscopy ( Rosenbloom 368).
Furthermore, Rutherford et al. conducted a study to establish a more objective method for confirming tissue injury in term neonates who have early seizures that are believed to be hypoxic ischaemic in origin (1004). The researchers found out that MRI is essential in the early diagnosis of tissue injury in term neonates who have early seizures.
Conclusion
This paper has noted that Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has emerged as one of the most powerful diagnostic tools in the radiology clinic. The chief strengths of MRI are its ability to provide cross sectional images of anatomical regions in any arbitrary plane and its excellent soft tissue contrast (Sunders 4). MRI has the ability to provide functional as well as anatomical information. Magnetic resonance employs principles which govern electricity and magnetism.
This technique exploits the inherent magnetic field produced by the nuclei of some atoms (Andreasean 56). By far, the most common of these is hydrogen, which is composed of a single proton. The radio frequency signal is usually converted by computer to shades of gray, white, and black corresponding to the strength of the signal and used to make images or pictures. The MRI signal is produced by three different components which include proton density, T1 relaxation time, and T2 relaxation time (Andreasean 56).
Generally, if the signal is strong, the image will be brighter. Several factors influence signal intensity. They include proton density, decreased TI, and increase T2. Most pathological processes lengthen T1 and T2 (Andreasean 56). This is attributed to an increase in water content in those tissues (Andreasean 56). A variety of conditions of the brain can be detected using MRI.
Examples of brain conditions which can be detected by MRI include bleeding, cysts, tumors, developmental and structural abnormalities, swellings, inflammatory conditions, or problems associated with blood vessels; MRI can be employed in the evaluation of abnormalities in the brain that occur as a result of alcoholism as well as changes that occur with sobriety and relapse (Andreasean 56).
MRI has shown that alcoholism causes shrinkage in the frontal cortex, 1 underlying white matter, and cerebellum and expansion of the ventricles (Rosenbloom 368).
In addition, MRI can be useful in evaluating problems such as persistent headaches, dizziness, weakness, and blurry vision or seizures, and it can help detect certain chronic diseases of the nervous system, such as multiple sclerosis (Rosenbloom 364). The main advantage of MRI in brain imaging science, according to Edith, Adron and Adolf is that it has necessitated the analysis of the course brain of structural changes during periods of drinking, and abstinence and relapse (127).
Works Cited
Andreasean, Nancy. Brain Imaging: Applications in Psychiatry. New York: American Psychiatric Pub, 1989. Web.
Edith, Sullivan, Adron Harris, and Adolf Pfefferbaum. Alcohols Effects on Brain and Behavior. Alcohol Research & Health, 33.2 (2010): 127-143. Web.
Moller, Harald, et al. Brain Imaging and Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Patients With Phenylketonuria. Pediatrics 112 (2003): 1580-1583. Web.
Rosenbloom, Margaret. Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Living Brain. Alcohol Research & Health 31.4 (2008): 362-376. Web.
Rutherford, Mark, et al. Diffusion-Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Term Perinatal Brain Injury: A Comparison With Site of Lesion and Time From Birth. Pediatrics 114.4 (2004): 1004-1014. Web.
PICOT Question: In Traumatic brain injuries on returning soldiers how effective is EEG Biofeedback medication of Traumatic Brain Injuries compared to computer medication in improving memory during the pretreatment to post-treatment time?
P=Patient / Population and Problem
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is an injury in cognitive functioning. TBI is a disruption of the brain functions as a result of sudden trauma to the head. Traumatic Brain Injury is caused by blast waves resulting from explosions in wars as well as direct impacts that result in severe head injuries. It is observed that TBI causes secondary injuries such as increased pressure within the skull as well as changes in cerebral blood flow that worsen the initial brain injuries that are caused by blast waves.
TBI is known to cause a lot of physical, behavioral as well as emotional problems that are not easily detectable. Research indicates that TBI is associated with causing accelerated hormone deficiency that triggers physiological, psychological and physical manifestations that are expressed in form of memory loss, anxiety, depression, anger, high blood pressure, loss of libido among others (Levine, Cabeza, McIntosh, Black, Grady& Stuss, 2002).
