If someone were to be asked what their definition was of body modification, the almost universal answer would probably be any form of tattoos and piercings. According to Bradley University, body modification can be defined as “Dieting, body-building, tanning, ear piercing, and cosmetic surgery … and practices such as tattooing, body piercing, and scarification are becoming increasingly popular”, but the other forms are on the rise as well. Body modification has become a controversial issue in today’s society due to it becoming more mainstream amongst the American people, especially the younger generation. How did body modification make its way into America and increase its way into popularity?

The history of body modification dates to a while back with America being inspired by other countries to take on this practice. Some practices that are still used in present America include: “nose piercing associated with Hinduism, neck elongation in Thailand and Africa, henna tattooing in Southeast Asia and the Middle East, female and male circumcision”() and tattoos and body piercings from an unknown origin but have been used since the B.C. era. While many are unsure of how body modification made its way in America, one thing that is for certain is that it has had a huge impact on those who have decided to engage in it.

With the practice of Body modification receiving more popularity, the number of younger people that are getting some form of body modification has risen as time progresses. During a survey conducted by Statista in 2017, the respondents were asked at what age they got their first tattoo and/or piercing. The results concluded that 39 percent of respondents said they were 18 years of age and younger when they got their first tattoo and 71 percent of respondents said they were 18 years old and younger when they had their first piercing. Due to the rising number of young people getting a form of body modification, this raises the question of why does the younger generation feel the need to get these modifications and why so many? There are many reasons why people decide to get body modifications, but the most common reasons being: to conform to society’s body ideals of beauty, show affiliation with the membership in a group, mark social status or convey information about an individual’s personal life story and/or accomplishments. Social acceptance and self-expression are the main driving factors that push people to get some form of body modification.

While in today’s society many people are firm believers in self-expression and have the right to do whatever they please with their bodies, this in return can impact their future choices when trying to choose a career, especially those in which are of high status and works closely with the public as well as government services such as doctors, teachers, and lawyers. Body Modification has been a taboo in the workforce since the beginning of its time and unusually harms a person’s chance of acquiring a job due to the visibility of these body modifications. In return, this creates a dilemma for people because they would have to have a choice between embracing who they truly are or being able to get a decent job.

When looking for a model employee, the majority of employers are looking for an applicant that stands out in a resume based on experience not on physical appearance. Body modification can result in drastic discrimination from potential employers and society as a whole. When people discuss getting a form of body modification with their family members, they are faced with a range of remarks from their family about how its unprofessional body modifications are and how this will be a decision that they will have to deal with for the rest of their life; body modification can result in severe discrimination from potential employers and society as a whole. Some reasons that employers tend to overlook potential applicants with forms of body modification are not limited to but include the potential of the employees not being taken seriously by close-minded clients, the concern that the company/brand name/reputation could be ruined by an employee’s outlandish tattoos/piercings, and lastly, the concern that one person’s body art could be perceived as offensive or hostile to a co-worker or customer.

In a recent survey that was conducted on human resource managers and recruiters, “ 86% say that visible tattoos and body piercings on an interviewee would be viewed negatively”. While there are several laws in places that prevent discrimination in the workplace from occurring, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, gender, or national origin; unfortunately, these laws in place do not place the employer at fault for turning down an applicant based on physical appearance.

In the case of Cloutier v. Costco Wholesale Corp, former Costco employee Kimberly Cloutier was a member of the Church of Body Modification, which is an organized church that emphasizes spiritual growth through the expression of body modification. During Cloutier’s time working at Costco, she began to become more engaged in her practice through getting more tattoos and piercings.

When her store position was moved to a sales position in the food department, she was informed that her facial piercings will be a problem and that they violated Costco’s dress code policy. When Cloutier refused to remove her piercings, she was fired and Cloutier decided to sue under Title VII. However, she lost the case because the federal district court found that the Church of Body Modification was a bona fide religion and that her religion did not require a display of facial piercings at all times. “On appeal, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the district court, but further held that Costco had no duty to accommodate its sales employee’s religious beliefs by exempting her from the organization’s dress code because to do so would impose an undue hardship”.

Another court case that involved Body Modification discrimination involved a Fort Worth police chief and an officer named Michael Riggs, who worked in a bike-patrol unit and unlike other cops, was not allowed to wear short sleeves and shorts due to The chief’s concern that Riggs had extensive tattoos, highly visible on his arms and legs would affect the professional persona of the police force. Riggs complied with the chief’s orders to wear long pants and shirts while and duty and due to his compliance he suffered from heat exhaustion while on duty.

After the incident, “The police chief reassigned Riggs to a desk job and later to a plain-clothes unit. The chief then told Riggs that he could wear a police officer’s uniform, but only if the uniform included long sleeves and long pants”. Riggs took matters into his own hands and decided to bring an Equal Protection claim against his employer, arguing that the police chief treated him differently from his non-tattooed colleagues and that the chief had no right to do so.

However, similar to the Cloutier case, the court did not agree with the tattooed employee. The Texas federal court held that a law enforcement agency’s “choice of organization, dress, and equipment for law enforcement personnel is a decision entitled to the same sort of presumption of legislative validity as are state choices designed to promote other aims within the cognizance of the State’s police power”. The court had come to the decision that the police chief had legitimate, nondiscriminatory reasons for handling the Riggs situation and agreed that Riggs’s tattoos would distract from the uniform appearance that is needed for good police work and as a result for requiring the only officer in the Fort Worth Police Department who had tattoos covering his legs and arms to wear a uniform not required of other police officers.

Body Modification has always been a taboo in the workforce due to them drawing attention that employers do not desire. In both cases that were presented, the act of employees being singled out and being denied their ability to express themselves is highly prevalent in both court cases. Also, the courts took the employer’s side in both cases and did not even attempt to understand the perspective of the employee because they agreed that in these instances the appearance of the employee could be detrimental to the reputations of the company that they represented.

There are some examples out there of people with multiple forms of Body Modification with jobs that make quite a lot of money. In the health care professional field, most employee handbooks have a designated section regarding tattoos and piercings. In very rare cases, certain hospital positions are only available to people who have no tattoos. In general, however, most medical facilities apply minor restrictions that prohibit excessive and/or offensive tattoos. Usually, they would want you to cover open tattoos with clothing.

Dr. Sarah Gray is a primary example of people that are prospering in the workforce with body modification. Dr. Gray was a former Inked Magazine Australia/ New Zealand cover model and was in school to become a doctor while modeling; her hard work eventually paid off in the long run because she graduated from medical school at the University of Adelaide in 2018.

In an interview with Ink Magazine, Dr. Sarah Gray stated that “The medical world, on the other hand, has been fabulous to me. I’ve worked with some of the most senior physicians and surgeons within the state and they have welcomed me with open arms through my clinical training. I have always received excellent feedback assessments from them and was told on a number of occasions that I was one of the best students they had seen in years. I’m very conscious of looking different, but ultimately I know I’m a hard worker. And if you work hard and put your mind to something, nothing will get in your way. When you’re memorable for looking different, you just have to make sure it’s for the right reasons”.

When it comes to Gray’s patients that she helps treat in the hospital reactions to her highly tattooed body, the patients are very receptive and accepting of her body art. Being a heavily tattooed female doctor comes with its own set of unique challenges and experiences, however, Gray is confident that she will continue to be judged based on her performance rather than her body art.

Another controversial topic nowadays is the rise in teachers or people who work in a school having visible tattoos. For many years, teachers have decided not to get visible tattoos or tattoos period because it was thought they were setting a bad example for students. This is due to the fact that tattoos are mostly associated with prison and violent gangs, however, this is not the case. If anything, tattoos started out as a ritual that had many purposes for many reasons. They are mostly used as a way to express themselves, as a part of a cultural ritual or Nowadays people get tattoos that mean something to them, and most of the time they’re pretty harmless.

