The botanical garden is one of the most interesting places among the remarkable sights in almost every city. Last month I was lucky to visit the New York Botanical Garden presenting the vast diversity of plants from the different parts of our planet.
The aim of this essay is to tell you about my visit describing the collection of the botanical garden as well as the organization of its functioning.
The Principles of Organization and Educational Value
The characteristic of the principles of organization of the New York Botanical Garden should be started from the statement of its mission which is expressed as being an advocate for the plant kingdom ( Mission and History, par. 1). The realization of the mission is accomplished by achieving the Garden goals.
The Garden pursues its mission through its role as a museum of living plant collections arranged in gardens and landscapes across its National Historic Landmark site; through its comprehensive education programs in horticulture and plant science; and through the wide-ranging research programs of the International Plant Science Center ( Mission and History , par. 1).
The garden occupies a space of 250 acres, and it is divided into 50 distinct parts, each of which is devoted to the certain species collection. Besides the exhibited collections, there is a research laboratory which represents a scientific center of the Botany study. There is also a specialized library serving the needs of researchers and students. The maintenance of the garden is fulfilled in the frameworks of the overall program of sustainability promoted by the Botanical Garden.
Certainly, the New York Botanical Garden has an educational value as it gives an excellent opportunity to see the rare species of the plant kingdom, to know more about the plants healing properties and the utility of some species in the industry. Moreover, the Garden periodically issues the reports summarizing the results of the scientific research on the problem of global warming, thus, contributing to the environment protection.
The Exhibited Species and Areas of Interest
At the time of my visit to the New York Botanical Garden, there were several ongoing exhibitions. I decided to go to the one presenting the healing plants from all over the world. The exhibition took place in one of the gardens reconstructed in the style of the Italian Renaissance.
Among the species seen, the following ones were especially interesting for me: the foxglove, a beautiful bloomy plant the extract from which is used to treat heart diseases due to its content of certain poisonous substances, saw palmetto, which is broadly used in the medical industry as well as coconut palms, the products of which provides us with the some of the best sources of antioxidants.
Antioxidants are our first line of defense against free radical damage and are critical for maintaining optimum health and wellbeing (Percival 1). The exhibition made me think that, probably, all that we need for our health can be found in nature.
Conclusion
To sum up, all the above mentioned, it should be said that the New York Botanical Garden exhibits one of the most admirable collections of plants in the world. The time spent in the Garden allowed me to get additional knowledge of the healing plants while enjoying the special atmosphere of the place. Unarguably, it is worthy of visiting the New York Botanical Garden for not only the students majoring in Botany or Biology but for everyone fond of nature and its beauty.
Onion belongs to the oAlliaceae family and genus Allium. It is one of the oldest vegetables with several economic benefits. The common name of the species Allium cepa is garden onion or bulb onion and shallot (Grubben and Denton, 2004). There are further classifications that can be seen among the species. For instance, the fresh market onion (Allium cepa L.) has been classified to the Liliaceae and belongs to the genus Allium, section Schoenoprasum . Even today the wild onions grow in Central Asia that is said to be the place of origin of the entire family of onions. Botanists have places Allium cepa genus as part of the lily family. There are totally 325 species of onions, among these there are more than 50 of which that grow in North America. The family of allium comprises of varieties such as onions, shallots, green onions also called scallions, chives, leeks, and garlic (vegparadise.com, 2008).
Morphology and Anatomy
Onion is a biennial plant as a consequence they blossom only in the second year after its plantation. There are special ways of cultivation it. It grows only in places with specific climatic and soil conditions. The length of the day determines the growth and propagation of onion. Studies have proven that the only when the optimal day length is reached the swelling of the leaf base followed by the bulb formation initiates. The exception is only in some of the special varieties or more specifically the short-day varieties where in the swelling of the base initiates at a day length of 11 hours. In normal varieties or the long-day varieties require a day length of 15 16 hours for the bulb formation. The high yielding of onion prerequisites or depends on the formation of assimilation surface in the period before the formation of the bulb.
The farmers and those involved in the cultivation of onion need to remember that both autumn sown and spring sown onions, need adequate time, before the critical day length is reached for proper growth and maturation. In case if these required conditions are not met there can be low growth of deformities such as formation of thick necks, especially in some late maturing autumn sown onions.
The bulb serves as a storage organ during adverse conditions especially for cold and dry periods. The bulb mainly consists of water and nutrients. In other words, it can be said that after the maturation process the onion enters a phase called the sprouting resistance. In fact, at this stage the onion can be used for storage. Studies have proven that the duration of this stage vary with the different variety. From the structure it can be noted that in order to maintain the vital functions during the germ rest, the outermost onion scales are dry and less in water content. This outer most drylayer protects the inner layers from loss of water in the inner layers. The water and nutrients remain in the bulbs till the sprouting time when the water and nutrients are extracted from all skins. As a result the bulb becomes soft and the storage period ends. Researchers have found that low temperatures can lengthen the sprouting resistance. On the other hand any disturbance including physical stimuli such as transportation, temperature changes, changes in atmospheric humidity, light, etc. can have serious disturbance on the sprouting resistance (agri-saaten.de, N.D.).
Onion has a monocot seed and the curved embryo has only one cotyledon which is embedded in endosperm tissue. This endosperm tissue which is surrounded or enclosed by testa or the seed coat is the main food storage tissue of monocot seeds. The morphophysiological dormancy is common among most Allium seeds, as a result they can be stored for several months. Additionally, this also give the embryos time to grow. Once the seeds germinate the testa and endosperm remain attached to the single cotyledon while the seedling primary root grows into the soil. The endosperm supplies the required nutrient to the developing seedling through the cotyledon. The cotyledon that is green in color also takes up the role of photosynthesis contributing considerably to the food supply of the developing seedling. The plumule or the young foliage leaves surfaces from the protective, sheath like base of the cotyledon, elongates, and forms the foliage leaves of the seedling (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Structure of Onion Bulb.
The thick bulbs consist of scale leaves in reaction to specific day lengths and temperatures (see Figure 2). The long-day plant require a minimum of fourteen hours of day length and grows especially in the northern latitudes including Europe requires a minimum of 14 hours of day length to initiate bulb formation. In general the seed or the transplants are sown during early spring. During the summer months the bulb formation takes place which is harvested during the later summer and the fall. Similar, life cycle can be seen with little modification in other Allium species such as garlic (A. sativum), leek (A. ampeloprasum), and Chinese chives (A. tuberosum) (Leubner, 2005).
Figure 2. Seed germination and seeding growth of Allium cepa.
Historical Significance
Archeologist have not been able to trace the origin of onion as these are small in size and also because their tissues leave little or no trace. There is no solid evidence of the place and the time of origin of onion. But the climatic conditions provide evidence that for its growth and development onions originated in central Asia. It is also suggested that onions were first grown in Iran and West Pakistan (Ehler, 2008). Even before the scientific development of these plants, it is thought that wild variety onion was used as a staple vegetable in the prehistoric diet. Further, when the cultivation began these species gained popularity only about 5000 years or more.