It is noted that those patients who suffer from TBI are mainly dependent on that part of the brain that is damaged. Soldiers have a high prevalence of being affected by TBI. Many soldiers are diagnosed with TBI after returning home from war as a result of being exposed to blast waves that originate from explosives that are used during the war. Many US military officers who were deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan showed signs of traumatic brain injury in a number of months or days after returning home from the war. This has shown that there might be long-term effects to this condition that may affect the returning soldiers over a long period of time.
The research established that most US military personnel who returned home from the Golf War in Iraq showed some symptoms of traumatic brain injury. Some of the symptoms noted included: concussion which is a condition that entails a brief loss of consciousness. Irritability which is the tendency of being easily annoyed by things that a normal person who is not exposed to brain damage cannot mind about. Many soldiers were noted to have difficulty remembering things.
Some soldiers were noted to have a problem recalling simple instructions or tasks. Others complained about prolonged headaches, migraines and having difficulty in concentration. There are some soldiers who lamented of having a problem in sleeping and companied of staying up all night. There are others who complained of feeling tired and at the same time having blurred vision that affected their sight. Lastly there are those soldiers who complained about difficulty in driving as a result of muscle weaknesses.
I=Intervention under Consideration (Change in Treatment Adopted)
EEG Biofeedback interventions are the most recent strategies for TBI rehabilitation. The approach entails operant conditioning of brainwave patterns through reinforcement. The feedback aims at returning fundamental electrophysiological function of the brain to its original normative form. The method entails four strategies that include: Flexyx Neurotherapy approach which is an improved EEG biofeedback technique that combines small radio frequency with conventional QEEG biofeedback. It does so in order to change QEEG patterns that are linked with cognitive dysfunction.
The standard quantitative QEEG strategy focuses on enhancing the strength of beta microvolt activity as well as reducing the strength of theta microvolt activity (Thatcher, 2000). The eye closed QEEG involve comparing the behavior of a patients who is resting with the eyes closed QEEG to a reference database. This is aimed at producing more protocols for patients. The last strategy which is the most recent advancement is the activation database QEEG-guided biofeedback. This approach assesses the brain functions of resting patients with their eyes closed (Lubar & Davidson, 2004).
C=Comparison: The Current Treatment Being Compared With Intervention
Many patients who are diagnosed with TBI are mainly treated through Cognitive Rehabilitation (CR). CR is considered as a systematic, functionally based approach of therapy that is founded on an evaluation and understanding of ones brain behavior deficit. CR entails redirecting brain services in order to achieve changes in brain functioning by strengthening, reinforcing or reestablishing previously acquired behaviors.
Most physicians use computer interventions and strategy instruction in the treatment of TBI (Cappa, Benke, Clarke, Rossi, Stemmer & van, 2003). This method of treatment is designed in a manner to enhance attention of the patient. The patient is required to tab the bar of the computer every time a large red circle is displayed on the monitor. There are three strategies used in this method that entail; restorative cognitive rehabilitation that entail use of computer simulation that is designed to cause repetition in order to restore function (Guyatt & Rennie, 2008).The strategy aims at reinforcing, strengthening as well as reestablishing previously acquired patterns of behaviors.
However, very little success is achieved through this process. The second method is strategy cognitive rehabilitation that concentrates on developing conscious cognitive strategies by anticipating that improvements will generalize to daily activities through establishing new patterns of cognitive activity. However, research has shown high failure rate of this approach as patients fail to continue using the strategy during post treatment period.
The third method that is also widely employed in the treatment of TBI is compensatory cognitive rehabilitation that offers outside, prosthetic help for dysfunctions. This method is appraised by many scholars for its cost benefit effects. However, it does not result to any meaningful enhancement in a patients core cognitive skills (Cherek & Taylor, 2005; Ashley, Krych, & Lehr,1990).
O=Outcome: What is the effect of the I on P? What is desired outcome?
The use of computer interventions in the treatment of TBI is not associated with significant improvement in the memory, attention as well as problem solving skills for patients suffering from TBI. However, EEG biofeedback interventions are associated with great outcomes in acquisition of long term memory, attention and problem solving skills for those suffering from TBI.
T=Time
Traditionally, improvements as well as recovery of those suffering from TBI were considered to occur after a short time span following medication, although there is no evidence to support this claim. Nowadays, neurological function improvements for those suffering from TBI are noted a few weeks after medications for mild TBI (Belanger, Vanderploeg, Curtiss & Warden, 2007). However, for serious complications, improvements are observed after two or more years after patients start computer interventions. However, with the adoption of EEG biofeedback interventions, the recovery of those suffering from TBI is expected to reduce considerably (Cherek & Taylor, 2005).
