Category: Body Image

Primarily, in this essay, I will be looking at the concept of childhood, body image, and contemporary society, and how they are projected in today’s society. Michel Foucault’s ideas of biopower will help us understand the connections between today’s society and childhood body image. I will be focusing on how Foucault’s perception of biopower is relevant and how it can help us understand the pressure of society on body image by girls and boys. I will then discuss my research proposal which is targeted to raise awareness of the pressure of society on girls and boys today and the issues of body image in society. ‘Are there gender differences in the perception of body image?’ is the question that I wish to answer by using Foucault’s theories to add context and understanding.

Dissatisfaction with one’s body image is a major factor in today’s society, with many suffering from low self-esteem, poor mental health, and destructive potential towards themselves. A report reflected on this, ‘A twelve-year-old girl dreads going into school each day, refusing to put her hand up in class so she doesn’t draw attention to how she looks,’ and ‘A teenage boy risking liver and kidney damage abusing steroids to boost his pecs and abs.’ (YMCA, Reflections on body image, 2012). This shows how individualized power can be abused from such a young age, being vulnerable and easily influenced and demonstrating the complexity of the dynamic between power and us. Foucault’s idea of biopower can be used to understand that societal standards have caused unachievable and unrealistic goals for audiences causing people to feel dissatisfied, which could cause a domino effect within society, especially in school when one person starts dieting and using the gym, or jogging, others may believe that they are unhealthy and need to lose weight, therefore, they become trapped and start to copy, which could be very harmful to that individual.

Power is very dispersed and multidirectional, and Foucault’s main idea of biopower was that knowledge is a set of concepts and ideas that do things, change people’s behavior, and change structures within society. Teenagers are constantly faced with the ‘perfect’ version of themselves. As Foucault emphasizes it’s a power advantage of social control and becomes the ability to act on something. Teenagers become so consumed by this idea, that they are willing to be swept up in these social norms and the knowledge that they now know from social media especially since it changes the way they think about the subject, and in time it becomes reality, that this is the way to live chasing a body that has been delivered through photoshop, and internally becomes a mask of delusion that what they are doing is anything but healthy. As (Dreyfus and Rainbow 1983:189 p.325) suggested, teenagers become obsessed and fixed on this idea of needing the perfect body which results in them being subjectively controlled, by the media, especially as many platforms such as ‘Instagram’ where influencers are posing with what looks like the ‘perfect’ body, which in turn influences teenagers to follow the same pursuit, as they idolize these celebrities and influencers and essentially want to become them.

The University of California study found that ‘up to 80% of nine-year-old girls studied organized their own lives around dieting, jogging daily, and counting calories obsessively.’ (Bordo 1989. p 26). (Foucault 1977. p.23) referred that power and knowledge imply one another, therefore the more knowledge gathered the greater the power possessed to act, knowledge changes the way we think and alters reality and for teenagers, it changes what they do, which is trying to achieve unrealistic goals of themselves as other people’s actions can act on other people’s actions, and we internalize responsibility on how we look. Social media platforms are one of the worst sources such as ‘Facebook’ and ‘TikTok’ advertising products such as ‘weight loss pills’, and ‘weight loss teas’ use ‘protein shakes’, etc which are very easy to get hold of, and the wrong amount of these could cause explicit harm to teenagers. There are also several health apps on phones promoting workouts, and several different diets, many claiming to be the best at weight loss, and this again is a trap for societal norms, it creates a false reality that teenagers grasp onto without any knowledge and it becomes a whirlwind of misinformation and almost has a panopticon effect as many women especially reflect on the way they should behave under the surveillance and control of society, to reach specific goals. As Crawford 1984: 70. p. 26), that the quality of having too much or too little fat on the body is a victim of self-denial as they listen to their mind over their body ignoring the fact that they might be unintentionally starving themselves of important nutrients that they need to be able to function, to achieve their perception of ‘normality’ they change everything about themselves to ‘fit in’.

Foucault’s theories of control and power within society have helped understand when an individual isn’t able to fit into the norms of society it can have crushing effects on mental health. ‘38% of men say they would give up a year of their life for the perfect body.’ (YMCA, Reflections on body image, 2012). The hysteria around body image has revealed damaging and destructive behavior within teenagers because influences are leading them to unjustified poor mental states because they are so consumed with society. (Bordo 1989:21 p. 29). Teenagers become more and more possessive over the idea, and they feel ashamed and disappointed if they can’t reach their goals because in their mind they know what they should be doing to lose weight. (Conrad 1994:392 p. 26). Falling outside societal norms and standards can deem individuals to be deviant and categorized as being unhealthy and overweight on purpose, which is ridiculous and is a damaging factor within itself, therefore, there is no wonder teenagers feel obliged to be within society’s expectations. (Crawford 1984:71 p. 29). On the other hand, some have become so obsessed with their weight, watching how many calories they eat, etc, it has caused them to have physical problems such as anorexia. This awful illness is constraining and their quality of life has changed dramatically, their mental and physical health has been compromised. Although at first, the individual wouldn’t recognize it and would see it as a factor of empowerment as they are losing weight and are coherent with societal demands, it’s all an illusion masking the real damage that could and has been made to some people, (Bordo 1989:15. p. 29) Foucault suggests people are fixed on perfection and satisfaction, and within our culture as human beings, we are made subjects, which is a form of power to easily control society. Society is fixed on discipline and is aimed to keep society’s behavior under control. Within society, forces are placed upon women to act and adapt to a certain way to please males with their social definition of a woman.