Onion is a vegetable that has a greater shelf life when compared to other vegetables and for this reason probably these were consumed for thousands of years and domesticated simultaneously all over the world. This less perishable quality of onions makes it easy for transportation to different parts and is used in many parts of the world. These are also easy to grow and could be grown in a variety of soils and climates. In early days when the technological development were lacking these onions were useful for sustaining human life as these are known to prevent thirst and could be dried and preserved for later consumption during food scarcity. Historical evidence suggests that onions are known for its medicinal values. It is said that onions grew in Chinese gardens as early as 5000 years ago and are also referenced in some of the oldest Vedic writings from India.
There is great significance of onion in Egypt. Archeologists draw back onions in Egypt to 3500 B.C. Onion has significance in the religious ritual for Egyptians. There are evidences that in ancient Egypt, onions were essentially an object of worship and they buried onions together with their Pharaohs. Several paintings of onion can be seen in the ancient Egyptian pyramids and they linked eternal life in the anatomy of the onion because of its circle-within-a-circle structure. Onions are of great significance during the funeral offerings. Similarly they also take great place during feasts and celebrations. Egyptologists considered onions for their great antiseptic qualities. All through the historical literatures the significance of onion can be noticed. For example, it is mentioned in the Bible, it is also mentioned in the ancient Indian literatures. Romans also considered it to be of great importance (Ehler, 2008).
It is a well known fact that onions are known to make every one cry. This is because of the complex sulphur compounds present in the onion. When an onion is cut there are mainly 2 reactions that occur. The first is the production of strong odor as a result of its enzymes. The release allicin which is a volatile sulfur gas causes irritation of eyes and makes everyone cry.
Economic benefits of Onion
Onions are a major ingredient in several vegetarian and non-vegetarian diets in different parts of the world. In addition to its nutritive value it is also known for its special medicinal values from ancient times. Literature review suggests that even in the sixth century, in India onions were used as a diuretic. Additionally, it is also known to be very beneficial for the heart, the eyes, and the joints. There are also studies that suggest that onions are good for osteoporosis. A glance through the historical medicine literature it can be noted that in United States during the colonial times eating raw wild onions was thought to cure measles (vegparadise.com, 2008).
Chinese medicine has gained popularity all over the world and onions have a major part in these medicines. They have found through their research that globe onions (allium cepa) are good for the liver, can help in increasing the moisture content of the intestines, and are also good for the lungs. In fact the experts in Chinese medicine say that eating raw onions are helpful for constipation. Studies suggest that onions are also helpful in lowering high blood pressure. They are also known for therapeutic properties on wounds or ulcers of the skin. As a result of these findings it can be noted that salads are prepared using fresh cut onions and is a global food. Similarly, spring onions, or scallions (allium fistulosum), help to enhance sweating. People who sweat very little can take spring onions that will help the removal of toxicants from the body through the sweat. In fact there are special preparations for patients with common cold and fever using spring onions that induces sweating and thereby reducing body temperature.
There are several studies that point out that onions are helpful in reducing the cholesterol levels. To be more specific it helps in reducing the Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) that are harmful and raises the HDL or the high Density Lipoprotein which is considered to be essential for the proper functioning of the cardiovascular system (Prasad et al. N.D.). Researchers have also found that onions have health benefits as raw onions are effective in lowering overall cholesterol while at the same time raising HDLs. These are also effective against infectious bacteria. Onions help diabetics patients and dissolves blood clots. Recent studies also suggest that cancer prevention is also one of the plus points of onion (Stansbury, 1999).
Studies conducted at the University of California at Berkeley found that yellow and red onions, together with shallots, contain a substance known as quercetin which is a powerful antioxidant. This antioxidant acts as an anti-cancer and prevents any kind of mutations from occurring in the cells. This study suggests that if a person takes 1-3 onions daily, it will be sufficient to provide enough quercetin to prevent cancer (Widerbur, 2006). White onions lack quercetin and thereby do not have the antioxidant property. Onions are also beneficial for people suffering from Asthma as the sulfur compound present in the onions prevents the biochemical chain reaction leading to asthma attacks (vegparadise.com, 2008).
Allium family of onions is of great economic significance. Studies suggest that China is first in onion production followed by India, United States, Turkey and others. In fact, it can be said that there will be hardly a country in the world that is not depending on onion for economic benefits. Recent years have proven that onions can be grown to adapt well to their different climatic conditions. Since onions are of diverse colors such as white, brown, yellow, and red, purple and flavors ranging from mild and sweet to strong and biting, these onions have varied commercial and household use. It is common that sweet onions are mostly grown in California and Texas. Onions are also grown in small quantities with Georgia, New Mexico, Washington, and Arizona.
Onions have known to be entered almost all types of cuisine. It not only enhances the flavor of the food but also provides medicinal effects to the consumers. There is several variety of dishes prepared using onion. For instance, in British studded onions are famous, similarly the French created onion soups are of global taste. Onions are used in making pickles which is a spicy food used as a side dish especially in India. In the same way Onion bhajis are favorites of Indians. Onion also plays an important role in preparing non-vegetarian dishes. When it is added together with ginger and garlic pastes, it gives the mouthwatering taste to the dishes prepared.
There are also several other economic benefits of onion. For instance, in many cases the outermost skin of onion is thrown away. However some times these skins are used to enrich the soups with golden color. In Egypt, onions have high place in the religious rituals. Similarly, in the Greeks tradition the use red onion-skins are used to dye their Easter eggs. Several types of salads are prepared using onion which is considered to be beneficial for health as well as taste.
The nutritional benefits of onion are high. For instance, onion is a low calories substance and can suit the need of a person who is dieting. It is easy for them to take advantage from the low-calorie content of sweet raw onions. It is estimated that a 1/2-cup of cooked onions provides about 1.4 gms of proteins and the raw ones give about 0.9 gms. Onions are also known for the folic acid content. Fat content is very low in onions. Onions are also a store house for several vitamins and minerals. For instance, both raw and cooked onions have trace amounts of vitamin B, vitamin C, together with iron, zinc, potassium, magnesium, and calcium (vegparadise.com, 2008). Similarly, different varieties of onion have different micro and macro nutrients.
This paper has discussed in detail the botanical aspects such as taxonomy, morphology, anatomy, life history, historical importance, economic value, of onions. Onions have not only known for the nutritious values but also for its medicinal values. It also plays an important role in certain rituals in some of the cultures. These are found in a various recipes and preparations ranging from almost the totality of the worlds cultures. These are also easy for preservations as they can be used as fresh, frozen, canned, pickled, powdered, and dehydrated forms. Since these are grown in different climatic conditions, these are commonly available in most parts of the world. This is a plant of great significance from the prehistoric times till date.