In a scientific article by David Wiseman, he conducted a study in which 128 undergraduates’ perceptions of tattoos on a model described as a college instructor was assessed. They viewed one of four photographs of a tattooed or nontattooed female model. Students rated her on nine teaching-related characteristics. Analyses indicated that the presence of tattoos was associated with some positive changes in ratings: students’ motivation, being imaginative about assignments, and how likely students were to recommend her as an instructor.

According to Jeff Flowers, who is a member of the Joplin board, in an Associated Press story ‘There’s a stigma associated with (tattoos) and it’s not a good stigma,’. He interviewed Doug Flowers, St. Joseph School District director of human resources, who stated that small flowers and other nicely done tattoos are not an issue for the local district and that there are more important matters to focus on. ‘In a district where 54 percent of our students qualify for free and reduced lunch, we have much bigger issues at hand than whether or not a teacher had part of a tattoo showing,’ he said. ‘I’ve never in three years of being in this position or in five years of being principal had a call or concern from a parent about a teacher having a tattoo’.

Mr. Doug Flowers said the St. Joseph School District does enforce a dress code upon their staff that basically requires all staff to dress professionally and in a manner that doesn’t interfere with their teaching. So, unless a teacher or other school employee wears something that is inappropriate, it will not be an issue. He also stated that having a tattoo will not affect someone wanting to be hired by the district either and further reiterated that “it’s difficult enough to find quality teachers to fill the positions we have and to eliminate possibly a very good teacher because they have a tattoo is something I don’t see as an issue big enough to not hire the best and brightest teachers out there.

Looking at both of these instances brings light to the old saying to “not judge a book by its cover”. In both situations, they emphasized the idea that having body modification does not inhibit the person’s ability to do an exemplary job in the career field of their choosing. Many people tend to not trust professionals who have any type of Body Modification due to the old traditional way of affiliating body modification with ruthless or mischievous behavior. However, with the growing number of people getting a form of body modification, this viewpoint is seen to be declining over the years with the acceptance of body modifications growing widespread. Following a company’s dress code policy is required protocol in the workplace, but telling employees they must take special measures, such as covering up tattoos with heavy makeup or clothing regardless of the weather, seems excessive and unfair.

Outside appearance should not be a detrimental factor of whether or not someone is hired for a job; the color of one’s hair or the ink on their skin is irrelevant to how qualified they are for an occupation. How is judging one’s suitability for a job position based on the stereotypes surrounding their “outlandish” appearance any different from judging someone based on their ethnicity? Prejudice toward people with body modifications can be found outside of the workplace as well. Many people seem to think that because a part of someone’s appearance may not be seen as “normal,” such as having a vibrant, artificial hair color, they are entitled to remark or state their criticism of it.

Tattoos can especially hold significance in one’s culture, religion, and views, or could be used to commemorate a loved one or mark special occasions. Tattoos hold meaning to those who acquire them, whether it be a reminder for oneself to live every day to their best potential or simply loving an image to the extent of wanting to see it on their body.

An appearance is a form of self-expression, whether it be the way someone dresses or having a sleeve of tattoos. Why should one form of self-expression be treated differently than the other and limit one’s ability to acquire a job? Just as it is unfair to jump to conclusions about someone based on their ethnicity, it is unfair to judge people based on the way they have chosen to look.

Body modification can be found in many forms and places such as dieting, piercings, and tattoos. Different types of body modification have also been around for an extremely long time and can be found in many religions. Each religion has its own view of body modification with some extremely against or extremely for body modification, with some even leaning towards the middle of the issue. The religious views of body modification in Buddhism focus on purpose and mindset. For example, Buddhism focuses on mindful eating rather than eating for luxury. The religious views of body modification in Islam are based on what the Qu’ran says. The religious views on body modification in Buddhism and Islam are mostly different because of the difference between each religion’s views on dieting, tattoos, and skin modifications.

Dieting in Buddhism and Islam are mostly different because of the difference of views within the religions. According to this research paper written by Taylor Ralph, Buddhist literature says many things about dieting, mainly the mindset of eating. “The literature describes these ways as mainly consisting of the following: mindfulness approaches, the emphasis on a ‘middle way,’ attitudes…”. Buddhist religious views on dieting are based on the mindset of eating. Buddhists focus on eating because they are hungry, not because they want to eat. They also do not indulge in foods that are not necessary to the nutrition they need. Basically, Buddhism focuses on awareness of one’s body. Buddhists avoid foods and drinks that dim that awareness. The same article by Ralph states, “This awareness is compromised under the influence of drugs, caffeine, and alcohol…”. Anything that can alter the mind is strictly forbidden in Buddhism. Buddhists also try to buy the best food for cooking they possibly can and try to use “…local and organic ingredients…”. The whole focus is to feed the body not too much or too little and to feed the body healthy ingredients that are positive energy for the body.

Islam, on the other hand, has very different religious views on dieting. Islam bases their views on dieting on what the Qu’ran says. This article written by Mohammad Hossain states that the Qu’ran says that people must keep their bodies healthy and eat foods that are good for them. “It is very much required to keep the physical body healthy so that the soul and spirit may also remain healthy in order to serve both of our material and spiritual attainment.” (Hossain). In order for people who are Islamic to keep their spiritual connection, they must keep their bodies healthy and stay physically healthy as well. The article goes on to say that the Qu’ran also bans people from eating three main things. It says that the “…true devotee is to purify himself from dead animals, blood, and the flesh of swine…”. Dead animals, blood, and pigs are absolutely forbidden in the Qu’ran. That is different from Buddhism where Buddhists avoid foods that alter one’s mind.

Buddhist and Islamic views on dieting are very different because of what each religion emphasizes as important when eating. Buddhism emphasizes the importance of the mindset of eating whereas Islam bases what they eat on their holy text, the Qu’ran. Both of these religions have things that they avoid eating but, those things are different. Buddhists avoid foods that alter the mind and people who practice Islam avoid food that the Qu’ran says is forbidden to ingest. Both of these religion’s views on dieting are extremely different, making their views on body modification mostly different.

Buddhism and Islam also have very different views about tattooing. Buddhism has a more relaxed approach to tattoos. People who practice Buddhism “…use them extensively for protection and devotion…”. Tattoos can signify power or protection from bad energy in Buddhism.

The body, as defined by Kosut is ‘the intersection between self and society’ (Kosut 32). The body is not only a way to portray biological and cultural identity, but it is also a way to convey personal and social messages. Since the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2000 BC), people have participated in body modifications for several various reasons (Perrin 1). Tattoos are possibly the oldest and most common form of permanent body modification (Kosut 32.) A survey conducted by Henwood, Gill & McLean showed that one third of the 140 participants had a tattoo or one part of their body pierced, and a significant bigger proportion “professed an interest in or desire to modify their body in one of these ways” (Gil 8).

For this essay, I will be focusing on reasons behind the gaining popularity of body modifications due to dissatisfaction that males have about their body, as well as the relationship it has with personal issues; Such as how it affects men’s perception of masculinity and their own body image.

Origins of Body modification

Body modifications were prevalent in meeting standards of beauty. As early as in the Song Dynasty (960-1270) period –reflecting cultural values and beliefs– ancient body modifications such as foot binding was in practice by women as small feet were considered attractive (Readworks 1). It was also suggested that foot binding made women more socially acceptable as they had ‘higher chances of marrying into a good family and moving up in society'(Readworks 1). Thus it is prevalent that body modifications was a way to improve social status and reflected the ideal standard of beauty in different time periods.