Reference List
Ashley, M. J., Krych, D. K., & Lehr, R. P. (1990). Cost/Benefit analysis For post-Acut Rehabilitation of the Traumatically Brain-Injured Patient. Journal of Insurance Information. 22, 2, 156-161.
Belanger, H. G., Vanderploeg, R. D., Curtiss, G., & Warden, D. L. (2007). Recent Neuroimaging Techniques in Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 5, 7, 78-89 and Clinical Neurosciences, 19(1), 5-20.
Cappa, S. F., Benke, T., Clarke, S., Rossi, B., Stemmer, B., & van, C. M. (2003). EFNS Guidelines on Cognitive Rehabilitation: Report of an EFNS Task Force. European Journal of Neurology. 10,1, 11-23.
Cherek, L., & Taylor, M. (2005). Rehabilitation, Case Management, and Functional Outcome: An Insurance Industry Perspective. Neurorehabilitation, 5,1, 87-95.
Guyatt, G. H., & Rennie, D. (Eds.). (2008). Users guide to the medical literature: Essentials of evidence-based clinical practice (2nd ed.). Chicago: AMA Press.
Levine, B., Cabeza, R., McIntosh, A. R., Black, S. E., Grady, C. L., & Stuss, D. T. (2002). Functional reorganization of memory after traumatic brain injury: a study With H2150 Positron Emission Tomography. Journal of Neurology, Journal of Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 73, 2, 173-181.
Lubar, J.O., & Davidson, J.F. (2004). Electroencephalographic Biofeedback of SMR and Beta for Treatment of Attention Deficit Disorders in a Clinical Setting. Journal of Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 9, 1, 1-23.
Thatcher, R. W. (2000). EEG Operant Conditioning and Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Clinical Electroencephalography, 31, 1, 38-44.
Violence in sports is a common phenomenon that occurs in diverse sports as a result of distinct factors. Sometimes the notion of violence may differ depending on the approach. As a result, sports-related head trauma has been prevalent in various professional sports. Although there is no recognized standard laboratory test conducted to establish the extent of these traumatic brain injuries, a common concern exists in the mental health statistics portrayed worldwide. In the last decade, there has been a surge in research on the consequences of repetitive head injuries on cognitive neurological performance of the brain associated with violence of all kinds in the sporting arena (Mizobuchi & Nagahiro, 2016). Violence is more prevalent in current generational sports than it used to be years ago, whether it is between players, spectators, or post-match riots. To some people, it is their way of expressing patriotism or fanaticism, while others use it to show dissent with authorities regulating matches. The problem of violence has had far-fetched consequences in the world. Therefore, it is important to understand what factors contribute to violence in professional sports, risk factors of repetitive brain injuries, preventive measures and the consequences of such injuries among players.
Head injuries are common in such games as mixed martial arts, where acts of kicking, punching, knee-striking, or use of pounds and ground to strike the head can accumulate into traumatic head injuries. Such encounters may result in debilitating conditions among the participants and endanger their psychological and cognitive health. Repeated traumatic brain injuries have the potential of causing future problems and may become fatal among player populations (Mizobuchi, & Nagahiro, 2016). Fares et al. (2020) assert that head injuries are attributable to routine punches, kicks, and strikes, which interfere with the structure of the skull, most common in martial arts and other contact games. Concurrently, the strains and the shock impact on the brain result in a potential long-lasting impairment, which then endangers ones career for a lifetime.
Consequences of Repetitive Brain Injuries in Professional Sport
To explicitly understand violence in professional sports, it is ideal to explore the meaning of the term itself. Violence, in this context, defines unnecessary harmful acts intentionally committed before, during, or after a game as motivated by the sporting event. Some of the key games where such behavior often manifests involve contact games such as boxing, American football, rugby, hockey, mixed martial arts, wrestling, and lacrosse, among others. Several factors often cause violence in such games. Such dynamics frequently range from personalities, environmental elements to a combination of other variables in play (Weinberg, 2016). Nonetheless, the occurrence of these events is a major worry for many authorities around the world. Concurrently, the occurrence of violent events in sports emanates from institutional and individual factors, which may require critical evaluation and research. There are varying study results from soccer, football, rugby, boxing, martial arts, and other multiple engagements in repetitive violence.