References
agri-saaten.de, (N.D.) Botany and taxonomy of the onion. Web.
Listed a world heritage site by the UNESCO, in July 2003, the KEW Gardens has invited more than 1.48 million visitors in 2005. The Garden boasts of a conservatory, a herbarium library and eating places.
It would be unjust to not include this region in the itinerary of any tour of the U K. The purpot is to throw light on the significance of the gardens.
Extensive use of the Net, The Encyclopaedia Britannica and the world map has helped at large to unravel the exquisite spot.
The Royal Botanical gardens, the once 30 hectare pleasure ground (Arboretum), now occupies 120 hectares of lush green view. It houses the Wakehurst place gardens and runs the KEW Gardens in Sussex. Situated between Richmond and Kew in South West London, England, the garden is an internationally acclaimed research and educational institution under Prof. Stephen D Hooper.
History
Founded by Lord Capel of Tewkesbury, it was enlarged and extended by Princess Augusta, widow of Frederick, Prince of Wales. A Chinese pagoda by Sir William Chambers still remains.
It was adopted as a national botanical garden in 1840. The Palm House was built by architect Decimus Burton and iron – maker Richard Turner between 1844 and 1848. The year 1987 witnessed the emergence of Kew’s third major conservatory, which has ten climate zones. It was opened by Princess Diana.
Kew gardens today
It is the leading centre of botanical research, training ground for professional gardeners and attracts visitors from all over the world. The gardens are mostly informal, thus serving as an ideal tourist destination.
Unfavorable growing conditions such as atmospheric pollution from London, dry soil and low rainfall, Kew remains as the most comprehensive plant collection in Britain and has established two outstations at Sussex and at Kent.
Library and archive
A delight to the eyes are the innumerable books, botanical illustrations, photographs, letters and manuscripts, periodicals and maps with over a half and a million items. It is a virtual store house of knowledge and caters to the needs of the different sections of the society. Thus it remains an inseparable unit to the garden.
Transport
Nearest combined rail and underground stations is Kew garden station. Bus route is 65 & 391.
Attractions
Garden walks; free tour of the garden is conducted by trained volunteers.
Vehicular tour: Kew Explorer 72 seater people mover covers a circular route around the garden. A commentary on the different marvels is provided by the driver.
Pagoda: In a corner of Kew garden stands the great pagoda, a towering 163 feet monument, 49 feet in diameter. The awe inspiring sight is a reminder of William Chambers, the man behind its construction.
Chokushi Mon: Standing next is a replica of part of a Japanese temple built in 1910. A copy of the Karaman (Chinese gate of Nishi Hongan – ji in Myoto) is also seen.
Sackler Crossing: The Bridge made of granite and bronze, opened in May 2006, was designed Buro Happold and John Pawson.
Museum and gallery: Near Palm house is Museum No.1 which came into being in 1857. Its aim is to illustrate mankind’s dependence on plants. It contains Kew’s economic botany collections including tools, ornaments, clothing, food and medicines.
Marianne North Gallary: Built in 1880, the exhaustive paintings of Marianne North are artistically displayed. It has around 832 paintings.
Compost heap: A natural ground, it has the biggest compost heap in the world made from the green waste in the garden.
The Kew Mission: To enable better management of the earth’s environment by increasing knowledge and evaluation of the plants and fungal kingdom – basis of lide on earth.
The Kew group high quality scientific research hands are on a conservation drive to built public understanding and support for sustainability and plant conservation.
There is every ground to believe that the Kew gardens could arouse awareness in the common man to preserve natural heritage, be eco friendly and at the same time shoulder the responsibility to sustain the bio diversity for the coming generations. Every tourist going back home form the gardens would ponder over the pertinent question regarding human contribution to conserve its natural beauty. No wonder the site has attracted more than a million tourists and has raised an outstanding amount!
Biological evidence presented during the session included pollen from Ponderosa pine, a cactus found inside the victim’s clothing, elements of Bluebunch Wheatgrass species grass, and details of Douglas fir needles. Almost all of the plants whose parts were found on the girl’s body and clothing are typical of the dry southern region of British Columbia (Hebda, 2007). Of these, only Douglas-fir can be attributed to the humid west coast of the area, but some varieties of this plant may grow in the interior southern territories of the region (Varner, 2021). The variability in the distribution of this plant presents a difficulty in determining the location of the body. Nevertheless, a set of biological evidence is sufficient to establish or disprove the fact that the victim has been moved from the southern areas to the location where it was found. Consequently, it is possible to determine the region in which the murder occurred.
The Analysis of Pollen
Ponderosa pine and cactus pollen are among the types of biological material that, unlike Fir needles and grass elements, cannot be artificially transferred to the body or clothing (Gardner & Krouskup, 2021). From this, it can be concluded that the victim had been in southern British Columbia before the murder. It cannot be directly supposed from the words of the expert biologist that the Ponderosa pine grows only in dry inland areas since the plant is also common in wetter coastal areas (Rehfeldt, 2018). Nevertheless, the presence of cactus pollen indicates the presence of the girl in dry climatic areas. This type of plant is distributed north to 56 degrees latitude, which includes both the vicinity of Merit (50 degrees north latitude) and the vicinity of Vancouver (49 degrees north latitude) (Britton & Rose, 2018). However, the climate of the latter is too humid for the spread of cacti; hence the cactus pollen found is evidence of the victim being in drier areas, such as the Merit area (Kendrew, 2022). To verify these findings, additional expertise is required to identify the exact species of cactus that would allow a significant narrowing of the victim’s area of residence.
That the pollen ended up on the girl’s body at the time of the murder is evidenced by its location. The biological material was found under the victim’s T-shirt, which she could not have removed voluntarily due to the insufficiently warm weather. On the woman’s body, under her clothes, the pollen could only have fallen under extraordinary circumstances, such as physical abuse or strangulation, for example. Experts have not sufficiently analyzed the location of the pollen and the conclusions drawn therefrom.
The Analysis of Grass
The weed found in the victim’s hair is of the Bluebunch Wheatgrass species. Its distribution range is quite wide, hence, when saying that this species grows in the southern territories of the region, the expert made an inaccuracy. This species are located in grasslands in both southern and western coastal areas, where there is a mild and favorable climate (James et al., 2021). Thus, the type of grass cannot be unequivocal evidence of the victim being in one of the two presumed regions. Nevertheless, the nature of the particles of this plant may provide information as to whether the grass was placed on the victim’s head on purpose or ended up in the hair during strangulation by natural means (Cabula, 2020). The grass may have been attached to the hair at the time of the murder in its entirety, along with the root part. If there are elements of grass that were torn off among the materials recovered, then it must have been placed on purpose. Although more expertise is needed on the type of cactus and the grass materials found in the hair, it can be concluded from the pollen materials that the victim was killed in the Southern region.