Body modifications such as neck binding and tattoos distinguished people from different cultural backgrounds. However, with time, the cultural context that was linked has been changed. For example, Neck binding was a practice originated from the 11th century and In the past, it was worn as a sign of wealth but now, women of the Padaung tribe wear it to continue the tradition (Theurer 1). Tattoos similarly have gone through a change, no longer limited to youth culture or criminal communities but ‘extends through the social scale as tattoos are increasingly used to produce an aesthetic enhancement of the body.” (Turner 4) This shows that the reasons for body modifications can be changed over time.

Rise in body modifications

There are various reasons that attribute to the rise in body modifications. It has been hypothesized that due to the media’s portrayal of a super-male, it has lead to many males in the current society to view their bodies as imperfect. The influx of strong built protagonist in superhero movies such as Superman in Man of Steel (2013), Justice League (2017) and Captain America in his trilogy (2011, 2014 and 2016), advertising and figurines of popular action figures amongst boys such as G.I joe promotes the concept of the super-male (Baghurst 88). The rise in reality television makeover shows in 2002 with ABC’s Extreme Makeover, FX’s (fictional) Nip/Tuck (2004) and MTV’s I Want a Famous Face (2014) have also influenced the overall consumption of cosmetic surgeries (Wegenstein 126).

The super male body archetype was first introduced in the 1980s when Christopher Reeve who played Superman in 1983 was pressured by the producers to put on muscles. The previous Superman actor such as Kirk Alyn in the first Superman in 1948 and Adam West as the first Batman in 1966 had an absence of any abdominal or arm muscles below their full-body stocking and elastic suits. It has been suggested that due to VHS aerobics and jogging craze in the 1980s that sparked the producers of Superman to force Christopher Reeves to either put on a muscle suit underneath his costume or work out to get a more muscular body. (The Atlantic) From then on, the trend of the superhero body grew and it almost seems like with each film, the main actors are getting more buff and muscular. The current superheroes such as Henry Cavill and Ben Affleck which are the current Superman and Batman actors offer massive shoulders, v-shaped torsos and rippling abs. Advertising also promotes the concept of the super male, with fit and buff bodies in every advertising medium like advertisement posters, magazines and movie posters. It can seem hard for males to not compare themselves to repeated exposure of buff bodies (Psycom). These expectations to look muscular and strong may have manifested from a young age. Children’s toys, such as GI Joe, groom little boys to believe that that is what we all should look like. Research has found that physical measurements made from G.I joe and Superman action figurine had much more defined muscles compared to the same figure made 25 years ago (Pope 66).

Reality TV involves documentary-style shows where ordinary people are followed in their daily lives, particularly the growing subgenre of body makeover shows like Channel 4’s Ten years younger (2004) and MTV’s I Want a Famous Face (2014) pushing the idea of the ‘ wish fulfillment ‘ technique (Wegenstein 114). It pushes the idea of how anyone, people like you and me can go on a television show, wish for something and get it. The selling point of reality television makeover shows is that the commodification of an act like going under the knife is linked with the consumption of the images and a magical transformation narrative that the media economy makes us believe. The more we see “it”, the more we see ourselves in it; With “It” referring to shows. (Wegenstein 114). Reality television holds a contract with the audience: “it could be me. It could be me who received this makeover, if I receive this makeover, I will look better and my life will be better “ (Wegenstein 115). These factors have possibly lead to the rise in cosmetic surgery ever since the 2000s as the rate of cosmetic surgery keeps going up.

It is also interesting to note that in The Cosmetic Gaze, Wegenstein also talks about ‘media bodies’ and ‘real bodies’. Wegenstein brings up that jones suggests that ‘we read cosmetic surgery reality television as a platform to present these “media bodies” to the viewer as “real bodies” that come about via screen births:’. This brings about the point where the virtual (what is presented on screen) starts to influence the real and those who consume media, especially reality television makeover shows has the mindset of ‘media body”; Consumers will then start to compare them to their own ‘real’ body. It also communicates the message that cosmetic surgery is a legitimate way to reduce body image concerns (Wegenstein 125).

Thus it can be clearly seen that the media has made an impact and shifted the reasons of how body modifications has changed to one’s needs and wants compared to the past that was for meeting standards of beauty, improving social status and signifying the different cultural backgrounds. In a way, the reasons for these modifications have changed and also retain its original meanings. Nowadays, men can also get body modifications due to their own reasonings and nothing else, their wants to fit into their different standards, becoming their own ideal type. With factors such as the super male archetype advertised through movies, advertisement, toys as well as reality television shows fuels the desire for men to get their desired body shapes through drastic means.

How it has affected men to perceive masculinity and body image

Growing dissatisfaction amongst males and their bodies have raised and mental health professionals have acknowledged two new physiological disorders named muscle dysmorphia and body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). In short, muscle dysmorphia is reverse anorexia in which almost exclusively affects men and refers to the preoccupation with being insufficiently large and muscular. Body dysmorphic disorder is defined as the preoccupation with an imagined or slight defect in appearance that results in emotional suffering and disruption in daily functioning (Thompson 26). For example, excessive grooming or mirror checking. Persons with BDD often pursue cosmetic treatments. For these two physiological disorders, a distorted body image leads them to constantly think and feel anxiety about their appearance. These individuals are often tormented by their own thoughts and those consuming thoughts result in disruption of their daily lives (Thompson 125). Behaviours associated with muscle dysmorphia is excessive workouts. However for some, either because excessive exercise takes a toll on their body or they prefer not to exercise, they engage in cosmetic surgeries to achieve their ideal body (Thompson 129). Calculating men with muscle dysmorphia in the general population is difficult as studies have found that they rarely seek treatment (The Guardian).

It has been established in many instances that contemporary Western culture has failed to understand that in terms of body image, people have major concerns about their bodies. It is suggested that Males are expected to be masculine and masculinity is associated with muscular, strong, powerful and athletic (Drummond 2). Overtime, this idea of masculinity has been forced upon them through the narratives we have discussed earlier such as the super-male archetype, media, toys and even reality television shows to make them look “manlier”. In an interview from a report by Dr Murray Drummond in 2015, it has been noted that interviewees desired looking more muscular in order to positively impact their masculine identity. Some interviewees have said that it gives them a sense of empowerment, self confidence and believe in the notion of bigger is always better. It is also seen that these men have a strong perception that developing and maintaining fatness displayed a lack of control and thus is not a masculine trait. These information was gathered from various males ranging from from adolescent boys to elite sportsmen, eating disordered men and gay men. Another survey by Men’s Health magazine which has 1,000 participants showed that a total of 75% percent of men were not happy with their body shape. Most wished their bodies were more muscular. (Grogan 88)

The Ideal type

The ideal type of men has shown changes across the years specifically from 1930s to 2010s. Being overweight was a sign of wealth in the late 19th century, as among the people of that time, it showed that one was wealthy enough to feast. However, by the 1930s, excess weight started to get associated with lower classes. Hollywood actors were expected to be fairly fit and look good on camera. This started a shift in a new ideal. Later in the 1960s, a counter-cultural wave hit and skinny bodies with long hair represented the ideal. Not long after in the 1980s, hyper-masculinity came into play and started to gain popularity but quickly died down as hyper-masculinity went out of style and the everyman came in. The everyman is characterized by a medium built man with prominent arm and chest muscles as well as pectoral muscles (Business Insider). Ever since, the media has promoted a muscular male body through advertisements, television and specific muscle-related magazines for several decades. Furthermore, the message of the muscular as ideal has increased in recent years. Unfortunately, many individuals who read magazines promoting the muscular ideal feel inferior and also feel that their bodies do not match those they see depicted in the magazines and do not feel attractive (Thompson 23). Advertisements found in print media expose readers to the muscular ideal to sell products as well. Like print media, television and movies also promote the muscular ideal. It is obvious that the representation of Men in the media focuses on big, bulky and muscular males. These unrealistic body types has led most men to hope to achieve muscle bulk. The increase in body dissatisfaction seen in men and women has developed in a complex cultural context involving a growing emphasis on physical beauty and youthful appearance (Thompson 24).