Foucault’s theory of biopower is very convincing when helping to understand knowledge and power within society.Rolee of society plays a substantial part in who we become and a notion of a large group in society who all believe in the same thing, which has become a necessity in their reality and has formed a societal standard for other people, helps explain how body image is interpreted within boys and girls. Having the complex dynamic between power and ourselves, and the knowledge we use in a practical way to achieve our goals is placed upon teenagers by themselves and by society and we harvest that responsibility to create a ‘perfect’ image of ourselves. This shifts the use of power and we almost become like robots. They get caught in meaning and feelings that are not their own and are spoken by the society’s language because that’s all we know and that is what we want to believe to achieve standards and not to fall out of society. Although Foucault’s biopower theory is a good way of understanding how society is controlled, I believe that it lacks theories on other aspects such as biology. We as humans have other aspects that affect us daily such as work, stress, illness, environment that we are brought up in, and most importantly we do make choices for ourselves. Foucault’s theory is rather singular whereas we live in a very multidirectional way.

When considering the research question two questions were instantly focused on what we wanted to find out, it had a strong foundation that was clear and ‘doable’. The questions were ‘Are there gender differences in perceptions of body image?’ and ‘What factors influence perceptions of body image, does social media have an effect on body image?’. We decided on these questions for the research proposal as they have a strong foundation to be able to provide us with effective and purposeful data. We will be focusing on females and males between 14 – 18 years old, as their social media will be heightened with advertisements, pictures, and so on, of weight loss products and the image of a ‘perfect’ body. We will ask questions that will make it easy for us to gather the different perceptions between males and females about their body image if there are any. We will also ask what they think is the biggest influence on body image in today’s society and if they think that it has an impact on today’s society.

Our design frame is comparative research as we are comparing two genders on their perceptions of body image. We have chosen a stratified sample to ensure we have 50% males and 50% females as there will be a hundred participants in the research. A stratified sample is also free from bias and therefore produces a reliable and representative sample. We also decided on a stratified sample to ensure a clear representation of both genders and their representation of body image. It will also be interesting to compare the younger age group of the school with the eldest as we can see not only how gender affects body image but age as well. We will ensure our sample by asking the school to randomly pick names from their register, therefore, there will be no bias. The school that we will ask to participate is Ysgol Syr Hugh Owen, a Welsh secondary school, where Welsh is the first language for many in the school, there the data collection would be mainly in Welsh, but we also know that some people prefer to write in English or understand English better, therefore when we would send the letter and the email we would ask what language they would prefer to answer in. This will make the participant feel more comfortable that their needs are being met.

As a method of research, we have decided upon primary data collection. The reason for this is because the targeted issues can be addressed better and it will be more reliable for our research proposal, than if we were to use secondary data. As our methods of research, we have decided to gather our data by questionnaires. Using questionnaires as our method of research will be effective. There are low-cost rates with using questionnaires and we can gather the information efficiently as using questionnaires is easily distributed through a large population. It will be easier to keep confidentiality between students because the questionnaire will be completely anonymous, and their answers will not be distributed anywhere else only where necessary for the research proposal. Body image can be a sensitive subject, especially with individuals between 14 – and 18, and some may be struggling with body image therefore, it may put the participant at ease knowing they can answer in private and no one will know what they answered. On the other hand, one disadvantage may be dishonest answers as they may feel embarrassed or want to make themselves look better, it is always a possibility. We will conduct these questionnaires in the school making an allotted time for each age group male and female to answer the questionnaire, it will be conducted on computers where the data can be directly sent back to us efficiently, where confidentiality will be maintained. We will also be in the room to observe to make sure that it is taken seriously and that the data will be to the best standard, but we won’t intervene while they are answering the questionnaire as we don’t want to oppose any influences on some students as that wouldn’t be fair, and could compromise the whole research project.

When considering our research question, some ethical issues arise that become barriers. Here are some ethical issues discussed and how to overcome these barriers. When considering the stratified random sampling, we need the consent of the school and their parents to ensure the consent of the participants, especially the participants under 16 as they aren’t legal to give informed consent without an adult, we would do this by contacting the school first to get their consent of a sample for our research, and then individually contact parents with a letter and an email asking for consent for their children to participate, 2 weeks beforehand to ensure they’ve had plenty of time to consent to it we would also send a text and an email a couple of days beforehand, as a reminder. The questionnaire holds an ethical issue of lack of confidentiality, we would protect the students’ identity by making the questionnaires completely anonymous. This can also protect the participants from any danger such as bullying. It will be made clear to the participants that they can withdraw from the research at any time, and they don’t feel obliged to take part. Comparing girls and boys in research will reduce ethical gender bias.

In this essay, I have discussed how body image within males and females is perceived in today’s society. I have delved deep into how society has created standards and societal norms that have become an image of an unrealistic illusion of society, which is consumed by power. Society has become a vulnerable and easily influenced audience, where people are shamed for being outside societal norms. We are being made to believe that we need to look like influencers and celebrities and that is the only way to look, and teenagers are more susceptible to believe that has caused mental health problems alongside physical problems. ‘34% of adolescent boys and 49% of girls have been on a diet to change their body shape or to lose weight’ (YMCA, Reflections on body image, 2012). I have used Foucault’s theories to help understand the surrounding ideas of biopower, knowledge, and power within society and power is an influence on social control where we are disciplined and surveillance about what we are doing, this is why societal norms are so confined and the need to fit in, it’s like living through a magnifying glass. It forces people into unhealthy and self-destructive habits, which ironically makes them unhealthy rather than healthy. Teenagers are constantly surrounded by a ‘better’ version of themselves because it’s always broadcasted on social media, the expectation and goals they need to reach to have perfection and satisfaction, where in reality it doesn’t exist, but as they are so consumed by it becomes reality to them, and that is the consequences of power and knowledge within society.

To conclude, I believe that biopower is a strong scientific theory that helps us understand the relationship between society, societal norms, and standards. Within today’s contemporary society, it is hard to shy away from societal influences and judgment and Foucault’s way of exercising the role of power and knowledge within society is very powerful how reality within society might be an illusion and people are only looking for satisfaction or approval within society. We produce society, but society has a big influence on us and produces us as certain types of people, which is based on how we live our lives constantly influenced by external factors that we don’t consider because it has become our reality, our way of thinking, and how we survive within a competitive society.