References
Britton, N. L., & Rose, J. N. (2018). The Cactaceae: Descriptions And Illustrations Of Plants Of The Cactus Family. Sagwan Press.
Cabula, I. (2020). Criminology and Criminal Profiling for beginners: (crime scene forensics, serial killers and sects) (Criminology, Criminal Profiling, Serial Killers). Independently published.
Gardner, R. M., & Krouskup, D. (2021). Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation, Third Edition (Practical Aspects of Criminal and Forensic Investigations) (3rd ed.). CRC Press.
James, L. F., Evans, J. O., Ralphs, M. H., Child, D. R., & Wierenga, T. L. (2021). Noxious Range Weeds. CRC Pr I Llc.
Hebda, R. J. (2007). British Columbia Vegetation and Climate History with Focus on 6 ka BP. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire, 49(1), 55–79. Web.
Kendrew, W. G. (2022). The climate of British Columbia and the Yukon Territory. E. Cloutier, Queen’s printer.
Rehfeldt, G. E. (2018). Adaptive Variation in Pinus Ponderosa From Intermountain Regions: II. Middle Columbia River System (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books.
Varner, C. (2021). The Flora and Fauna of Coastal British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest: Second Edition. Heritage House.
Phylum Angiospermae is known to dominate the land because it consists of the highest number of species in the kingdom Plantae. All angiosperm plants have true stems, roots, leaves and flowers. Angiosperm plants are classified into two broad categories which include the Class Dicotyledone and Class Monocotyledone. It is believed that species of the Phylum Angiospermae are widely distributed to all ecological zones due to their exceptional nature of adaptation (Carroll & Reiley, 2004). Different Angiosperm species exhibit different root and stem structure depending with the ecological conditions in their natural habitats. Moreover, Angiosperm species exhibit different modes of reproduction.
An example of Angiosperm species that have evolved to survive in extremely adverse environmental conditions is the Beavertail Cactus (Opuntia basilaris). Beavertail cacti species belong to the Genus Opuntia in the Family Cactaceae. These Angiosperm species inhabit the desert environment. Members of these species are found in the dry and rocky desert slopes, in the United States of America. They are found growing naturally in Sonoran and Mojave deserts of Southwestern Utah, Southeastern California and Western Arizona. Beavertail cactus has of short bristles, and they grow up to about 12 inches in height. The bristles may spread on the ground for about 6 feet wide. Stems of the Beavertail cactus are usually oval in shape, and they grow clumped together in a jointed structure. Beavertail cacti produce brilliant red flowers which bear brownish grey oval fruits with numerous seeds (Dutta, 2001).
Beavertail cactus exhibits several structural modifications in the leaves, stems, roots and flowers. These structural modifications enable it to survive in the harsh desert environment. To start with, Beavertail cactus plant exhibits extensive rooting system. It bears deep roots which penetrate into the deep moist ground layers. In addition, these plants bear superficial roots lying immediately beneath the ground level. Deep rooting systems enable the cactus to draw water from underground soil layers during the dry season. On the other hand, numerous superficial roots located just below the ground level ensure quick absorption of moisture from the ground surface during light showers. The extensive rooting system of the Beavertail cactus is one of the most striking structural modifications essential for the plant survival in the desert environment, where precipitation is extremely low.
The second structural modification observed in Beavertail cactus is the stem structure. These species have thick, waxy succulent stems. The succulent stems store water for biosynthetic functions in the plant, such as photosynthesis. It is believed that he thick, waxy layers that cover the stem and the leaves reduce water loss through evapotranspiration. Moreover, the fleshy stems contain chlorophyll: thus, the cactus carry out photosynthesis in the stems. It is also believed that Beavertail cactus prevents excessive water loss through the development of cylindrical jointed stems, unlike other cactus species which have flat pads. In general, Beavertail cactus stems play three principal roles: photosynthesis, water storage and flowering (Dutta, 2001).
Beavertail cactus has thin spines, instead of broad leaves to minimize water loss through evaporation. Its stems have sunken stomata which open during the night and close during daytime. Moreover, Beavertail cactus is a monoecious plant: thus, it exhibits self-pollination, and it is known to produce many seeds for sexual propagation. (Dutta, 2001).
In conclusion, Beavertail cactus is believed to survive in the harsh desert environment due to its structural modifications. Its morphological modifications reduce water loss as well as enhancing water absorption and storage.
Branches of science are not developed in isolation but have a close link with each other. Oceanography, botany, and biology are natural sciences examining and describing life on the earth and its development. These three branches of science are interrelated and depend upon technological development and new scientific discoveries in other areas. Ecological systems seem never actually to reach a steady-state condition because the environment changes continually, within limits, just as do elements in large-scale geophysical systems such as the weather. The assemblage of species responds variously to these environmental changes as well as to each other’s response to them, and there are time lags in these adjustments (Gross and Gross, 1995). Thus at best the species of a system are in a state of continual oscillation. The alternating waves of the abundance of predator and prey species are one example. The lag between the failure of one fishery and the development of a new one is another. From then on it is difficult to study “the environment” or “ecology” without taking human affairs into account. Man’s weight in the equilibrium is determined by such things as the number of fishermen, the efficiency of their gear, the wages that a fisherman is willing to work for, the price the public is willing to pay for the fish, and so forth.
The development of oceanography was connected with the theory of evolution developed by Charles Darwin. This theory gave rise to new researches and investigations in the marine environment. This is a pattern that has been repeated in various localities to solve special problems during the whole history of biological research. There develops an anomalous condition (often diminution of fish stocks which people remember as having once been much greater). An interested special group of people requests that the condition be investigated, and after the due legislative procedure, scientists are assigned to the problem (Manseth 1998). To understand the cause of the undesirable condition, the scientists first try to establish facts about the time when the condition was satisfactory (i.e., the normal pattern), but because records are nearly always fragmentary or lacking, this effort usually proves fruitless. Then, because they are expected to devise a remedy for the condition in a reasonable time, they make deductions and recommendations from the data they can assemble. Such an investigation may not be conducive to learning much about the normal, being bound by too many limitations, for the anomalous condition is usually sharply delimited in scope. It is limited in time to the memory of the current generation, often even to such a short period as a season or two. It is limited ecologically to the affected species which are of most economic value (Garrison, 2004).