Types of body modifications

These various factors might have contributed to the surge in body modifications in the past decade. Current popular trends in our century includes cosmetic surgery, implants and excessive gymming.

Surveys carried out since the 1990s consistently showed that more people are being recommended to cosmetic procedures than before (Grogan 103). Based on the statistics provided in 2018 by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS), there is an increase of 35% for males who went through Gynecomastia (Breast reduction) compared to 2008. There was also an increase in 86% in males who went through calf augmentation and a 34% increase in buttock lift. ASPS’s statistics also show that patients for cosmetic surgery procedures have gotten increasingly younger with each year (Wegenstein 113). A disturbing fact was that in 2018, 6,330 out of 24,753 males who did breast reduction were aged 13-19 years old, followed by 8,639 were 20-29 years old. While plastic surgery does not have a ‘right’ age, it is commonly agreed that people should wait until mid-20s. Dr Nora Nugent, a Plastic surgeon in Royal Tunbridge Wells, England said that until the age of 18, and even in the early 20s, parts of the body are still developing. When teenagers begin to change things too early surgically, they may cause more harm to their body (Dazed digital). As clearly seen, a significant proportion of men opt to surgical fixation to alter their bodies’ appearances. Based on the statistics provided by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons through the years and several interviews recorded by Sarah Grogan in Body image, the main areas that produce dissatisfaction are the mid torso, biceps, shoulders, chest and general muscle tone. The incidence of cosmetic surgery procedures in men has increased since the 1990s and is being maintained until now. For these men, body image is so important that the risks are worth taking and the costs are worth paying for. (Grogan 104)

Implants were originally designed for persons with congenital or deformities. However now pectoral, calf and gluteal implants are personally tailored for cosmetic purposes. According to a report by American Society of Plastic Surgeons, an increasingly common operation is abs sculpting, where surgeons reshape muscles and skin to create almost magically six packs where once none existed. Penile augmentation procedures are becoming increasingly popular, and there is also high demand for anal tightening. Just for 2015 – 2018 alone, 1,033 men did buttock implants and 3,762 men did pectoral implants. It is also interesting to note at Doctor DuPéré of Visage Clinic in Toronto referenced that patients come in with images from social media on a daily basis to show how they want their face or body to appear. Although he said that this is more common in women, the number of male patients doing this is also growing (Vice). He also shares that he is currently performing roughly 25 to 40 pectoral pair implant procedures per year and seeing about 50 to 75 patients per year with male calf implants (Vice). This proves the men are most likely influenced by the media and especially social media that they aspire to be like someone they see online so much that they would want to change their bodies to look as good as theirs.

Research shows that Chris Hemsworth Workout is the top search suggestion when searching for Chris Hemsworth (Salon). Actors of superhero films has popularized the ‘Superhero workout’ back in 2011. Researchers In Denmark has found out that the benefit of exercising might be reversed if people push their bodies too hard (Salon). Not only that, it could also cause a decrease in life expectancy due to the high rate of injuries as most professionals have trainers, while the average person doesn’t. The contemporary standard for superheroes also appears much more muscular compared to how the original Superman and Batman were depicted. This reflects the cultural shift of the ideal male body (Michaelis 1). Not only are body modifications linked with social status or cultural backgrounds like in the past, but are now a normalised form to define ourselves. This change has impacted both men and women, including concerns about health, self-esteem, body image and eating disorders (Gil 4).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the number of individuals seeking body modification especially cosmetic procedures, has increased drastically over the past decade. With the influence of the super male archetype, print and digital media such as advertisements and television shows, it has been implied that men gradually grew more conscious about their bodies. The muscular ideal is constantly pushed on by the media in advertisements, print media like magazines and movies (Thompson 24). This pressure to look good is suggested to be linked to the rise of muscle dysmorphia and body dysmorphic disorder. Those who have these disorders typically engage in excessive workouts and cosmetic surgery to change their appearance as they are unsatisfied with how they look. Thus, this leads to the rise in body modifications (Thompson 129). Across several books and readers, it is suggested that more research is needed regarding the psychological aspects regarding BDD and muscle dysmorphia as well as exploration of treatment protocols for muscle dysmorphia. Like mentioned above, it is also hard to gauge how many men are affected by muscle dysmorphia as they do not seek treatment for it (The Guardian). Not only are excessive workouts and cosmetic surgery on the rise, implants are also another form of body modification that is becoming more popular. The number of muscle implants such as bicep and pectoral implants have increased based on the statistics given by American society of plastic surgeons. Thus it is apparent the muscular body type has become an important issue for our society as well as for psychologists and research. There is a need to address this situation now before men’s body image concerns become a serious public health issue.

This paper will argue that tattoos in modern society are a form of art used to represent identity and self-expression or to symbolize personal experiences and growth. I will begin with a review of relevant literature discussing the history of tattoos, with an emphasis on how the art form was used and the significance of them in ancient times. I will discuss how tattoos were used in a cultural context and the negative perceptions of tattoos that followed as a result of these historical and cultural uses of tattoos. I will look at how the art form has evolved from its primitive uses and the reasoning behind why people get tattooed in modern society. Following that, an analysis of the use and significance of tattoos acquired by women specifically, concentrating on two primary areas where tattoos are used as a means of self-expression, empowerment, and therapeutic healing.

Introduction

Tattooing has a long and extensive history. Tattoos are thought to have been around for over five thousand years and were used by almost every human culture. In many cultures, tattoos can signify a rite of passage, symbolize dedication and membership in a tribe, or be seen as a symbol of prestige and beauty. That said, some individuals still have negative stereotypes about tattoos and tattooed individuals, culturally associating them with criminals, convicts, low-class status, and sexual promiscuity. I will begin by examining the progression of tattoos from antiquity to the present, focusing on the diverse cultures’ uses and motivations for tattooing.

I will discuss how tattoos came to have such a negative connotation and how they continue to persist in modern society. Modern-day uses of tattoos have evolved into symbolic markers of identity and expression, to symbolize personal experiences, or overcome insecurities and trauma. To support this argument I will refer to Stanislava Pinchuk’s exhibition ‘Our bodies, our voices, our marks,’ which examines tattooing as a form of self-expression, identity, culture, and art form. Additionally, I will look at Alan Powdrills study on the increasing number of tattoos in modern society and the motivations for acquiring them.

My final chapter will focus on women and tattoos, with an emphasis on how tattoos may be used to reclaim their bodies from victimization and objectification, as well as to empower and reinvent their identities. Discussing how tattoos can help people heal after a traumatic experience such as sexual assault, and the impact tattoos can have on people who have survived breast cancer resulting in a mastectomy. Referring to Jeniffer Kempton Survivors Ink initiative, which involves interviewing people and covering tattoos they had obtained after being sex trafficked. In addition, I will review Eshcler et al.’s study on the impact tattoos can have on cancer patients who have endured trauma as a result of their battle with cancer, to further support my argument. Tattooing has been practiced in practically every human culture throughout history, as stated by anthropological artifacts and historical writings. In 1991, what was considered a modern corpse encased in ice following a mountaineering accident, was discovered by two German hikers in the Alps. The mummified body was salvaged, and what they uncovered was quite the opposite of modern. The mummy, Otzi, underwent an examination and on his skin, sixty-one tattoos were found, which had been incredibly preserved by the glacial climate for 5300 years(Gannon, 2019). Markings such as lines and crosses were tattooed on his torso, making this the world’s oldest known evidence of tattooing. Many of his tattoos were on the joints of his knees, ankles, and spine (South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology, 2016).