The issue I was trying to display was in today’s Western society the use of advertisement and photoshop is destroying many women’s self-image of themselves. It is important for women and all the people around them to learn to treat and love their bodies with respect. To understand there is no need to compare themselves to unattainable standards set by the media. The women who are most impacted by this issue are mainly young and impressionable teens, young girls, and women entering high school or college. All of which may or may not be insecure about how they look or portray themselves. I believe many women would be in agreement with changing the media’s outlook on beauty. To not have such unachievable and unhealthy advertisements being displayed to the public eye.

I believe these young women are doing and enacting change to this media and advertising crisis rapidly. By speaking back to those companies who make and profit off these horrible advertisements and products they display. Doing so not only online, but addressing to the companies themselves through protests. Overall, I can inquire if every woman has a moderate understanding of this topic. Each woman has faced some sort of insecurity based on her self-image at some point in her life. This leads to the main purpose of this essay: to spread the message of how unacceptable these big companies’ ideas of beauty are, and how they must be changed. To achieve that goal, the essay will have to focus on those exact insecurities that are being deleted in these advertisements. Also, it touches on how seriously these businesses’ photographs are affecting young women all over the world not just in the Western half.

As today’s society progresses, we begin to show ourselves more and more online. Developing “friends” whom we may have never met in real life before. Following strangers all for the purpose of seeing their online persona. Which leads to more and more young women putting themselves out there in this virtual world. Repeatedly, these young women see models and photoshopped images on these platforms. Later they shut off their phones because they felt awful that they didn’t look like those photos. Media and, especially, social media are rapidly deteriorating women’s self-image of and their mental health. I will be addressing how human society is using advertising, social media, and self-doubt to slowly make women’s self-image decay. To begin, I want to focus on what is body image, and how does it affect our daily lives? “The concept of body image is based on fundamental epistemological assumptions about the nature of the mind, the body, the individual, and society” (Blood 2). A woman’s own body image is the basis for her self-worth and confidence, which is a part of her day-to-day life. She is always seeing herself and no matter how confident or self-critical she is that is her body.

Every woman has at some point compared herself to someone else, or in some way wanted to change herself. This concept has been going on for decades. From old-school magazines to billboard images to television advertisements, to sponsored posts by celebrities and social media influencers on Instagram and Facebook. Every day women in civilization have grown accustomed to seeing themselves as imperfect and flawed. Constantly, being told those imperfections are what make you unattractive. If a girl is invariably being told she is overweight, underweight, or her features aren’t shaped properly, her body image will diminish and so will her pride. Most of the time those insults are subliminal. Through our minds subconsciously absorbing imagery. Eventually, it set standards for itself. With advertisements and media use Photoshop in all their images, unless specifically say they do not.

All models and their images are photoshopped, to clear every last imperfection. From their skin tone to the size and height of different body parts to the amount of body hair on their skin. Once, those images are finished being processed the models are usually advertising some sort of product. From diet pills and teas that help women lose weight, to waist trainers, to thousands of different skincare products and makeup. The human brain subconsciously sees these groups of women who look perfect, and then our eyes move to the product. Our brains automatically connect the dots thinking this product, will help us achieve this look. This is known as the thin-ideal media (Farrar). That is why eighty-four percent of women have negative views of their bodies (Runfola). Society is trying to have all women fit into a mold. This mold isn’t for women to feel loved and beautiful, but to make a profit. Yet, society is doing much more than just taking many women’s money with all these pills, diets, and products. These giant corporations are leading women to eating disorders. Through normalizing all these absurd goals women set for themselves, based on what they see across all platforms. One in five women develop eating disorders in an attempt to make themselves more beautiful through dieting, vomiting, or extreme exercising.

Western standards of beauty are now affecting many parts of the world, not just the western hemisphere (Low). When people imagine eating disorders they usually think of a frail white girl. That notion of thinking is extremely wrong. Anyone can have an eating disorder. Not only can anyone have them, but it’s a rising number of African and Asian people. African women are stereotyped to always fit the perfect hourglass shape. Starting with large breasts, to a tiny waist, big hips, and a large but toned rear end. Gayle Brooks, an African-American psychologist specializing in eating disorders, said: “ Because medical experts believed that minorities were ‘immune’ to developing an eating disorder, not much research is done to help minorities” (Iverson). While Asian-Americans are still very much influenced by Asian culture, from their families to the celebrities they watch and listen to. Especially, if the artist is from South Korea.

In South Korea, Korean pop culture shows that only extremely thin people are seen as beautiful, and can become successful. Leading to young and impressionable women going through with whatever their celebrity is doing. Leading to the paths of eating disorders. Since most K-pop, celebrities aren’t allowed to eat much food and are forced to exercise way above their calorie intake. They begin to develop these disorders, along with mental disorders as well. All due to their managers not allowing them to stray from those paths in order to keep them beautiful in the media’s eyes. Whether you are a common person or a celebrity, anyone can develop an eating disorder like anorexia, or bulimia. Overall, these big companies who control the media should stop forcing women into these cookie-cutter shapes for their own gain. In fact who gives these companies the right to dictate what is and isn’t beautiful? We as a human population should stand up for our women. Tell them it’s alright to not be perfectly thin or curvy. As long as she feels healthy and isn’t harming herself with how her body is. She should be able to have the right to say what shape she wants her body to be. Along with we all need to learn to love ourselves, and understand people can look different. We shouldn’t restrict ourselves on what we eat, wear, or do because it isn’t normal for our body type. Nobody can dictate what is best for you except yourself. It is your body, you must treat it like a castle. Tend to it, keep it running, and most importantly love and appreciate it because it is your home. Body images are a huge part of women and their lives. Even if it is as simple as picking out an outfit for the day, or going out to eat. Women shouldn’t have to worry about whether or not she is attractive enough. Every person deserves a positive mental and physical image of themselves, and nobody telling them they are not good enough.