Acute traumatic brain injury may lead to long term damage of the brain functionalities. In many instances, individual exposure to injuries depends on the types of sporting activities. These competitions expose the participants brain to direct injuries because of physical contact with the opponents jabs. Recently, there has been a surge in consequential chronic traumatic injuries among athletes. According to Mizobuchi and Nagahiro (2016), there are several sport-related brain injuries initiated by continued violence in sporting behavior. Some of these acute conditions include concussion, subdural hematoma (ASDH), chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and traumatic cerebrovascular disease (Mizobuchi & Nagahiro, 2016). In essence, almost all of these conditions occur as a result of contact sporting events which often interfere with the normal brain performances of the sportsmen. The severity of these impacts depends on the nature of the sporting activity.
Subdural haematoma (ASDH) is the leading cause of death based on repeated sports-related brain injury. Mizobuchi and Nagahiro (2016) claim that the Judo survey revealed that more than 28% of accidents of injured players had headaches before engaging in these accidents. Thus, the players were susceptible to vein ruptures. According to Mizobuchi and Nagahiro (2016), the prevalence of severe head damage due to repeated exposure to contact sports, including American football and rugby which are mainly associated with Acute Subdural Hematoma (ASDHs) forming closely 90% of the cases. In Japan, this condition is often associated with Judo as the main sporting event.
Concussion defines diffuse brain injuries developed over time because of contact games. It often results in altered mental status, including shaking of brain that induces severe injuries to neurons and nerve fibers. Worldwide, 1.6 to 3.8 million people has reported concussions annually as a consequence of sport-related trauma (Mizobuchi & Nagahiro, 2016). Nonetheless, the symptoms and signs may not be clincially explained medically but may include lost consciousness, loss of memory and significant alteration of perceived judgment. Such trend is also evident in cases of traumatic cerebrovascular disease, where 80% of patients also had other conditions like ischemia or infarction and male dominated the list (Mizobuchi & Nagahiro, 2016). Concussions are often considered as mild traumatic brain injuries.
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy results from progressive neuro-functional degeneration that results from repeated brain injuries. Self-defense mechanisms employed by the athletes alongside their health status also determine the extent of brain damage during these repetitive exposures. Prominently, the figures vary depending on the type of sports and may cumulatively result in vivid complications among the victims at later ages. Following closely are the cases of traumatic cerebrovascular disease and concussions. Interestingly, male athletes are suffering more of these conditions than their female counterparts (Mizobuchi & Nagahiro, 2016). According to Mizobuchi and Nagahiro (2016), these conditions are correlated to several other individual factors among these players, including mental health status, family relations and economic classes.
Mixed martial art type of fight combines traditional martial arts with kickboxing and wrestling as a mode of competition between different gamers. Often, participants encounter repetitive head injuries with the potential to cause myriad problems within the peripheries of cognitive performances. However, there is minimal research conducted on this field to empower fighters with the right timely information on mental health implications. Primarily, this game entails knockout norms which replicate loss of stability upon the loser. In essence, it exposes the victim to high tension on the cranial cavity because of the jibes on the skull. Although it is a periodic form of engagement, routine fighters face multiple mental health challenges because the knockouts have the potentials to impair their mental performance for a lifetime (Mizobuchi & Nagahiro, 2016). Such perception vindicates the importance of understanding the value of repetitive trauma on mental health.
Repeated encounters of knockouts and technical knockouts have critical consequences on the functionality of the brain, even as they may mark the end of a match between two opponents. The purge on ones cognitive capability in an enclosed ring may also mark the beginning of mental health struggle for such individuals. A study by Fares et al. (2020) reveals that losing during repetitive rounds of mixed martial arts may have impacts on the general psychological stability of such individuals for a long time in history. Thus, head injuries sustained during such events have become fundamental contributing factors in the rise of mental illnesses worldwide. The resulting state of being knocked out or undergoing a technical knockout indicates that the brain can no longer sustain the weight of the pressure endured during these games. Thus, the victim cannot withstand the injuries anymore, signaling medical concerns which may require immediate clinical care or continuous monitoring to avert severe impaction.