Traditional acupuncture points, notably those used to alleviate back and stomach discomfort, feature markings similar to those found on Otzi’s body. Furthermore, forensic examinations revealed that Otzi had arthritis in these areas, and indications of whipworm eggs in his stomach, known to cause gastrointestinal pain (Barton, 2016). Acupuncture or ceremonial healing rituals, and being part of a religious belief system have all been proposed as theories to explain Otzi’s tattoos. As a result, Otzi’s tattoos had therapeutic and sacred significance(Krutak and Deter-Wolf, 2018).

Before the discovery of Otzi, the oldest conclusive evidence of tattoos came from several Egyptian female mummies dating from around 4000 years ago when the great pyramids were built( Museum, 2018). Tattoos seemed to be an exclusively female practice in ancient Egypt, and as a result, male excavators often disregarded female mummies with tattoos, assuming the women were of ‘dubious status,’ described as dancing girls in certain cases(Graves-Brown, 2022).

Despite this, the mummies were laid to rest in Deir el-Bihari, an area associated with royals and noble burials. As revealed by her burial inscriptions, one of the women described as possibly a royal concubine, was a high-status priestess named Amunet(Watson, 2016).

It has long been considered that the tattoos seen on the mummies were signs of prostitutes or were intended to protect women against sexually transmitted diseases(Graves-Brown, 2022).

Although archaeologist Anne Austin discovered several tattoos, including hieroglyphs, and power symbols used in ancient Egyptian writing, which led experts to believe she was a high-status woman, probably a sorceress( Museum, 2018). A tattoo of an eye on one women’s neck was depicted, an ancient Egyptian emblem for protection, additionally sporting a tattoo of a seated baboon on each side of her neck. These findings challenged the notion that tattoos were a protective talisman associated with fertility and motherhood(A. Austin et C. Gobeil,2017).

Tattooing may have been around far earlier and more prevalent than the mummies would have us believe based on indirect archaeological evidence such as statuettes with etched designs which are depicted with needles and clay discs. There was evidence of medical tattooing and scarification that did not appear to be decorative or aesthetic and was hypothesized that they acted as a treatment for pelvic peritonitis, Daniel Fouquet discovered this in 1898 (Angel, 2012). Tattoos were once used as a method of treatment for illnesses or even as a kind of branding for slaves and criminals before evolving into a form of expression, identity, and artwork. Influenced by colonialism and beliefs of European supremacy, people with tattoos were usually associated with deviance, and the tattoos themselves were considered trashy. During this time, tattoos were mostly employed to further discriminate against people from ‘Newly found’ nations (Hawn, 2021).

Tattoos were frequently literal emblems on stigmas, the word ‘sigma,’ was even used to describe tattoos in Latin. The word stigmatize was used to characterize a marked slave, using phrases such as stigmatic (tattooed), raptor (written upon), and inscription (inscribed). For a long time tattoos have been used as a means to identify people and, unfortunately, for branding. Many slaves who attempted to flee had the word fugitive or FUG, tattooed across their faces(Tyler, 2020). The names of the crime were frequently tattooed across their face, with slogans such as ‘thief’, or ‘stop me, I’m a runaway’ inscribed on their flesh. Throughout the Roman Empire periods, Penal tattooing was intentionally visible, they were used to punish the wearer for offenses, to humiliate and shame them, and to identify individuals if they were a slave. This lasted until AD787 when emperor Constantine declared all tattoos as ‘pagan,’ banning the use of tattoos(Silver, 2020). However, the most well-known case of involuntary tattooing originates from the Holocaust. The prisoners at the Auschwitz concentration camp were tattooed with serial numbers, used to identify them in the event of escape or death. The total amount of serial numbers assigned to convicts is estimated to be 400,000(Raughty, 2016). The contemporary perception of tattoos as symbolic markers of humiliation and deviance emerged from these early usages of tattoos. Later, missionaries imposed Christian values that despise the tattooing practice, calling it ‘unholy’ to disfigure or alter the human body, ‘gods likeness,’ by permanently marking the body(Belden, 2020).

Tattooing was abolished in Europe and other Christian nations, other civilizations, such as Asia, believed that tattoos were mostly worn by criminals and therefore avoided the practice.

Western civilization was re-introduced to tattooing, in 1770, during Captain James Cook’s second voyage to Tahiti, where he came across individuals with tattooed bodies and faces. Traditional moko tattoos were obtained by the indigenous Maori people and were used to indicate rank, cultural heritage, skill, pain endurance, or that an individual had attained marriageable age (Fennel and Ross, 2020). If a person with a moko facial tattoo died, their head would be preserved and used as either a trophy of war, to negotiate peace treaties, or to commemorate a loved one’s life. The trafficking of Maori tattooed heads covered in moko tattoos is what began the negative European influence on the Maori population(Royal Museums Greenwich, 2022).

White linen was traded for the head of a teenage boy, by Captain James cooks botanist, Joseph Banks. It was then taken back as a souvenir trophy, and a grim fascination erupted. There was a high demand for tattooed heads driven by, which caused a war between the different tribes. This demand caused tribes to steal each other’s heads, with some even murdering and decapitating their slaves and tattooing their heads once deceased to sell them. When the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840, these mokomokai exchanges came to an end. The American Museum of Natural History houses thirty severed, tattooed heads of men from the Maori tribe(Serena, 2020).

Additionally, during this time many Maori natives were kidnapped or misled into returning to Europe with these explorers. They were frequently shown before the royal court or displayed as ‘curiosities’ to be gawked at, especially if they had tattoos covering their bodies. Many of these are sad stories of white European exploitation, and many of them end in death as a result of illnesses that their immune systems couldn’t handle (Fennel and Ross, 2020). Joely, a slave from the Miangas islands, was purchased by William Damper, also a member of Captain James cooks voyage. The ‘painted prince,’ Jeoly, was put on display across Europe. Dampier characterized his tattoos as a huge diversity of lines, flourishes, checkered work, etc. that covered the vast majority of his body(Mckay and Eldridge, 2020). The methods of tattooing are done in a variety of ways, but all of them entail puncturing the skin to insert a pigment into it where the ink will remain trapped while the body heals the wound( Oxford Advanced Dictionary, 2022). Before the invention of modern-day tattoo machines, many cultures created tattooing instruments by making ‘needles’ out of shell or bone and making repetitive puncture dots densely packed to create lines and patterns, a practice known as stick and poke. Other cultures used different methods, making a series of slashes in the skin first and would then apply the ink directly to the wound. Ancient Egyptians used needles made of bronze, that varied in size to create both basic and intricate designs (Roe, 2005).

As they did not have ink, the needles would be dipped in an alternative such as ash, charcoal, or soot that had previously been combined with breast milk or oil (Lineberry, 2007). Candlenut is traditionally used to make Samoan tattoo ink, which is left to burn on a fire. Soot is then collected from the burning nut and blended with sugar and water(The National Park of American Samoa, 2019).

Tattooing had a ferocious reputation among men from Austronesian civilizations who participated in headhunting. After each successful kill and return of their enemy’s head, that a warrior had gained in combat, the Dayak people were granted a tattoo. They were used to indicate a tribesman’s skill, expertise in an activity, and success; the more heads they collected, the higher their rank; and unless a man retrieved an enemy’s head, he was forbidden to marry(Heaphy, 2021).

Tattoos were also extensively employed among tribe members to initiate rites of passage into adulthood and successful hunting.

The picture, placement, and quantity of tattoos an individual would acquire all have their own meanings and shouldn’t be done carelessly. Facial tattoos were a sign of prestige, skills, and beauty among the Austronesian women, and were frequently used to symbolize that the girl had attained marriageable age or was ready to carry a child(Belden, 2020).