Bibliography

1. Blood, Sylvia K. Body Work the Social Construction of Women’s Body Image. 1st ed., Routledge, 2005.
2. Iverson, Anne. ‘Eating Disorders Are a Growing Problem Among African American Women.’ Eating Disorders, edited by Roman Espejo, Greenhaven Press, 2012. Opposing Viewpoints. Opposing Viewpoints in Context, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/EJ3010128236/OVIC?u=mnkhophi&sid=OVIC&xid=ecc517d7. Accessed 18 Feb. 2019. Originally published as ‘Mind Over Matter: Race, Body Image, and Eating Disorders,’ www.womensstudies.ku.edu/senior_seminar/anne_iverson_paper.doc, 10 May 2005.
3. Farrar, Tabitha. “Body Image of Women.” Effects on Physical and Mental Health, 2014, www.mirror-mirror.org/body-image-of-women.htm.
4. Low, Elaine. ‘Eating Disorders Are a Growing Problem Among Asian American Women.’ Eating Disorders, edited by Roman Espejo, Greenhaven Press, 2012. Opposing Viewpoints. Opposing Viewpoints in Context, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/EJ3010128237/OVIC?u=mnkhophi&sid=OVIC&xid=715c1452. Accessed 18 Feb. 2019. Originally published as ‘Diagnosing the Asian American Eating Disorder,’ MochiMag.com, 14 Jan. 2010.www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/media%E2%80%99s-dangerous-influence-body-image.
5. Runfola, Cristin D et al. “Body dissatisfaction in women across the lifespan: results of the UNC-SELF and Gender and Body Image (GABI) studies” European eating disorders review: the journal of the Eating Disorders Association vol. 21,1 (2012): 52-9.

This paper will discuss the different body types of woman and the way in which this is presented in the fashion industry. Throughout this paper both ends of the spectrum of the female form will be investigated, from the slender body to female obesity, with consideration to factors such as the male gaze, and how this influences how we approach the question of skinny or fat. The main goal of this paper is to investigate the ever-changing ideal body of women and what effects this has on women’s physical and mental health. As the fashion industry undergoes a major representation revolution, its important to question if inclusivity is something that should be supported by the main narrative. The aim of this paper is to focus on various factors and present a compelling argument of both sides, to conclude whether the fashion industry should become more inclusive of varying body types.

Throughout the course of history, the ideal body shape for women has changed massively. During the time of the Italian Renaissance, between 1400-1700 it was an age that focused on celebrating the presence of curves on women. However, at the same time women had no political rights and were seen as objects to be owned by their fathers and husbands. Their physique was a representation of their social status, because of this, someone with a bigger bust would indicate they had more wealth to their name. Being heavier also meant fertility, while someone with a thinner body had to work all day for food. However, it’s important to mention how accurate the paintings are when it comes to the ideal woman. It been said, that they are more of a reflection of the times values and ideas than realistic representation at the time (Zhao, 2017). An interesting contrast with how these views had completely changed by the 1920’s.

It was the time of the straight figure, the beginning of the time when woman started to hide their curves. To archive the perfect silhouette for the flapper dress, women often used tight strips of cloth around their chest area for the boyish, minimal looks. Only three decades later the hourglass figure, with wide hips, a skinny waist but large breasts were the new ideal, mirroring the figures of Marylin Monroe and Elizabeth Taylor. Women would do anything for this idolized image even if it meant taking weight gaining pills. The “heroin chic” were introduced in the 90’s – it was a time of super skinny, angular bone structure. It was the time when the pear-shaped body were never used in a positive context and the thought of “skinny girls are the pretty girls” was a statement that largely started to get romanticized. As we reach modern times, its worth mentioning how quickly the ideal body shape changes. In the wake of the new century there was a new wave of agenda to support the idea of a strong, independent woman who is equally sexually liberated. The question of body positivity wasn’t even a topic in the early 2000’s. From the slim and sleek looks of the 2000’s we almost come full circle, where woman are once again celebrated for their curves, while also putting an emphasis on the need for maintaining perfect abs and little body fat.

Susan Bordo’s Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body publication explores body shape and its effects on social class, while looking at the moralistic and emotional toll it has on the individual. It also includes a discussion on anorexia and bulimia and how exactly the current body image ideal has negative effects towards its customers. To quote Kim Chernin, the “tyranny of slenderness” has begun. On one end of the scale is the slim slender body, an ideal that is largely accepted as the norm in most Western cultures (Gemma and Witcomb 2013). As mentioned previously, the question of social class was always involved within the question of body image. While in the past it was the opposite, higher class were indicated by the heavier body it has taken a full turn compared to today’s society expectation. However, from the late nineteenth century there was a turn in the view of wealth and body image, and the slender body was now being viewed as the ideal for status-seeking middle class and the ones who were eager to be a showcased on their husband’s arm as a subject of admiration.

From the 80’s we came to the point where when it comes to extra body fat, ads had a rather aggressive reaction to it. Your muscles should be hard, flat stomach, no bumps or loose breasts – and if there are any extra calories on your waist it should be burned and destroyed in order to be accepted by society.

“The coexistence of these seemingly disparate images does not indicate that a postmodern universe of empty, endlessly differentiating images now reigns. Rather, the two ideals, though superficially very different, are united in battle against a common enemy: the soft, the loose; unsolid, excess flesh. It is perfectly permissible in our culture (even for women) to have substantial weight and bulk—so long as it is tightly managed. Simply to be slim is not enough—the flesh must not ‘wiggle’.” (Bordo, 2013: p. 185)

There’s a clear connection when it comes to mental health and the perfect body image. The pressure to satisfy societies expectation are higher than ever with the use of social media, such as Instagram which presents us with images of constant happiness and perfection all the time, where it’s an oxymoron to show the imperfect part of our lives. Glorifying this high expectation, it can cause depression and anxiety from a young age.