At the same time, the varying trends in gender difference also showcase the internal factors affecting mental health. Simultaneously, age factor is also an important aspect of self-intuition in repetitive traumatic injuries translating to differences among males as well. Several other reasons, such as psycho-social wellness and family values, also contribute to the variations in mental response to repetitive traumatic injuries. As traumatizing accidents or calamities, sporting trauma too can be devastating if not well-managed in the long run. As a result, finding the correlations between various variables in play can shape the way in which players respond to different situations. Practically, there is a significant correlation between social background and the psychological wellness of gamers (Weinberg, 2016). Thus, the continued link between players and their fans is a fundamental element of brain competence in the face of miseries and stress.
Epidemiological studies reveal that mixed martial arts, rugby, and American football are leading games marred by violence and repetitive head injuries. Fares et al. (2020) postulate the mixed martial arts entails critical fighting tactics which endanger the lives of perpetrators in various ways. Based on Fares et al.s (2020) study, repeated traumas in sports constitute more than 35% of the head injuries among male players engaging in sanctioned games, athletic exposures. At the same time, female mixed martial artists showcased 23% chronic head injuries for the athletic exposure as recorded in Nevada State Athletic Commission (Fares et al., 2020). Such statistics may also have global trends in chronic head injuries among different players. Essentially, athletics and other contact games bear the burden of these numeric and replicate to the worrying trend of deteriorating cognitive health across the globe.
Moreover, the degenerative brain health among sports people may result in anti-social implications, including depressions, aggressiveness, poor impulse control as well as dementia. These consequences depend on the value of personal contribution towards their well-being. Ling et al. (2015) asserts that the traumatic injuries are progressive and irreversible, hence, require preventive measures instead of treatment procedures. When such norms are not adhered to or broken, there is always an evidential outburst of emotions among players, fans, and interested parties (Lockwood et al., 2018). Such state may indicate the initiation of brain damage.
The various forms of traumatic brain injuries cause axonal injury and functional disturbances, and not direct structural damage to the brain. Lin et al. (2015) asserts that the varieties of the consequences encountered by various players may develop temporary and permanent symptoms requiring the victim to seek intensive care. For concussions, some of the key indicators may include dizziness, nausea, reduced attention, amnesia and headache (Lin et al., 2015). The deviance from normal behavior becomes a major outcome, with a biased perception of events as they unfold (Weinberg, 2016). In essence, it is difficult to control the emotions of such charged folks within the field. Therefore, they often begin to suffer from different mental illnesses if no management program is initiated.
The other consequence of injuries includes the economic burdens. Technically, the functional neuroimaging, electrophysiological, neuropsychological and neurochemical assessments may require a lot of funds to conduct. As a result, some players may resort to living with these conditions to avoid such burdens while others can afford therapeutic procedures and manage their health effectively. The economic frustrations may then constitute to variance in cognitive health concerns. According to Weinberg (2016), individuals respond to social and psychological pressures differently. Similarly, players respond to field demands in distinctive patterns as some resort to violence against the opponent while others may accommodate the external pressure and play normal games. Such variance in behavioral theories portrays classical pattern in which the trend involving chronic mental health problems occur around the universe
Moreover, traumatic brain injuries portray different consequences among different ages. Ling et al. (2015) claim that young people with developing brains are more vulnerable to concussion than adults. Subsequently, children and adolescent players may develop complicated symptoms which last longer than those of older men and women in athletics. To curb the rise in vulnerable and susceptible populations, the international unions such as Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) and World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) have set rules guiding the conducts of players and fans on and off the pitch. As a governing body, their mandate is to govern the execution of matches and minimize violence among the athletes. Concurrently, they ensure that the playing grounds are safe and fit for healthy athleticism while harmonizing security for the safety of spectators in all activities. Such mechanisms prove pivotal in setting standards to avoid chronic harm among players in various games. The sole aim of these bodies is to set a level playing ground for all folks and promote sustainable mental health across all types of competitions. The prevalence in emerging cases of new chronic traumatic mental injuries may have farfetched implications for economic growth and development.
Personal Opinion and Recommendable Measures
There are no well-established diagnostic practices on how to handle mental injuries among athletes. Therefore, there is a need to ensure an integrated approach in handling the global prevalence of injuries among these players. On the one hand, there is no clear correlation between physical injuries and brain damages. The final cases of damages are an outcome of cumulative exposure to both physical violence and environmental injustice petted against sportsmen in different cadres. Lockwood et al. (2018) recommend that there is need for investment in medical strategies and elucidation of proper mechanism to ensure sustainable management of these injuries. Although injuries are common aspects of games, repetitive violent behavior may result in life-changing behaviors among the victims.