Native Americans, such as the Yurok, Yuma, and Cree, used tattooing to signify their tribal affiliation. Each Native American tribe has its own set of cultural peculiarities regarding tattoos; the Cree males got tattoos covering them from head to toe, yet their wives were not allowed to wear more than three or four lines on their faces especially if they were married (Guzman, 2013). The Yurok had more women tattooed than men, and their age was depicted through lines tattooed on their chin roughly every five years(DeMello, 2014).

The Yuma tribe used tattoos to signify status and community. Additionally, tattoos decorated warriors in an attempt to make them appear more menacing. They also believed that anyone who did not have tattoos would be refused admission to the afterlife (Belden, 2020).

In many of these indigenous societies, tattoos were performed by experts who were initiated or apprenticed into their position and had to learn tattoo rituals to perform. Occasionally, the practice of tattooing was reserved for shamans, healers, and priestesses in the community(Krutak, 2014).

Tattooing is thought to have originated in Japan during the Palaeolithic period. Originally, tattooing was done for spiritual or decorative purposes in Japan. The indigenous Ainu and Ryuku tribes of Japan practiced tattooing for similar reasons. Tattooing was part of the religion of the Ainu people and was commonly practiced mostly by women(Krutak, 2013). The women could only acquire facial tattoos which were said to be passed down from the gods and would enhance their beauty. While most importantly protecting them from evil spirits. The eye-catching lip tattoos are first obtained at a young age and each year a tattoo is added until the girls had matured. Signifying that they were ready to marry, and after marriage, the women would tattoo their arms instead(The Smiling Tattoos of the Ainu Women, 2020).

Tattooing among the Ryukyu people was also mainly practiced by women, except rather than facial tattoos, the women would tattoo their hands to signify the transition from child to adult. Secondly, tattoos were used to indicate social class, with women from the upper class adorning themselves in intricate designs that began at their hands traveling up their arms. Because the ornate tattoos were considered to ward off evil, ensure safety, bring happiness, and function as signifiers of feminine authority, they were valued higher than wealth, their partners, or even life itself(Kanasa, 2021). When the Japanese government overthrew the Ryuku, their traditional tattooing practice was outlawed. The tattoos became a symbol of shame after being mocked and ostracised by their fellow Japanese workers after having to emigrate from their homeland. During the Edo Period, Japan’s government expanded its reach to different parts of the county, prohibiting tattooing in various areas as a way to subjugate and incorporate the local cultures into their own. Tattooing at this point was used as a way to mark those who had committed crimes, this commenced the association between tattoos and criminals(Oskow, 2021).

Unfortunately, as those cultures disappear, their tattoo culture fades with them. Some people still use traditional tattooing methods, but it’s anticipated that in the not-too-distant future, the only proof of its presence will be in museums or history books. As time passed, the perceptions of tattoos changed, with tattoos even being banned to suppress minority cultures. Japan has prohibited people with tattoos from entering certain places as it thought their art may be insulting for other people to see(Meier, 2020).

Tattoos themselves, and by extension tattooed people, have been stigmatized and discriminated against for millennia, with the ink on their skin being culturally connected with criminality and deviance. Tattoos are often regarded as an important element of gang and mafia culture. Specific images and slogans are used to show allegiance and commitment to specific groups, similar to prison tattoos (TSU, 2022). The Almighty Latin Kings Nation, a Hispanic gang situated in Chicago, has the letters ‘ALKN’ tattooed on their bodies.

The five-pointed crown is their most renowned symbol; the number five represents the five beliefs of the group; obedience, sacrifice, honor, love, and righteousness (Kleyman, 2020).

Tattoos have been associated with marginalized subcultures and social outcast groups such as bikers and convicts since the 1960s and 1970s, which has contributed to the preconceptions of people with tattoos. Inmates in many prisons today continue to tattoo themselves using whatever materials they can get their hands on in jail. Tattoos remain prohibited in China, this was influenced greatly by the association between criminals and tattoos

In 2005, thirty percent of millennials claimed they have a tattoo, a figure that has undoubtedly increased as tattoo removal technology improves(Perraudin, 2018). The use of tattoos has evolved from its primitive uses and is becoming more universally accepted. The increase in demand for tattoos can be attributed to public figures such as celebrities and athletes publicly displaying their tattoos, making the possession of visible tattoos more commonly accepted (Luby, 2018). Another factor reliable for the increase in the number of tattoos is the tattoo artist community’s activism and advocacy. Tattoo techniques were phased out in favor of new ones, with greater training and knowledge of health and safety practices put in place such as sterilization and new inks being implemented to reduce the danger of infection(Kosut M,2015).

As a result, Body art has become more mainstream, with many people in the tattooing industry correlating that the shift in social acceptance of tattoos has influenced the change of motivation behind getting a tattoo (Kayyali, 2021). Tattooing has evolved into a meaningful and intimate practice, a symbolic marker that can give you a sense of control and even alleviate mental pain, by permanently marking one’s body.

Alan Powdrill, a photographer, adds credibility to this argument. Powdrill took photographs and conducted interviews with forty people. He intended to document the growing popularity of tattoos in modern society, and the reason for having them (Stewart, 2018).

His portraits explored what these tattoos reveal about a person’s identity, and what occurs when you conceal the tattoos that are a crucial part of that person’s identity. There were common recurring themes of motivations such as self-expression, art, traumatic healing, and symbolic markers of personal experiences. Below are some of Alan’s photographs, accompanied by a quote from each person regarding their tattooed body(Barnes, 2015). The expression ‘the body as a canvas for art,’ is frequently used by many tattooed individuals, to describe how they embellish their bodies with tattoos as if they were wearing jewelry or apparel. While this can be regarded as ‘art for the sake of art,’ many people have profound emotional connections to their tattoos(Mandy, 2020, and Bares, 2015)

A tattoo on the body can be regarded as a work of art because of its capacity to narrate stories with imagery and create visually appealing designs. While different people define art differently, Michaud believes that something is art if it can elicit emotion, feeling, or expression(Michaud,2012).

Expressionist art emphasizes emotions, implying that if a narrative is accompanied by or brought to life by a creative piece, it is art(Park Gallery, 2019). When the body is used as a canvas, the individual who gets tattooed is seen as a significant part of the motivation behind getting the tattoo, and as part of the aesthetic experience(Michaud,2012). People can acquire tattoos for the same reasons they get jewelry or wear specific clothing, they like the way they look and find them aesthetically pleasing. They select a tattoo artist based on their personal preference for style, techniques, and design. People pay a lot of money and travel far to have their tattoos done by a specific tattoo artist, they may even have a collection of their art or a collection of the works of other artists on their bodies.

Some even go to the extent to sell their skin to art dealers, a piece purchased by Steiner sold for a hundred and thirty thousand pounds, and once the person with the tattoo has passed away, they would have the skin removed and displayed in the personal art collection of the buyer (Low, 2017).

The body serves as the canvas; yet, tattoos don’t fit into the fine art world’s business model of selling and purchasing and are only considered to be valuable to the person who wears them. Although, the once subversive act is now recognized as an art form. Many galleries have held exhibitions with live performance tattooing, and have had an increasing number of tattoo works of art from ancient and modern times displayed(Nelendorf, 2014).

The Musee du Quai Brandly is a museum in the Quai district of Paris. By studying tattooing as an artistic medium, Brandly produced an exhibition called ‘Taters, statues, or ‘Tattooist, tattooed,’ that helps support this argument. Silicone models featuring many intricate designs of both new and old artists, alongside preserved tattooed skin, are put on display. Even if they don’t have a specific meaning, tattoos can be wonderful pieces of art(Madri, 2014).

Identity and self-expression

What is the story that our bodies tell? The immigration museum in Victoria, Australia, poses this question in their ‘our bodies, our voices, our marks,’ exhibition. Tattooing is examined as a form of self-expression, identity, culture, and art form in this exhibition. Tattoos are pieces of art that can symbolize a person’s identity, individuality, and culture, as illustrated by the exhibition in Victoria(Quinn, 2019).