From the Seoul National University, a study found the first link between being skinny and depressed, as they analysed data from 183 different studies. Underweight people are more likely to get into depression; however, obesity can be the cause of the mental illness as well. (Hosie R., 2017) Dr Agnes Ayton, vice-chairman of the eating disorders faculty at the Royal College of Psychiatrists said: ‘This large study confirms that optimal nutrition is fundamentally important for physical and mental health. Both being underweight and obese is associated with an increased risk of depression.” (Harley, N., 2017) As people suffering with eating disorders, they often rely on the idea that when they lose weight their mental health will improve too. (Kirby J., 2017) It also explains that woman are more likely to be affected than men as the current ideal of being thin because it causes more psychological distress in women (Dubé, D., 2017).

The relationship between body image and social class were always tight, through the Renaissance era it might have been more obvious and common knowledge, but even in the 21st century there is an underlying element of class diversion when it comes to the difference of fat and skinny. Going back to Susan Bordo’s work, she argues that woman is on a constant patriarchal watch, which pushed them to maintain a slender body in order to stay relevant. Bordo argues that as the century changed the thin image also represented self-control and the lack of concern for material issues, with that the aesthetical battle of thinness and heavy bodies continued. To use an example, if a female is born into a culture where she is surrounded with slim figures, her satisfaction depends and is influenced by her body being as slim as her surroundings (Bojorquez and Unikel, 2012.).

The official guidance of BMI, otherwise called body mass index has been used since the 1830’s in order to indicate if your weight is healthy based on a person’s weight by their height squared. (Nordqvist C. 2017) Professor Naveed Sattar, from University of Glasgow says ‘It works in the vast majority of people, the vast majority of time, if two people are the same height and one has a BMI of 25 and the other a BMI of 40, then excess body fat is the reason.’ (Roxby, P. 2018) Lately there have been an increase in the number of specialists saying it should not be used to measure anyone’s health. The problems include that there isn’t a clear estimation of how much body fat the individual has, which can change based on gender and it doesn’t include the waist circumference (which is an important factor if the person has any relation to heart disease or type 2 diabetes. For example, a very muscular male can have a high BMI while having barely any body fat, and it doesn’t mean he is overweight. (Brodwin E., 2018). Personal trainers, such as Tom Mans, believe BMI only should be used when it comes to larger groups or populations of people regarding trends, however it shouldn’t be used when it comes to the individual. When it comes to the question of cutting the BMI completely Rhiannon Lambert, a nutritionist believes BMI can be used for certain treatments when it comes to eating disorders as it is required for a cut-off point of entry. Lambert still believes it is more labelling and it does more harm than good. She states ““I think other methods should be used to measure an individual’s health as it often rides on so much more than a number,”. (Hosie R., 2017)

Research has proved that the solemn focus on losing weight with extreme exercise and diet modification, will likely resolve in weight cycling and increase at the end. There’s also the risk of mental and physical health suffering with eating disorders and self-hatred. However, there is a different conceptual framework called Health At Every Size (HAES), which praises the acceptance of diversity in body image, highlights the importance of well-balanced eating and it contributes to the social, emotional and spiritual wellbeing of the individual as well. This philosophy goes against the body mass index’s calculation and states that the healthy weight can’t be decided by it. It defines it as a point where the individual can reach the weight where they can move forward to pursue a fulfilling lifestyle without overstressing about their eating habits. However, the HAES does not ignore the risks of an overweight person with medical problems adapting this approach would not be beneficial, but it suggests for the professional they approach the health issue the same way as they would if the patient would be thin. It’s a supports the view that the primary focus is to make the individual feel good about themselves and to reach their full potential without tearing their bodies down in a negative way. With self-acceptance, pleasure based physical activity and normalized eating to archive a relaxed relationship with their eating habits.

Further research has shown that HAES is the superior approach when it comes to health issues such as type 2 diabetes and high blood glucose can be treated without considering weight loss for obese patients, when it comes to traditional standards. It proves it is possible to live a healthy lifestyle and maintain a, by traditional standards, obese body. (Penney and Kirk, 2015)

When it comes to the difference between curvy, fat and plus sized, it’s more about how society takes it as a positive or negative. By definition, curvy as an adjective does not mean fat, it mostly refers to the hourglass figure with large breasts, wide hips tied in with a small waist. It’s important to mention curvy not as a size, but a body shape. It’s considered a flattering description, which is why it’s being used by fashion brands in their advertisement. Fat is mostly used an as adjective when describing a person, it’s traditionally used as a negative term, while curvy is mostly accepted as a flattering term. To name an example of this, when it came to the UK-based retailer ASOS, their plus size clothing line is named “ASOS Curve”. When it comes to fashion, “plus size” is also being used as it has a “close association” with fashion. (Downing Peters 2014, 48.)

There has been a heated conversation about this in the media, involving actress Melissa McCartney who stepped up for model Ashley Graham in order urge fashion brands to stop using the term “plus size” as it’s categorising women based on their sizes. (Blair, 2016)

In the chapter of Slenderness, Self-management and Normalization Susan Bordo states “the body is demonstrating the correct or incorrect attitudes towards the demands of normalization itself.” The obese and anorexic body is a protest against cultural norms, while the bulimic is going for a mostly “normal” and desirable image. He claims the anorexic wants to be accepted by cultural standards and pays homage to its values. However, the obese, the people who claim to live a happy life with extra weight, are being a resistance towards the norms while the rest is struggling to fit into these laid out “correct” media images, then these individuals must be pushed by humiliation and out casting. It alright to show empathy towards the overweight individuals but they need to make sure to be clear as they state of point will never be normal and they’re personal desires won’t be fulfilled without reaching the goal of the culturally accepted ideal. (Bordo, 1993: p. 203.)