One of the ways to manage the challenge of violence and brain injuries is to optimize sporting environments. The participants should endure conducive surrounding which encourages them to be positive to one another and embrace sporting as an art and not an end of life encounter. Alongside building good infrastructures, there should be effective handling techniques and expertise to ensure sustained mental awareness. The relevant authorities and government agencies should promote commitment to human rights, paying sports people just any other employees in the corporate sector based on agreements. Succinctly, the current trend of an integrated approach to sporting activities will reduce violence in contact games and ensure sustainable recognition of talents in different areas.
Moreover, efficient awareness creation and behavior change communication on sportsmanship should be a major priority in athletics. As a game, athletics, including mixed martial art, should be enjoyable for the players, fans, and all interested parties to avert violence endured during these games. Thus, stakeholders should strategize a way of preventing repetitive knockout for medals and ensure protective mechanisms that shield both the loser and the winner in a game. In most cases, players struggle to acquire titles even by executing violence against their opponents. Concurrently, the organizers need to institute mechanisms through which all participants are recognized so that they are motivated and feel happy about their accomplishments.
In my view, investing in research targeting brain injuries and long-term neurodegenerative effects of repeated traumas will help to establish the best practices in tackling these challenges. Currently, there seems to be a minimal investment in mental health, especially sports-related outcomes. Thus, there is a need to explore mechanisms for providing sufficient protective environments, including well-trained field-side physicians who have diagnostic expertise in effectively treating traumatic brain injuries among players in all levels of games encounter. At the same time, there is a need for further research to expand on the accessibility of services and assessment of patients under different circumstances.
Conclusion
Repetitive brain injuries often result from risky contact games and may have severe short and long-term impacts on the cognitive performances of the victims in different ways. Although there is an evidential surge in the love of such sports, there is a need to design protective mechanisms which will help to harmonize the safety of the athletes first. Repetitive head injuries occur in almost all sectors of sport. However, people showcase differing severity based on exposure and care given in terms of protective gears and self-precautionary measures. In an ideal world, sporting events often culminate in passionate relations and long-term memories. In many ways, some individuals engage in athletics and other games to earn a living and entertaining their audience. Some of these folks may not understand the accumulative implications of the use of violent tactics against their opponents.
At the same time, the victims may fail to seek medical attention because they do not understand the extent of the impacts. Over time, these events prompt deteriorating mental health statuses which are sometimes life-threatening. As a result, there is a need for effective public education on behavioral change among players and fans. All sports agencies and governments worldwide should develop policies that harmonize and guide the conducts of players on and off the pitch. Alongside the World Anti-doping Agency (WADA), other bodies should be formed to monitor and implement healthy practices in all sectors of play.
References
Fares, M. Y., Salhab, H. A., Fares, J., Khachfe, H. H., Fares, Y., Baydoun, H., & Alaaeddine, N. (2020). Craniofacial and traumatic brain injuries in mixed martial arts. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 1-9. Web.
Readiness of the child for school means whether the child is ready to easily and comfortably move to a new stage of their education. On the neurobiological side, this term can refer to whether a child has a set of certain skills needed in school life, or whether their brain has matured enough to cope with the new load. The range of skills that indicate that a child is ready to go to school is wide, including academic, psychological, and physical. The basic physiological and physical skills that a child should have by school age include the ability to control impulses, concentrate, and the development of gross and fine motor skills. Despite the existence of norms for child development, not all children grow and acquire skills in the same way. Not all school-age children are truly ready for school, and this may not always indicate a deviation from the norm.
Ability to Control Impulses
The inability to control impulses is an indicator of a childs unpreparedness for school. If a child does not have impulse control, their brain will not analyze the thoughts that arise. Lack of impulse control means that the child may behave inappropriately towards other people. Impulse control begins to develop between the ages of 3 and 5, and children should be able to control impulses by school age (Berke, 2008). ADHD is one possible consequence of poor impulse control (Barkley, 2003). The child in this case may be inattentive, distracted, impulsive, and hyperactive, which will prevent them from getting academic knowledge.