The exhibition’s curator, Stanislava Pinchuk, invited attendees to contemplate what it means to document one’s own body. Viewers of the exhibitions should be able to observe how a journey through one’s life can be conveyed through their tattooed body. Pinchuk’s exhibition, ‘Documenting the Body,’ focuses on local perspectives on tattoos while addressing problems such as immigration, heritage, and identity. She was also interested in learning more about how our bodies influence how we perceive others and ourselves(Kaviani, 2019, Quinn, 2019).

The artwork in Pinchuk’s exhibition has been promoted through a variety of different media. The Museum of Victoria has provided videos and pictures of some of the tattoos displayed in the exhibition. Along with a few voiceovers explaining why those tattoos are such an important part of their identity. One of the speakers says ‘Transforming the body is an act of dreaming and belonging.’

Annie, for example, another voice participant in the exhibition, argues that she was not encouraged to express herself visually when she was younger, her mother encouraged her to keep her head down and blend in. Although, tattoos are now a way for her to represent the most important aspects of her identity. Her tattoos serve as a visual depiction of her cultural heritage, a crane tattooed on her leg surrounded by river reeds is displayed. She continues to explain that her tattoo is based on a photograph that her mother took when she immigrated from China to Australia. ‘Mum was a little bit more accepting of that tattoo because I explained it was about her,’ Annie subsequently claimed in an interview(Our Bodies, Our Voices, Our Marks, 2019). Below are some of the artworks displayed in this exhibition.

The young artist’s work is incredible, it’s amazing how they integrate indigenous, traditional iconography while additionally breaking gender barriers to create a stunning piece of art. The nudity taboo is also challenged by the presence of a nude male figure. Pinchuk also makes a point of exhibiting the work of those who are marginalized in Australian culture and society(Kaviani, 2019).

Tattooing was once considered a taboo issue in Japan. Although, it has subsequently received international acclaim for its artistic merits and historical significance.

In ‘Walking the Walls,’ Angela Tiatia confronts the Samoan taboo of female nudity by displaying her sacred maul thigh tattoos as a means of challenging gender norms. In terms of questioning the meanings and stigmas associated with tattoos, the exhibition is pioneering. It demonstrates how the art of tattooing has been employed by numerous civilizations for many years and shows how effective tattoos can be in representing identity (Australian art reviews, 2019, Quinn, 2019).

Tattoos have been perceived as a powerful form of expression outside of the exhibition.

Thousands of people throughout the world have semicolon tattoos to help raise awareness of suicide prevention and mental health issues(Grisham, 2021). The majority of tattoos were found to have a personal significance experience that influenced the tattoo design and choice behind getting it.

Professor Susan Cadell, an expert in post-traumatic development, compiled qualitative data on how tattoos have been used in the grieving process(Cadell, 2021). She went on to explain that one of the couples she interviewed had given their son a difficult time after learning he had gotten a tattoo even after expressing their dislike for them. Unfortunately, their son passed away in a car accident, and a couple of weeks later, the father chose to honor his son by getting a tattoo of the same design that his son had. After that, the parents began a collection of tattoos dedicated to their son all over their bodies, as well as revealing tattoos on five other relatives who had also decided to memorialize him with a tattoo.

After losing one of her children, another interview participant had a design of one of her children’s names tattooed on her. When questioned why she only had one of her children’s names, she explained that her children who are alive are always with her, and unfortunately, her son is not so this was her way of keeping him close to her at all times, helping her feel as though he is still there with her, carrying the memory of him forever. Further promoting how tattoos can help with growth and healing after a traumatic event, and how tattoos can hold very personal and meaningful connotations(Cadell, 2021).

The stigma associated with tattoos may be fading. The tattoo ban on Air New Zealand personnel has even been lifted, acknowledging that tattoos are occasionally used by New Zealanders of Maori ancestry to display their history and heritage (Ward, 2019). They even had the first news anchor with traditional tattoos this year. A news anchor would never have been seen with a tattoo on his or her face. Orsini Kaipara, a young woman from New Zealand, made history when she became the first news anchor to sport a traditional Maori tattoo. In our current culture, this embrace of ethnic diversity seems especially important. Tattooing is a way for people from all cultures to convey their personal experiences and identities(Ravindran, 2021).

However, unfavorable stereotypes will always persist, with many companies in numerous nations demanding that tattoos be covered up. Many employers dismiss applications based on the fact that the applicant has tattoos (Daniel, 2021). Other nations, such as Iran, have a particularly harsh stance towards tattoo artists, with tattoo artists frequently being arrested(Van der Zee, 2019). Tattoos are certainly stigmatized in today’s culture, but exhibitions such as ‘our bodies, our voices, our markings’ help to promote awareness of the cultural significance and beauty of tattoos.

Tattooing has become a part of mainstream society, a method to visually display and define one’s identity. The permanency of the tattoos is important because they allow you to forever carry significant memories of growth, or loved ones, and also allow people to express and define their identity. Studies show that in the United States, women are becoming tattooed in far greater numbers than ever before, with fifty-nine percent of women having tattoos in comparison to men, having only forty-one percent, under the age of fifty-five(Thompson 2015). However, this does not necessarily imply that the stigma associated with tattoos and the people who have them has shifted. Research done by Nicolas Gueguen found that women with tattoos are perceived to be more sexually promiscuous, less attractive, or less honest ( Gu©guen, 2013). The study looked at the effects on men’s perceptions and behavior toward tattooed women. The results concluded that significantly more men approached a woman if she had visible tattoos. Following interviews with the men, it became apparent that these findings were not due to the women being more attractive, but rather because the men believed tattooed women were more inclined to be intimate on the first date, with 440 men contesting this (Swami and Farnham, 2007). In a separate experiment, a woman was photographed with temporary tattoos covering both arms and subsequently without any visible tattoos. When she was shown with tattoos to the public, she was described as appearing more promiscuous, less intelligent, and dishonest than when she had no visible tattoos. Revealing that some individuals ascribe unjustified attributes to tattooed women (Gueguen 2013) Guegen concluded; ‘women get tattooed as a way to enhance their sexual appeal to men and to attract more suitors. In the same vein, men are drawn to women who show more sexual receptivity; in this case, in the form of a tattoo.’ (Gueguen 2013, EIC, 2013)

I disagree with this statement, women get tattoos to celebrate and highlight their own beauty, not to make themselves more appealing to men. For some women, negotiating this issue within our beauty culture is a primary element of becoming a heavily tattooed woman in a gender-normative society. Women must justify their tattoo decisions on a daily basis if they choose to get multiple, large, visible, or ugly tattoos (Hinde and Mirza, 2016).

This is true for women who are considered as heavily tattooed, as opposed to women who have small and few tattoos, as simply having a tattoo is not contravening gender norms. Tattoos are considered feminine if they are small, cute, or concealed, and if they are placed on a sexualized region of the body, such as a small flower or butterfly on the lower back or breast (Nadvornick, 2016). However, when women’s tattoos become polar of petite and cute such as getting ‘sleeves’ or more masculine-presenting tattoos, they face societal repercussions and prejudice for their tattoos, which the public finds shocking on the female body due to this transgression of gender norms(Thompson, 2015).

Even when women seek power and control over their own bodies, the meaning attached to their tattoos is ‘culturally written over’ by society(Nadvornick, 2016). Albert Parry recounts a rape case in the late 1920s Boston in which the prosecutor requested the case be dismissed after learning that the young woman he was defending had a tattoo. The judge and jury released the two men who sexually assaulted her because the tattoo of a butterfly on her leg was ‘misleading’. Like many other women with Rape cases, the defendant herself was put on trial, and her tattoo was seen as evidence of her guilt, overriding whatever meaning she had hoped to assert through it(Albert Parry 1933).