“Men act and women appear. Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at.” (Berger, 1972: p.47) When it comes to the male gaze it can be taken in various ways: the way men look at women, the way women look at other women, and themselves. However, these three ways are still using the still essence as the viewer looks at the women through the eyes of a heterosexual male. The consequences of the male gaze, which is, theoretically speaking, is sexual objectification of women can cause them mental disorders. The male gaze is a main point when it comes to set up an ideal for the body image. The visual media in the current climate is the most dangerous to our culture. It is not limited to pornography, the male gaze can appear in films, television and advertisement as well. (Fredrickson B., Roberts T., 1997) This sexual objectivation of women is another form of cultural expectation, where it’s not enough to be slim in a way that’s good for the person they need to be thin to be desired by men. It’s not enough to have an already idolized body type which changes almost every decade, the male gaze is another negative influential factor of mental and physical health for women.

A plus size models in the fashion industry, is the average women in the real world. They are usually between size 12-16 but there is still a strong requirement to be over 5 ft 8 inches to be even considered, with this the idea of inclusivity is not achievable.

The fashion industry has responded with an attempt to be more diverse… including in its line up ‘plus size’ models, models of different ethnicities etc. However, one look at the roster of it-girls and you can’t help but notice that they all look the same… same features, same height, same build, and even the handful of successful ‘plus size’ models fit neatly into this very uniform fashion type. Like the token third friend from a minority background in teen comedies of years gone by, ‘plus size’ models seem to be a piecemeal attempt by the fashion world at being more inclusive, whereas in reality — the same impossible and unrealistic beauty standards remain at the centre of it all. (Ahuja M. , 2017)

Looking at the positive effects of having plus size models, a study by the Florida State University reported that having these models was better for people’s mental health as seeing this imagery women experienced higher levels of body satisfaction. (Heller D. 2017) The study also pointed out to have an exposure of “unrealistic-sized media models it had a negative effect on consumers’ mental and physical health, including experiencing lower body satisfaction.” (Feldman, J. 2017.)

To discuss the negative effects, a study titled ‘The (Ironic) Dove Effect: Usage of Acceptance Cues for Larger Body Types Increases Unhealthy Behaviours,’ which states that putting larger models into promotion can do more harm than good. It says, ‘cues suggesting the acceptance of larger body types resulted in greater intended or actual consumption of food and a reduced motivation to engage in a healthier lifestyle.’ Through the course of 5 experiments, which included the normalization and acceptance of the overweight model ‘increased people’s tendency to choose less healthy food items and decreased their motivation to be in better shape,”. However, there was a noticeable outcome as the thin-bodied figures did not increase motivation more than large bodied figures. Lin gives the idea for advertisers to de-emphasize the body size entirely. Marketers should not make people’s body types the focus of communications, because it could result in negative conclusions if they are bringing these issues to the top of the list. (Lin L. 2015)

In conclusion, when it comes to representation, there’s no denying the evolution of body positivity. But what’s the message the fashion industry is sending their larger customers? On the right it’s a picture for Jason Wu’s holiday collection for the brand Eloquii. The models’ skin is bright and gleaming, the dress fits her perfectly, highlighting her figure when it needs to, her hair is neatly slicked back, presenting the perfect American woman, size 14. (Which is even a size lower, than the average.) On the left, is a promotional image for loungewear, in colour presenting the complete opposite. Their harsh light hitting her rolls, large part of the flesh exposed, there is big part of imperfectness being pushed to the surface with this picture. There is nothing neat and nice about her hair and face. She’s the real American women as well, with a size 24. These pictures represent the debate of how to promote the plus size women and how to use the communication channels between the brand and the customer.

Fashion, by its nature, reaches for extremes. As a result, it has always made size inclusivity so much more of an event than it ever needed to be. It has politicized, weaponized and fetishized fat. Now, as waiflike models are replaced with Rubenesque ones, can plus-size fashion be freed from the burdens of identity politics and cultural prejudices — to simply exist as clothes and not statements? When will a plus-size model gets to stop representing diversity and simply be part of the pack? Does every plus-size model really slay? (Givhan R. 2018)

References

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Thesis Statement: ‘Body image is the perception that a person has of their physical self and also the thoughts and feelings that result from that perception. These feelings can be both positive and negative, and are influenced by both individual and environmental factors.’(PSYCHALIVE,2019). I believe that the media has negatively impacted women’s body image.

Traditional and Contemporary Media’s Impact on Body Image

The ideal of what is deemed as ‘beautiful’ has changed over the years. Previously, the ‘ideal female body was considered to be the famous nudes painted by Rubens in the seventeenth century: which would nowadays be considered as “chubby” Over the past 50 years, the cultural ideal around the world has progressed steadily towards increasing thinness. (Abnormal psychology, chapter 9, pg.266-267). Therefore, society through the increasing use of media has ingrained the notion in young women that in order to be ‘beautiful’ one needs to be thin. When a girl is born, she is handed over a Barbie doll- a tall, thin, blue eyed doll with a perfectly clear and radiant complexion. During preteen and adolescent years, the young girl again sees beautiful, thin models on the ramp. Media images of unattainably thin yet voluptuous body can be found almost everywhere, be it on television, social media, print etc. The socio cultural ideal of thinness is a likely vehicle through which people learn to fear being or even feeling fat. Sociocultural factors, in particular the role of media, have recently received perhaps the most attention as a possible contributor to body image disturbance and eating dysfunctions. (fallon,1990; heinberg,1996). There is strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media e.g. magazines and music videos affect perceptions of beauty and appearance. The mass media plays a very critical role in women’s self-image by informing what people consider to be attractive. (Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue). Television and social media has instilled the notion in women that to be thin is to be beautiful, successful and popular while being fat is associated with negative connotations such as less smart, unpopular, greedy and shy. Television has a powerful influence and it usually portrays unrealistic ideals. The vast majority of female television characters are thinner than the average woman, with less than 10% of women appearing on television being overweight. ‘Also photographic techniques such as airbrushing, soft-focus cameras, composite figures and filters used in both the television medium and magazines may blur the realistic nature of media images even further, leading people to believe that these models are realistic representations of actual people. This will thus further cause a dislike for one’s own body’. (Thompson and Heinberg,1999, p.339-353)