Ability to Concentrate
Concentration is the mental process of focusing the brain on one thought or task. The ability to concentrate appears in preschool children and requires constant development (Berke, 2008). The ability to hold attention is an individual trait, and some children find it easier in this area than others. The cerebral cortex is responsible for the ability to concentrate, which is connected with memory, thinking, and consciousness (Huttenlocher, 2002). Violation in the development of the cerebral cortex can cause difficulties with concentration. However, this is a very individual process, which is not always an aberration. Some children find it easier to concentrate at school, others at home, some concentrate well in background noise, and others experience difficulty.
Development of Fine and Gross Motor Skills
Physical activity and skills are very important for preparing for school. The development of fine and gross motor skills is associated with high rates of future academic performance and is indicative of high brain development (Restak, 2001). The development of fine and gross motor skills is important in everyday life. If children cannot hold a fork or drink without spilling, this indicates that they are not ready for the independence that is required at school. The development of motor skills can also affect the childs self-perception, as well as their social behavior (Berke, 2008). The stage of development of motor skills may indicate the general normality or abnormality of the childs development.
Conclusion
The development of a childs brain directly affects school readiness. The inability to control impulses and concentrate will interfere with the assimilation of academic knowledge. The underdevelopment of motor skills can lead to the fact that the child will be socially and commonly unadapted. Often, the unattainability of certain skills by school age signals the underdevelopment of the child. However, all people grow and develop differently, and not all children can achieve a set of skills by a certain age, which may be a variant of the norm.
References
Barkley, R. A. (2003). Issues in the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Brain and development, 25(2), 77-83.
Berke, L. E. (2008). Exploring lifespan development. Boston: Pearson Education Inc. Huttenlocher, P.R. (2002). Neural plasticity: The effects of environment on the development of the cerebral cortex. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Restak, R. (2001). The secret life of the brain. New York: Dana Press/Joseph Henry Press.
The brain is considered the most complex body organ that serves various intricate functions. Memory, thought, touch, motor skills, and breathing the main functions of the brain. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS). The organ is largely made up of fat while the other components are protein, water, salts, and carbohydrates. It is significant to note that the brain is not a muscle, but contains blood vessels and nerves. The cerebrum, the brain stem, and the cerebellum are three basic structural parts of the brain.
The Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest brain component which is divided into the right and left hemispheres. The two parts of the cerebrum are connected by white matter fibers called corpus callosum (Lee & Park, 2022). The frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes make up the cerebral hemispheres. The frontal and parietal lobes are distinguished posteriorly by the central sulcus. Moreover, the two lobes are inferiorly divided from the temporal lobe by the lateral sulcus. Meanwhile, the parieto-occipital sulcus distinguishes the parietal and occipital lobes (Cho et al., 2022). The cerebrum is further divided into telencephalon and diencephalon (Bhushan et al., 2022). The cortex, the subcortical fibers, and the basal nuclei make up the telencephalon, while the thalamus and hypothalamus make up the diencephalon.
Figure 1.0: Parts of Cerebrum
The Brainstem
Figure 2.0: The brainstem
The brainstem is the most ancient brain part, evolutionarily, and is divided into three parts. The medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain are the three structures that make up the brainstem (). The medulla oblongata is superior to the cervical spinal cord and continuous to it (Diek et al., 2022). The pyramids and pyramidal decussation are ventrally visualized just below the pons. The hypoglossal nerves rootlets can be seen as they exit the brainstem. Meanwhile, two pairs of protrusions are dorsally visible, representing the nuclei where sensory information from the dorsal columns is relayed onto thalamic projection neurons (Bhushan et al., 2022). The pons lies superior to the medulla oblongata and has a band of horizontal fibers. The midbrain, also known as mesencephalon, appears as two bundles that rostrally diverge as cerebral peduncles.
The Cerebellum
Figure 3.0: The cerebellum
The cerebellum modulates motor control, enabling precise body movement coordination. The part occupies the posterior fossa which is dorsal to the pons and the medulla oblongata (Bhushan et al., 2022). Like the cerebrum which has gyri and sulci, the cerebellum has finer folia and fissures which increase its surface area (Lee & Park, 2022). The vermis connects the two hemispheres that make up the cerebellum. Additionally, the cerebellum has four deep nuclei that are in sequence from medial to lateral: the fastigial, globose, emboliform, and dentate (Bhushan et al., 2022). Brain tumors in children are commonly located at the cerebellum. Meanwhile, in adults, they are formed around the posterior fossa.