The description of a cell and the development of microbiology opens new opportunities for botany and its experiments. During the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries many French anatomists recognized the important part that the microscopical structure of plants can play in studying their taxonomy. This tradition has been carried forward until the present time by some investigators. The anatomical approach to taxonomy has at all stages been stimulated by the practical necessity of maintaining standards of quality and detecting adulteration or substitution in economic products of vegetable origin (Manseth 1998). The traditional methods of the herbarium botanist cannot be employed to identify a timber or to detect adulterants in powdered herbs. The anatomical method also finds applications in assisting archaeologists to establish the botanical origin of manufactured articles and other materials obtained during their excavations. It is also, in certain circumstances, possible to identify the partially digested remains of vegetable foodstuffs taken from the bodies of dead animals when it is suspected that their death may have been caused by poisoning. The feeding habits of animals such as foxes and rabbits can be studied by identifying particles of vegetable matter in their excreta. The solution of problems such as these, and even to give anatomical assistance in the detection of crime, have, for many years, been everyday activities at the Jodrell Laboratory. It is surprising how infrequently the attention of botany students at universities is drawn to these applications of plant anatomy. This would surely increase their interest in plant structure and also broaden their outlook (Garrison, 2004).
Very little systematic marine biological research has been devoted to the dynamics of ecological systems. There is a plenitude of descriptions of communities and catalogs of animals and plants collected in surveys. Although these have reference value to zoogeographers, taxonomists, and others interested in what is often called natural history, they tell very little about the history of nature. A list of species resulting from a survey, even one made with proper statistical technique, shows only what composed a community at one moment in its history. It is like a single frame of a motion picture about the continuity of a drama. A second survey made of the community ten years after reveals that the flora and fauna have changed (Pinet, 2006). What caused the change? Did an intensive fishery remove an important predator, permitting species lower in the food pyramid to accumulate? All these questions have to do with fish. They are equally pertinent to any other marine animals of interest, from the largest mammals down to the smallest invertebrates. It adds enormously to the difficulty of this line of research that patterns of behavior differ so profoundly among species that knowledge concerning one cannot ordinarily be applied to another. Even for a single species, behavior patterns usually change seasonally, and therefore must be followed through the course of a year. However, they have been used for subjects mostly animals that do well in small aquaria, like tide-pool fishes. These show such remarkably distinctive behavior patterns as to make one wonder what larger animals would do (Pinet, 2006). Their researchers run into an extremely difficult problem, for capturing large sea animals without injury and transporting them alive to a shore base poses a complex of formidable problems. Keeping them alive in a tank, even a very large one, and inducing them to feed and carry on their normal life habits without being conditioned by the artificial environment to the point of uselessness as experimental animals poses another set of problems.
Experiments with these conditioned-response techniques are probably the only way to determine the sensory thresholds of fishes. They must be planned and controlled with extreme care, however, to avoid conditioning the subjects to the wrong stimulus. This precaution has been very much neglected in the past. Between 1887 and 1920, at least thirty papers were published describing results proving or disproving that fishes discriminate colors. Most of these were meaningless because their authors had failed to control brightness in the experiments. Many of the troubles that plagued earlier scientists experimenting with these techniques have at last been overcome by improved measuring instruments (Pinet, 2006). Useful as these experiments are, however, they are no magic key to understanding all the mysteries of animal behavior. For example, critics might train a fish to respond to very low concentrations of various chemical substances in the water. From these studies, critics conclude that the olfactory apparatus is functioning well, and researchers might even establish a measurement of its sensitivity. Researchers cannot tell how the subject uses smell in analyzing its environment. This problem might best be attacked with a different type of experiment, based essentially on unconditioned rather than conditioned responses and designed to mimic natural situations as closely as possible. But this is exceedingly difficult (Garrison, 2004).
Bringing the animals from their native habitat to a laboratory subjects them to severe trauma. They are given too little space and are frightened; they become malnourished, diseased, and they die. If researchers could take the laboratory to the animals, as they could with a diving vessel, these technical problems could be solved. There would be other problems, of course, but researchers would at last surely be studying natural behavior. Biologists using this instrument would have the chance to answer any questions that have been puzzling us. For example, how do bottom-living fish behave? What are the diurnal rhythms of animals? What stimuli trigger their responses? How do animals space themselves about each other? How do predators attack their prey? How do the various species protect themselves against each other? How do they cooperate? (Reece and Campbell 2001). In short, what do animals do in their environment? People to whom the behavior of land animals is commonplace knowledge because they have seen it with their eyes, do not realize the vastness of ignorance about the behavior of marine animals. The original bathysphere still exists, others have been built in France and Japan, and one is being planned in the U.S.S.R. Unfortunately, these are costly to buy as well as to operate; they are cumbersome and they can accommodate few observers at a time. For these reasons the chief hope of making a submarine observation vessel generally available to biologists in a region would be for several neighboring laboratories to join forces to acquire one and keep it in continual operation (Thurman and Trujillo 2003).
Investigations in viruses and microbes allow oceanography to investigate diseases and other problems affecting marine life.
Biology Moreover, the disease is such a highly specialized subject that one can study it profitably only if he gives it full-time continuous attention and has certain special equipment which marine laboratories usually lack. Hence, the intellectual atmosphere is not very encouraging to the study of marine diseases. Nevertheless, during the past seventy years, a few scientists have described several pathogenic organisms incidentally to their other studies. There are records of dinoflagellates infecting tunicates, diatoms, pteropods, siphonophores, annelids, and the eggs of copepods (Reece and Campbell 2001). One species, Oodinium ocellatum, lives on the skin and gills of several kinds of marine fishes, with consequent dermatitis and suffocation. This disease has been a frequent cause of death in the aquaria in London, San Francisco, and New York. Bacterial diseases have been observed more often in aquaria than among feral populations of marine fishes. Tuberculosis caused by acid-fast bacteria is the most fully described. It is also relatively easy to diagnose, thanks to well-established specific staining techniques. This disease causes tubercles in the spleen and liver, sometimes also in the gills, kidneys, roe, pericardium, eye, and intestine (Garrison, 2004).
The modern interest is in the vital activities of organisms, in their physiological responses to changed experimental conditions, in the behavior of their chromosomes, in their reaction to pathological attack by other organisms, and in the biochemical reactions and metabolic changes that are going on in their bodies throughout their lives. There has been a tendency, probably inevitable, in recent years for plant anatomists to specialize in some particular field of inquiry. A perusal of the writings by some of the early anatomists already mentioned reveals how much more closely anatomy and physiology were interwoven than they often are today (Gross and Gross, 1995).