Tattoos are obtained for a variety of reasons that can vary by gender, and women are currently becoming heavily tattooed in much larger numbers than ever before (Thompson 2015). There is limited information about why women get tattooed, how it can help them to define and express themselves, and how women who choose to become heavily tattooed view themselves.

My next discussion will center on women’s motivations for getting tattooed. I will cover two main areas where tattoos are employed as a means of empowerment and self-expression, and healing after enduring a traumatic experience. I will explore each area in detail, concentrating on therapeutic rehabilitation and the means to reclaim one’s body.

Tattoos as a form of empowerment and self-expression

Plastic surgery, cosmetics, and other methods of body modification have been used to subject women to unattainable beauty standards. Tattoos have overturned this standard of modification by empowering women to choose how they want their bodies to be presented, allowing them to step away from the expectations of how a woman should look. (Gladwell, 2019).

Tattoos are part of an individual’s identity and may have meaningful connotations for them. Mun and colleagues looked into the meaning behind women’s tattoos and how they affected their self-esteem. The data suggests that having a tattoo positively impacted how people felt about themselves(Mun, Janigo, Johnson, 2012). India Clutton’s research on how women view themselves before and after getting tattooed, adds credibility to these findings. In her study, many interviewees described themselves as empty, plain, or bare, among other descriptors. One participant Olive claimed: ‘I feel so plain and unmodified, I don’t feel like that’s me in the picture. I just look bare, I don’t like how my arms look at all'(Clutton, 2016).

Many other participants had similar sentiments, including that tattooing a specific area on their body that they were self-conscious about made them feel more secure and comfortable in their own skin(Mun, Janigo, Johnson, 2012). These findings demonstrate the emotional path they have taken to get where they are today; nearly all of the participants expressed loathing their non-tattooed skin, claiming their tattoos had made them who they are. Nonetheless, these women reclaimed their body image by embracing the expressiveness of tattoos to create a sense of self(Clutton, 2016).

Getting tattooed can have a beneficial effect on women’s sense of empowerment and identity development. Baltzerjaray and Rodriguez discovered that getting a tattoo helped some women to redefine beauty on their own terms, based on their personal preferences. A depiction of who we firmly believe that we are.

Introduction:

In the article “Body Ritual among the Nacirema,” anthropologist Horace Miner presents a satirical and thought-provoking analysis of the peculiar rituals and beliefs of a fictional tribe called the Nacirema. Although the Nacirema are fictional, Miner cleverly uses them as a mirror to reflect on the strange and often absurd rituals found in our own society. This essay will provide a summary of Miner’s article, highlighting its main points and shedding light on the underlying message it conveys.

Summary

Miner begins by describing the rituals and practices of the Nacirema, presenting them as bizarre and exotic. The rituals involve elaborate and obsessive body treatments, such as brushing teeth with a magical substance called “holy water” and visiting “holy-mouth men” who perform painful dental rituals. The Nacirema also engage in daily ablutions involving the use of mysterious charms and potions. These rituals, though described in a fantastical manner, bear striking resemblance to the everyday activities of modern Western society.

Miner then delves into the unique shrine-like structures found in every Nacirema household, known as “latipso.” These latipso serve as temples where individuals engage in private rituals aimed at enhancing their physical appearance and maintaining youthfulness. The rituals involve using various instruments and substances to alter and manipulate the body, all in pursuit of an idealized beauty standard. The Nacirema exhibit an extreme preoccupation with their bodies and invest significant time, effort, and resources into their physical appearance.

Furthermore, Miner highlights the Nacirema’s obsession with magic and superstition, evident in their belief in the power of medicine men and witch doctors. These revered figures, known as “holy-mouth men” and “medicine men,” perform rituals that supposedly heal and restore the body. The Nacirema place blind faith in the effectiveness of these rituals, even though they often involve pain and discomfort. Miner uses this observation to critique our own society’s reliance on medical professionals and our tendency to trust blindly in their practices.

The article concludes with a powerful reflection on the cultural relativism inherent in anthropological studies. Miner reveals that the Nacirema are, in fact, Americans, and their rituals are a satirical critique of our own practices. By reversing the lens and presenting our own customs as strange and irrational, Miner challenges readers to question their own cultural biases and consider the arbitrary nature of many societal norms.

Conclusion

In “Body Ritual among the Nacirema,” Horace Miner employs satire and cultural critique to shed light on the rituals and practices of a fictional tribe called the Nacirema. Through a detailed and humorous description of their peculiar customs, Miner cleverly exposes the absurdity of our own society’s rituals and beliefs. By employing the technique of cultural relativism, Miner prompts readers to reflect on their own cultural biases and question the validity and purpose of the rituals they engage in.

This essay has provided a summary of Miner’s article, outlining the key points and central message conveyed. By examining the Nacirema’s rituals and practices, readers are encouraged to critically evaluate their own cultural practices and consider the arbitrary nature of many societal norms. Miner’s article serves as a valuable reminder of the importance of cultural relativism and the need to approach the study of different cultures with an open mind.

Introduction:

In his thought-provoking essay, “Body Rituals among the Nacirema,” anthropologist Horace Miner presents a satirical and critical examination of the American culture through the lens of an outsider. By intentionally distorting the familiar, Miner challenges readers to question their own cultural assumptions and practices. This essay provides a summary of Miner’s work, highlighting the main ideas and insights conveyed in “Body Rituals among the Nacirema.”

Summary:

“Body Rituals among the Nacirema” begins by introducing the Nacirema, a seemingly exotic and mysterious tribe living in North America. However, as the essay progresses, it becomes apparent that the Nacirema is, in fact, an anagram for “American.” Miner employs this clever wordplay to encourage readers to distance themselves from their cultural biases and examine their own rituals and practices.

Miner describes the peculiar rituals and customs of the Nacirema, which initially appear bizarre and incomprehensible. He describes the daily rituals of cleansing and purification, which involve elaborate and obsessive practices such as brushing teeth, using dental floss, and taking regular baths. These seemingly mundane activities are magnified through the lens of cultural relativism, challenging readers to consider the subjectivity of their own practices.

The essay also delves into the Nacirema’s preoccupation with physical appearance and the rituals associated with achieving beauty. Miner highlights the obsession with bodily perfection, including visits to holy-mouth men (dentists) and medicine men (doctors). These rituals reflect the extreme emphasis placed on physical attractiveness and the desire to conform to societal standards of beauty.

Furthermore, Miner explores the role of the shrine-like environment within Nacirema homes, particularly the “latipso,” which is a place of healing and purification. He describes the various ceremonies and treatments conducted within these spaces, where individuals seek relief from ailments and undergo transformative experiences. The latipso rituals serve as a metaphor for the American healthcare system and the cultural significance placed on seeking medical intervention.

Through his satirical approach, Miner challenges readers to reflect on their own cultural practices and norms. By presenting familiar rituals as strange and exotic, he unveils the ethnocentric biases often present in anthropological studies. In doing so, Miner encourages readers to examine their own cultural biases and to question the arbitrary nature of their customs.

Conclusion:

“Body Rituals among the Nacirema” by Horace Miner serves as a thought-provoking critique of American culture. Through the use of satirical and exaggerated descriptions of everyday rituals and practices, Miner challenges readers to question their own cultural assumptions and biases. The essay highlights the universal tendency to view one’s own customs as normal while perceiving the practices of others as strange or irrational. By provoking readers to consider the subjectivity of cultural practices, Miner encourages a deeper understanding of the complexity and diversity of human behavior. Ultimately, “Body Rituals among the Nacirema” prompts us to critically examine our own cultural perspectives and to appreciate the rich tapestry of traditions and customs that shape human societies.