Conclusion
The brain is made up of the cerebellum, brainstem, and cerebrum. The three parts of the brain serve different functions that help in thought processing, movements, touch, motor skills, and other body regulation functions. The cerebrum is the largest brain component and consists of the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes. Meanwhile, the brainstem is the most ancient brain part according to evolutionary studies. The cerebellum occupies the posterior fossa and is responsible for motor control modulation.
References
Bhushan, R., Ravichandiran, V., & Kumar, N. (2022). An overview of the anatomy and physiology of the brain. Nanocarriers for Drug-Targeting Brain Tumors, 329.
Cho, E. B., Kim, D., Jeong, B., Shin, J. H., Chung, Y. H., Kim, S. T., Kim, B. J., Han, C. E., & Min, J.-H. (2022). Disrupted structural network of inferomedial temporal regions in relapsingremitting multiple sclerosis compared with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 5152.
Diek, D., Smidt, M. P., & Mesman, S. (2022). Molecular organization and patterning of the medulla oblongata in health and disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(16), 9260.
Lee, D., & Park, H.-J. (2022). A populational connection distribution map for the whole brain white matter reveals ordered cortical wiring in the space of white matter. NeuroImage, 254, 119167.
Quan, P., He, L., Mao, T., Fang, Z., Deng, Y., Pan, Y., Zhang, X., Zhao, K., Lei, H., Detre, J. A., Kable, J. W., & Rao, H. (2022). Cerebellum anatomy predicts individual risk-taking behavior and risk tolerance. NeuroImage, 254, 119148.
The University of Queensland (2018). The midbrain. Web.
We live in an increasing technology and device-dependent world. Having said that we have a dependency also indicates that there is a certain part of our body that we tend to use a lot less because of it. We are now part of a mentally and physically stagnating society because of it. According to Minot State University professor Terry Eckmann, who was the guest speaker on Brain Fitness at the International Council of Aging, the past 10 years have shown that there is an actual and direct correlation between the brain and physical movement or exercise.
Prof. Eckmann indicated that recent studies have shown that our brain is a constantly evolving and developing part of our body. We may stop developing physically, but our brain has a unique character that allows it to continue growing, even in our most advanced years of age. Brain exercise it seems prevents the onset of Alzheimers and dementia because brain use/exercise allows for the development of new neurons and neural pathways in the brain. Thereby proving that regular brain exercise has a direct effect on our physical well-being.
Brain exercise is nothing special. It does not require the use of any specific instruments, nor does it require any sort of special software to accomplish. Anytime we do anything physically challenging, such as learning a new dance routine or how to cook the recipe for a dish, we force our brain to exercise because of the cognitive need to understand what it is we have to physically manifest. Such activities ensure that our brain does not stagnate and instead, stimulate the brain by keeping it fresh with the analysis of new activities that turn into part of our daily routine.
It is not as hard to keep our brains as active as we think. Prof. Eckmann pointed out that any sort of physical activity, socialization, and volunteerism provides our brain with enough activity to keep a senior citizens brain active. For example, older adults who regularly hit the dance floor, either with a partner or just as part of an aerobic activity have the chance to reduce their chances of having Dementia by 75%. This is because the activity allows for the stimulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factors.
The rest of her video interview spoke about the other benefits of exercise on the physical aspect of a person, including how the concept of exercise has changed since the time before the baby boomers, the Jane Fonda era, and the current era as well being fanatics. The main point of her talk is that Movement matters , no matter how one gets it. Even something as simple as a 5-minute walk has long-lasting effects on our brain and physical well-being.
Overall, it was a highly engaging and informative talk. Ms. Eckmann was well prepared and came armed with the most up-to-date information that will keep students of Health and Medicine engaged in the video podcast. It would seem like the information she is presenting has already been presented before, and that may be the case, but very few experts manage to create a relationship between mental fitness and physical exercise such as she was able to.
This is why I would highly recommend watching this video to anybody in the field of neurology, rehab medicine, or even those who simply have an aging relative.
This kind of information is one that we are best off knowing about and implementing in our daily lives. That is if you want to remain socially active during the remainder of your retired lives. Nobody would want a limited social life by the time he turns 70 just because his brain isnt functioning the way it used to. Turns out, we can prevent the brain from aging, even if our physical system continues to age. And that is good news for everybody all around.