With the interest in evolution that followed the work of Darwin and Wallace there was a change of emphasis, and those who were interested in the form and structure of plants, lacking a geological record that showed the course of plant evolution with any degree of completeness, attempted to fill the gaps in phylogenetic schemes by studying the comparative morphology and anatomy of present-day plants. Work of this kind generally involves considerable speculation, and, in the minds of many botanists, the study of morphology and anatomy has come to be associated with phylogenetic speculation rather than with physiological function (Thurman and Trujillo 2003). Unfortunately, the phylogenetic interest led to the promulgation of conclusions that researchers have since come to realize were not justified by the factual information on which they were based. In consequence, there has been much fruitless controversy concerning matters that can be neither proved nor disproved from the evidence of morphology and anatomy alone. Thus researchers find that much ingenious argument was devoted to discussing such questions as to whether or not floral members are modified leaves; how far the stem consists of leaf bases; whether stems and leaves are organs of a fundamentally different character or whether leaves are shoot systems with mesophyll between the branches. The real weakness of most arguments on topics of these kinds is that, when researchers argue from the comparative structure of present-day plants alone, there is no real evidence of the direction in which supposed phylogenetic advances have taken place. The series might just as well have progressed from a-c as from c-a. The fact is that theoretical discussion on phylogenetic topics, whilst intellectually stimulating to some minds, make little or no appeal to those who can see that argument might be continued indefinitely and prove nothing or very little (Thurman and Trujillo 2003). Herein lies one important reason why plant anatomy has become unpopular, for, in the minds of many, the study of form and structure is so intimately associated with unprofitable speculation (Gross and Gross, 1995).
In sum, at the outset of this review attention was drawn to the comparative unpopularity of the anatomical approach to botany. A close link between oceanography, botany, and biology is explained by the development of natural sciences in general and the area of investigation: the Earth and the natural environment. It is for studies in systematic anatomy to be accompanied by investigations in cytotaxonomy or even in biochemistry, for the plant body is, after all, a more or less stabilized system of the products of metabolism and biochemical reaction. In passing to and fro along with it in the course of discussion researchers have paused here and there to look to the right and left upside alleys, to catch glimpses of distant panoramas, and to see how vista is related to some of the others of which botanical science is composed, noting how close is the connection between anatomical investigation and many other lines of botanical inquiry. Today, these sciences are not lacking techniques and instruments which hinder research into the psychology of marine animals, For behavior studies, the characteristics and equipment of the base of operations are more important than for most other kinds of laboratory marine research. The base of operations must be in a place where the surrounding water is clear enough for field observation and where there is a good supply and variety of marine forms for study. It might be in such a place as Bermuda, the Gulf of California, the Mediterranean, or Hawaii. It should be part of an environmental laboratory attached to an established research institution, providing the obvious advantages of a good library and a staff of scientists working in related fields.
References
Garrison, T.S. (2004). Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science (with OceanographyNow, InfoTrac®). Brooks Cole; 5 edition.
Gross, G., Gross, E. (1995). Oceanography: A View of the Earth Prentice Hall; 7 edition.
Manseth, J. D. (1998). Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc; Multimedia Enhanced 2 Revised Ed edition.
Pinet, P. R. (2006). Invitation to Oceanography. Jones & Bartlett Pub; 4 edition
Reece, J. B., Campbell, N.A. (2001). Biology. Benjamin Cummings; 6th edition.
Thurman, H. V., Trujillo, A. P. (2003). Introductory Oceanography (10th Edition) (Introductory Oceanography). Prentice Hall; 10 edition.
The botanical garden is one of the most interesting places among the remarkable sights in almost every city. Last month I was lucky to visit the New York Botanical Garden presenting the vast diversity of plants from the different parts of our planet.
The aim of this essay is to tell you about my visit describing the collection of the botanical garden as well as the organization of its functioning.
The Principles of Organization and Educational Value
The characteristic of the principles of organization of the New York Botanical Garden should be started from the statement of its mission which is expressed as “being an advocate for the plant kingdom” (“Mission and History,” par. 1). The realization of the mission is accomplished by achieving the Garden goals.
“The Garden pursues its mission through its role as a museum of living plant collections arranged in gardens and landscapes across its National Historic Landmark site; through its comprehensive education programs in horticulture and plant science; and through the wide-ranging research programs of the International Plant Science Center” (“Mission and History”, par. 1).
The garden occupies a space of 250 acres, and it is divided into 50 distinct parts, each of which is devoted to the certain species collection. Besides the exhibited collections, there is a research laboratory which represents a scientific center of the Botany study. There is also a specialized library serving the needs of researchers and students. The maintenance of the garden is fulfilled in the frameworks of the overall program of sustainability promoted by the Botanical Garden.
Certainly, the New York Botanical Garden has an educational value as it gives an excellent opportunity to see the rare species of the plant kingdom, to know more about the plants healing properties and the utility of some species in the industry. Moreover, the Garden periodically issues the reports summarizing the results of the scientific research on the problem of global warming, thus, contributing to the environment protection.
The Exhibited Species and Areas of Interest
At the time of my visit to the New York Botanical Garden, there were several ongoing exhibitions. I decided to go to the one presenting the healing plants from all over the world. The exhibition took place in one of the gardens reconstructed in the style of the Italian Renaissance.
Among the species seen, the following ones were especially interesting for me: the foxglove, a beautiful bloomy plant the extract from which is used to treat heart diseases due to its content of certain poisonous substances, saw palmetto, which is broadly used in the medical industry as well as coconut palms, the products of which provides us with the some of the best sources of antioxidants.
“Antioxidants are our first line of defense against free radical damage and are critical for maintaining optimum health and wellbeing” (Percival 1). The exhibition made me think that, probably, all that we need for our health can be found in nature.
Conclusion
To sum up, all the above mentioned, it should be said that the New York Botanical Garden exhibits one of the most admirable collections of plants in the world. The time spent in the Garden allowed me to get additional knowledge of the healing plants while enjoying the special atmosphere of the place. Unarguably, it is worthy of visiting the New York Botanical Garden for not only the students majoring in Botany or Biology but for everyone fond of nature and its beauty.
Onion belongs to the oAlliaceae family and genus Allium. It is one of the oldest vegetables with several economic benefits. The common name of the species Allium cepa is garden onion or bulb onion and shallot (Grubben and Denton, 2004). There are further classifications that can be seen among the species. For instance, the fresh market onion (Allium cepa L.) has been classified to the Liliaceae and belongs to the genus Allium, section “Schoenoprasum”. Even today the wild onions grow in Central Asia that is said to be the place of origin of the entire family of onions. Botanists have places Allium cepa genus as part of the lily family. There are totally 325 species of onions, among these there are more than 50 of which that grow in North America. The family of allium comprises of varieties such as onions, shallots, green onions also called scallions, chives, leeks, and garlic (vegparadise.com, 2008).
Morphology and Anatomy
Onion is a biennial plant as a consequence they blossom only in the second year after its plantation. There are special ways of cultivation it. It grows only in places with specific climatic and soil conditions. The length of the day determines the growth and propagation of onion. Studies have proven that the only when the optimal day length is reached the swelling of the leaf base followed by the bulb formation initiates. The exception is only in some of the special varieties or more specifically the short-day varieties where in the swelling of the base initiates at a day length of 11 hours. In normal varieties or the long-day varieties require a day length of 15 – 16 hours for the bulb formation. The high yielding of onion prerequisites or depends on the formation of assimilation surface in the period before the formation of the bulb.