The Dangerous Impact of Having a Negative Body Image

A research by Groesz et.al indicates that exposure to media portrayal of unrealistically thin models can influence reports of body dissatisfaction. It reviewed results from 25 experiments that presented images of thin models to women and then asked the women to report on their body dissatisfaction. This research indicated that women reported a decline in body satisfaction after viewing these images (Groesz, Levine and Murnen,2002). Teenage girls spend a lot of time viewing fitness and beauty magazines. A study by Nichter, showed that adolescent girls endorsed their ideal as the models found in fashion magazines. The ideal teenage girl was described as being 5’7,100 pounds, size 5 and with voluminous long blonde hair. Reaching such an extreme ideal is both unattainable and dangerous and clearly puts the teenage girl in the anorexic and amenorrheic range (BMI is less than 16) (Nichter and nichter,1991)

Over the years, websites, blogs and magazines have started to play a vital role in promoting the ideal of ‘extreme thinness’. Websites that are pro- ana (short for anorexia) and pro -mia(bulimia) have emerged .in these forums, women support and encourage other women to lose a dangerous amount of weight.

Another research looked at the roles of other types of social media’s impact on body image too. Beth et al conducted a study on 199 adolescent females in order to determine whether certain media formats have a more detrimental impact on women’s body image. In this experiment, there were 5 media consumption categories: TV, Internet, music videos, magazines and computer games. The results indicated that the mere presence of the body perfect in the media led to a momentary increase in both appearance and body dissatisfaction. This study demonstrates that exposure to the ‘thin ideal’ in any context is damaging to the teenage girl’s body dissatisfaction (Beth Teresa bell and Helga Dittmae,2011)

The inverse correlation between social media and satisfaction with body image

Research has indicated an inverse correlation between increasing use of social media and satisfaction with body image. According to an article in Neuroscience, a study was conducted by York university on young women showed that women felt dissatisfied with their bodies after viewing pictures of friends that they consider to be comparatively more attractive. (Neuroscience news,2018). An article in Web MD reported a study that showed how contemporary media such as Facebook, Pinterest and Instagram are bad for a woman’s self-esteem. This study indicated that women who spend more than an hour on social media tend to be less happy with their bodies. These women will also feel as I being thin is more attractive and will be increasingly self-conscious. The study also stated that these women will have an unhealthy relationship with both body image and exercise. (Web MD). Today also published a research piece by Florida house experience that showed the dire consequences of scrolling on social media. This study indicated that women are most heavily influenced by social media and television. 88% of women stated that they compare themselves to images in the media. They also reported that they feel less confident about their bodies after that. (Today). an article published by The conversation again emphasizes on the fact how social media has turned the ‘Ideal’ body into something unachievable. According to this article, the increasing use of social media has made women all the more aware of the discrepancies between their body types and those that they see on the media. This only leads to a worsening of self-esteem and increased body dissatisfaction. furthermore, trends like ‘fitspiration’ have become increasingly popular. The problem with this is that the pictures in this are usually accompanied by text that contains guilt inducing messages, this further worsens women’s body image and makes them engage in negative behaviors such as fad diets, restrictive eating or purging. (the conversation,2018).

Having a negative body image can have severe repercussions. Teenagers nowadays have developed a very unhealthy relationship with food and often feel an immense amount of guilt when they gain even the slightest weight. According to Julie m. sparhawk this line of research is important because it helps in discovering the link between poor body image and the media’s portrayal of women. This could allow for successful interventions to be evaluated and implemented. (Julie M. Sparhawk,2003). Intervention can help in decreasing the cases of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Both serious disorders that can even lead to death of not treated effectively. Intervention can help in promoting a more positive body image.

Conclusion

Research has repeatedly shown that media has a detrimental impact on one’s body image. Looking at media portrayals of women who are thin and petite has been shown to cause an increasing amount of dissatisfaction with one’s own body. Trends like thinspiration and fitspiration have led to a worsening self-esteem in women and led to more and more women developing eating disorders and developing a negative relationship with their body. It is important that more research is done in this arena so that possible interventions can be taken.

Body Image

Body image is defined to be a mixture of how and what an individual thinks or feels about his or her physical body. It commonly includes the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs the individual thinks of their body size, figure, or outer appearance (raisingchildren.net.au, 2019; Good Therapy Organization, 2019)

Body image is determined by four factors. By how the individual perceives their body image, by how the individual feels about their body image, by how the individual thinks about their body as their cognitive image, and by the individual’s behavior in which they choose to engage with their body appearance. (McShirley, 2015)

Positive Body Image

Positive body image refers to the clear, true, and authentic perception of a person’s shape or the individual’s way of seeing various parts of his or her body as they are. Further, this involves the feeling of confidence, comfortableness, and acceptance of one’s outer appearance. (National Eating Disorders Association, 2018)

In applying a positive body image reflection, an individual needs three various factors such as a positive attitude, high self-esteem, and emotional stability (Halsted, 2016)

Negative Body Image

Negative body image refers to the distorted impression or discontentment an individual has towards their body. Further, this involves feelings of shame, anxiety, and self-consciousness. Usually, people who typically experience a high level of body dissatisfaction feel their bodies are very imperfect when compared to other people’s bodies or are not capable of passing the standard set by society, media, family, and friends. Also, these individuals have a high chance of experiencing negative effects such as emotional distress, low self-esteem, unhealthy diet habits, anxiety, depression, various eating disorders, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), drug usage, social withdrawal or isolation, increased risks of sexual health, self-harming behaviors and the withdrawal from manners and labors that may involve the exposure of one’s body. (National Eating Disorders Association, 2018; Perspectives of Troy, 2019; Eating Disorder Hope, 2019)

Conclusion:

Body image consciousness is proven to be a significant element in every individual’s impression of himself or herself. With this, body image is said to affect every aspect of an individual’s life such as their mental health, physical health, social interaction, and the concern the individual has towards himself or herself. Sadly, body image consciousness is subdivided into two contrasting categories such as positive body image and negative body image.