The farmers and those involved in the cultivation of onion need to remember that both autumn sown and spring sown onions, need adequate time, before the critical day length is reached for proper growth and maturation. In case if these required conditions are not met there can be low growth of deformities such as formation of thick necks, especially in some late maturing autumn sown onions.
The bulb serves as a storage organ during adverse conditions especially for cold and dry periods. The bulb mainly consists of water and nutrients. In other words, it can be said that after the maturation process the onion enters a phase called the sprouting resistance. In fact, at this stage the onion can be used for storage. Studies have proven that the duration of this stage vary with the different variety. From the structure it can be noted that in order to maintain the vital functions during the germ rest, the outermost onion scales are dry and less in water content. This outer most drylayer protects the inner layers from loss of water in the inner layers. The water and nutrients remain in the bulbs till the sprouting time when the water and nutrients are extracted from all skins. As a result the bulb becomes soft and the storage period ends. Researchers have found that low temperatures can lengthen the sprouting resistance. On the other hand any disturbance including physical stimuli such as transportation, temperature changes, changes in atmospheric humidity, light, etc. can have serious disturbance on the sprouting resistance (agri-saaten.de, N.D.).
Onion has a monocot seed and the curved embryo has only one cotyledon which is embedded in endosperm tissue. This endosperm tissue which is surrounded or enclosed by testa or the seed coat is the main food storage tissue of monocot seeds. The morphophysiological dormancy is common among most Allium seeds, as a result they can be stored for several months. Additionally, this also give the embryos time to grow. Once the seeds germinate the testa and endosperm remain attached to the single cotyledon while the seedling primary root grows into the soil. The endosperm supplies the required nutrient to the developing seedling through the cotyledon. The cotyledon that is green in color also takes up the role of photosynthesis contributing considerably to the food supply of the developing seedling. The plumule or the young foliage leaves surfaces from the protective, sheath like base of the cotyledon, elongates, and forms the foliage leaves of the seedling (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Structure of Onion Bulb.
The thick bulbs consist of scale leaves in reaction to specific day lengths and temperatures (see Figure 2). The long-day plant require a minimum of fourteen hours of day length and grows especially in the northern latitudes including Europe requires a minimum of 14 hours of day length to initiate bulb formation. In general the seed or the transplants are sown during early spring. During the summer months the bulb formation takes place which is harvested during the later summer and the fall. Similar, life cycle can be seen with little modification in other Allium species such as garlic (A. sativum), leek (A. ampeloprasum), and Chinese chives (A. tuberosum) (Leubner, 2005).
Figure 2. Seed germination and seeding growth of Allium cepa.
Historical Significance
Archeologist have not been able to trace the origin of onion as these are small in size and also because their tissues leave little or no trace. There is no solid evidence of the place and the time of origin of onion. But the climatic conditions provide evidence that for its growth and development onions originated in central Asia. It is also suggested that onions were first grown in Iran and West Pakistan (Ehler, 2008). Even before the scientific development of these plants, it is thought that wild variety onion was used as a staple vegetable in the prehistoric diet. Further, when the cultivation began these species gained popularity only about 5000 years or more.
Onion is a vegetable that has a greater shelf life when compared to other vegetables and for this reason probably these were consumed for thousands of years and domesticated simultaneously all over the world. This less perishable quality of onions makes it easy for transportation to different parts and is used in many parts of the world. These are also easy to grow and could be grown in a variety of soils and climates. In early days when the technological development were lacking these onions were useful for sustaining human life as these are known to prevent thirst and could be dried and preserved for later consumption during food scarcity. Historical evidence suggests that onions are known for its medicinal values. It is said that onions grew in Chinese gardens as early as 5000 years ago and are also referenced in some of the oldest Vedic writings from India.
There is great significance of onion in Egypt. Archeologists draw back onions in Egypt to 3500 B.C. Onion has significance in the religious ritual for Egyptians. There are evidences that in ancient Egypt, onions were essentially an object of worship and they buried onions together with their Pharaohs. Several paintings of onion can be seen in the ancient Egyptian pyramids and they linked eternal life in the anatomy of the onion because of its circle-within-a-circle structure. Onions are of great significance during the funeral offerings. Similarly they also take great place during feasts and celebrations. Egyptologists considered onions for their great antiseptic qualities. All through the historical literatures the significance of onion can be noticed. For example, it is mentioned in the Bible, it is also mentioned in the ancient Indian literatures. Romans also considered it to be of great importance (Ehler, 2008).
It is a well known fact that onions are known to make every one cry. This is because of the complex sulphur compounds present in the onion. When an onion is cut there are mainly 2 reactions that occur. The first is the production of strong odor as a result of its enzymes. The release allicin which is a volatile sulfur gas causes irritation of eyes and makes everyone cry.
Economic benefits of Onion
Onions are a major ingredient in several vegetarian and non-vegetarian diets in different parts of the world. In addition to its nutritive value it is also known for its special medicinal values from ancient times. Literature review suggests that even in the sixth century, in India onions were used as a diuretic. Additionally, it is also known to be very beneficial for the heart, the eyes, and the joints. There are also studies that suggest that onions are good for osteoporosis. A glance through the historical medicine literature it can be noted that in United States during the colonial times eating raw wild onions was thought to cure measles (vegparadise.com, 2008).
Chinese medicine has gained popularity all over the world and onions have a major part in these medicines. They have found through their research that globe onions (allium cepa) are good for the liver, can help in increasing the moisture content of the intestines, and are also good for the lungs. In fact the experts in Chinese medicine say that eating raw onions are helpful for constipation. Studies suggest that onions are also helpful in lowering high blood pressure. They are also known for therapeutic properties on wounds or ulcers of the skin. As a result of these findings it can be noted that salads are prepared using fresh cut onions and is a global food. Similarly, spring onions, or scallions (allium fistulosum), help to enhance sweating. People who sweat very little can take spring onions that will help the removal of toxicants from the body through the sweat. In fact there are special preparations for patients with common cold and fever using spring onions that induces sweating and thereby reducing body temperature.
There are several studies that point out that onions are helpful in reducing the cholesterol levels. To be more specific it helps in reducing the Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) that are harmful and raises the HDL or the high Density Lipoprotein which is considered to be essential for the proper functioning of the cardiovascular system (Prasad et al. N.D.). Researchers have also found that onions have health benefits as raw onions are effective in lowering overall cholesterol while at the same time raising HDLs. These are also effective against infectious bacteria. Onions help diabetics patients and dissolves blood clots. Recent studies also suggest that cancer prevention is also one of the plus points of onion (Stansbury, 1999).
Studies conducted at the University of California at Berkeley found that yellow and red onions, together with shallots, contain a substance known as quercetin which is a powerful antioxidant. This antioxidant acts as an anti-cancer and prevents any kind of mutations from occurring in the cells. This study suggests that if a person takes 1-3 onions daily, it will be sufficient to provide enough quercetin to prevent cancer (Widerbur, 2006). White onions lack quercetin and thereby do not have the antioxidant property. Onions are also beneficial for people suffering from Asthma as the sulfur compound present in the onions prevents the biochemical chain reaction leading to asthma attacks (vegparadise.com, 2008).
Allium family of onions is of great economic significance. Studies suggest that China is first in onion production followed by India, United States, Turkey and others. In fact, it can be said that there will be hardly a country in the world that is not depending on onion for economic benefits. Recent years have proven that onions can be grown to adapt well to their different climatic conditions. Since onions are of diverse colors such as white, brown, yellow, and red, purple and flavors ranging from mild and sweet to strong and biting, these onions have varied commercial and household use. It is common that sweet onions are mostly grown in California and Texas. Onions are also grown in small quantities with Georgia, New Mexico, Washington, and Arizona.
Onions have known to be entered almost all types of cuisine. It not only enhances the flavor of the food but also provides medicinal effects to the consumers. There is several variety of dishes prepared using onion. For instance, in British studded onions are famous, similarly the French created onion soups are of global taste. Onions are used in making pickles which is a spicy food used as a side dish especially in India. In the same way Onion bhaji’s are favorites of Indians. Onion also plays an important role in preparing non-vegetarian dishes. When it is added together with ginger and garlic pastes, it gives the mouthwatering taste to the dishes prepared.
There are also several other economic benefits of onion. For instance, in many cases the outermost skin of onion is thrown away. However some times these skins are used to enrich the soups with golden color. In Egypt, onions have high place in the religious rituals. Similarly, in the Greeks tradition the use red onion-skins are used to dye their Easter eggs. Several types of salads are prepared using onion which is considered to be beneficial for health as well as taste.
The nutritional benefits of onion are high. For instance, onion is a low calories substance and can suit the need of a person who is dieting. It is easy for them to take advantage from the low-calorie content of sweet raw onions. It is estimated that a 1/2-cup of cooked onions provides about 1.4 gms of proteins and the raw ones give about 0.9 gms. Onions are also known for the folic acid content. Fat content is very low in onions. Onions are also a store house for several vitamins and minerals. For instance, both raw and cooked onions have trace amounts of vitamin B, vitamin C, together with iron, zinc, potassium, magnesium, and calcium (vegparadise.com, 2008). Similarly, different varieties of onion have different micro and macro nutrients.
This paper has discussed in detail the botanical aspects such as taxonomy, morphology, anatomy, life history, historical importance, economic value, of onions. Onions have not only known for the nutritious values but also for its medicinal values. It also plays an important role in certain rituals in some of the cultures. These are found in a various recipes and preparations ranging from almost the totality of the world’s cultures. These are also easy for preservations as they can be used as fresh, frozen, canned, pickled, powdered, and dehydrated forms. Since these are grown in different climatic conditions, these are commonly available in most parts of the world. This is a plant of great significance from the prehistoric times till date.
References
agri-saaten.de, (N.D.) Botany and taxonomy of the onion. Web.
The Royal Botanic Garden in Sydney was established in 1816. The garden became Australia’s scientific institution when Charles Fraser was appointed the garden’s botanist in 1817. In 1830, the gardens were expanded when a sea wall was constructed. The gardens were then opened to the public in 1831.
The many different sections of the gardens were developed over a span of time. The Palm Groove was the first one to be added in 1851. It contains different world species of palm trees, about 140 different palm trees. A zoo was established in the garden in 1862 but only lasted to 1883. A Herb garden was established in1994, and the Oriental garden in 1997.
Many other features are found on the Garden including the tropical center, the national herbarium, a pond and a government house. All these have changed the original purpose of the garden, which was at first just the governor’s domain, then it became a scientific institution, but now it is a tourist attraction site in Australia.
Present Time
The Botanic Gardens are found adjacent to the Sydney Opera House and surrounded by the beautiful scenery of the Sydney Harbor. The gardens lie on a 30-hactare oasis in the middle of the city. Many activities go on at the park to satisfy visitors of all ages, abilities and interests that throng the city.
Visitors to the Gardens have a variety of activities to carry out from walking around the beautiful pavements to learning the culture of the Aboriginal people. Visitors also enjoy a wonderful viewing of the harbor. Strategically located is an outlet that sells souvenirs.
Lunch time tours usually run on weekdays except on holidays from March through to November. Benches are placed in strategic points for resting along the tours. The tour on the Aboriginal heritage takes off on every Friday at 2 pm and lasts for one hour. These tours are subject to a fee.
A unisex toilet is available North of Victoria Lodge; and the loop above the waterfront loop that leads to a viewing platform 100m south of the chair. The gardens are accessed by the Queen Elizabeth II gate, or from the Opera house and circular Quay. Alternatively, one can use the Victoria gate. Gardens open every day at 6.30 am and are closed at dusk.
Entry is usually free. However, entry to the Tropical palace is not free, adults pay $5.50, concession is $4.40, and family is $11.00. I noticed that it has many staff members though I was told that most of them were volunteers.
Positive and Aspects
There is no doubt that the gardens provide wonderful and relaxing walks and perhaps the finest green space in Sydney. Its location is perfect, offering people wonderful view of the harbor. They also provide a safe place for people to relax or simply enjoy a picnic. The abundant birdlife life is also very impressive.
However, the gardens are not that spectacular as typical gardens usually are with duck ponds, and well kept gardens. They are simply a pleasant park with opens lawns but not gardens as people are made to believe. This is seen from the signs that encourage visitors to walk on and enjoy the lawns.
The gardens original purpose was also diverted because of the love of money. For instance, for one to go on an aboriginal heritage tour, he has to pat with a fee, visiting the tropical center also requires a fee. It would have been better if people are allowed to enjoy everything freely.
Recommendations
As already mentioned, the Garden provides wonderful and fine green space for relaxation. It is also strategically located for those who would love to view the harbor.
The birds and the foxes are also a wonderful site that no one should miss. However, being a place of significant cultural and natural heritage, it lacks many contemporary activities such leisure, recreation, and special events that usually happen in parks and gardens like this one.
In future, facilities for these activities should be provided. The distinctive character of the park should be maintained by creating enough space for people and green space, in other words, people should not be encouraged to walk on the lawns.
I noticed that the garden hosts so many species. I believe that this could be a very good natural laboratory for scientists. I feel that there should a leaning institution located in this place to help in developing the garden.
Such a learning institution will make it possible for creation of new species through cross pollination of the already existing species. I also feel that more plant species should be introduced on this garden.
Introduction of more species will make this garden to be best in the world for both learning purposes and visits which are meant for vocational. Nevertheless, the Botanical Garden of Sydney is still attractive and even if one doesn’t like Gardens, he should try this one.