The effects of positive body image on a person include the rise of conviction and comfortableness on one’s outer image, the rise of emotional stability, the acceptance of the person’s authentic figure, mass, and size, the acceptance of their consciousness, the ability to accept the word and messages a person receives relating to their outer image, the ability to engage in an individual’s social, sexual, work or private lives without getting conscious with their body and the ability of an individual to attain a healthier image of themselves.

On the other hand, the effects of negative body image on a person include several mental health problems such as the acquirement of an unrealistic perception of an individual towards his or her body, the possibility of acquiring emotional distress, low self-esteem, unhealthy diet habits, anxiety, depression, self-harming behaviors, social withdrawal or isolation, drug usage, a high chance of suicidal thoughts, unhealthy diet habits and various eating disorders that may lead to the attainment of a body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), which may make a person alter their “flawed” look through different surgeries and other mental and physical health issues.

Recommendations:

Due to the discovered results accumulated by the researcher on the various effects body image consciousness may bring to an individual’s psychological health, the researcher recommends that if an individual assesses his or her body image, the individual must consider his or her body as an example of a positive body image, the researcher would like to suggest that this could be attained by applying seven steps on their daily lives. First, individuals must apply the essence of self-love and self-acceptance. Second, individuals must possess a high self-confidence in everything they do. Third, individuals must see themselves as someone who is incomparable to others. Fourth, individuals must be proud of their differences with society’s expectations. Fifth, individuals must know when they are still healthy or unhealthy, with this, individuals must possess a healthy lifestyle every day. Sixth, individuals must know that negative body image is something that may not be used as a motivation for anything. Finally, know that every individual has their definition of beauty, you may have bad days where you see yourself as someone who is “unbeautiful” but know that within the 7 billion population of the world, you will always be beautiful in someone’s eyes. Therefore, remember to always establish a positive body image!           

The media has contributed to mass damages to women showing them such unrealistic desires of ideal body images that certainly destroy both women and female adolescents.

Social media and advertisements are one of the biggest causes of most women feeling pressured when pictures of celebrities and models are likable by society. Most women care about their appearance, so they usually compare themselves to others based on how they look and this is how the media influences of “what body-type one should have, what one should wear, primarily through the conveyance of messages focused on the “ideal body”(Candice E. Walker, Eva G. Krumhuber, Steven Dayan, Adrian Furnham). This often persuades women to buy certain products whether to lose or gain weight, which pushes them to change their bodies and pressures them. Due to this influence, it has driven many people to set a standard of perfection that women should do something in able to achieve the standard of society.

They try to swim out from the hatred and opinions of everyone but the pressure of being likable is the ocean’s deepest depth. Not only that but in making improvements of their body image changes women by pushing them to the limit where they do not care anymore. According to Susie Orbach, the best selling author and a feminist states that in facing the reality of modern life, many women try hard to become fit and accepting the fact of being overweight reveals as being rebellious (Frederick Attewill). Moreover, “The liberation women felt from the late 1960s when they began to challenge beauty pageant objectification and rebel against body expectations.” says Susie (Frederick Attewill). Therefore, the unattainable image of having a perfect body leads women feel to feel distressed, loses their self-confidence, making them feel that they must be the same way as the others.

Whether it’d be a result of criticisms or high standards within women’s bodies, the media puts women in an unstable situation and changes their lives. The use of social media and the focus on advertisements are unhealthy for women. Eating disorders, depression, and the desire for cosmetic surgery, and an overall change image are the main impacts of media’s influence (Candice E. Walker, Eva G. Krumhuber, Steven Dayan, Adrian Furnham). This influence changes their appearance, such as changing their hair colour, changing the clothes they wear or changing how they usually style themselves (Candice E. Walker, Eva G. Krumhuber, Steven Dayan, Adrian Furnham).

According to the American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, states that in 2017 “there is also an increasing number of young people having cosmetic procedures, reportedly rising from 17.2% in 2014 to 18.2% (Candice E. Walker, Eva G. Krumhuber, Steven Dayan, Adrian Furnham). Furthermore, The National Center for Health Statistics shows that the greatest cause of death in 1994, was “anorexia” and was also indicated as one of the multiple causes of death with 4,657 (Body Image & Nutrition). Consequently, the media’s idea of a “perfect body” does not only damage women’s mental health but also physical resulting in large numbers of health issues of eating disorders and surgeries.

The Unhealthy Side of Magazine Advertising

Magazines and magazine advertisements have been around for as long as the world can remember. Depending on the company, different kinds of magazines are aimed toward a certain audience. Even though this may be evident, not every magazine can create a positive result and it can often become overwhelming for a select few. From showcasing a skinny model on the front cover to including a lingerie ad from Victoria’s Secret, magazine advertisements set unrealistic standards for teenage girls.

Besides sexualization, teenage magazine advertisements do the opposite of conveying an inspirational message. For the most part, they have a negative influence on teenage girls, by making them believe that if they do not look like a model on the front cover, then they are not “good enough.” Ultimately, teenage girls will want to change their physical attributes until they are satisfied with the way that they look. This mindset, of course, is dangerous to have and it often leads to tragic effects such as developing an eating disorder, depression, or plastic surgery. A survey done by Teen People Magazine suggests that 25% of the girls surveyed felt the media makes them feel pressure to have a perfectly shaped body. Additionally, 69% of girls concurred that models found in magazines had a major influence on their concept of what a perfect body shape should look like (Suggett par. 2). Similarly, other research shows that magazine advertisements have a greater impact than the ones that are on television because television ads encourage the greater consumption of high-fat foods. Magazine advertisements encourage girls to practice portion control and go on diets to make themselves thinner, which leads to girls developing eating disorders. Furthermore, Teen People Magazine suggests that “35 percent of U.S. girls 6 to 12 years old have been on at least one diet, and that among normal-weight girls 50 percent to 70 percent consider themselves overweight” (Miller par. 2).

According to “A Content Analysis of Seventeen Magazine and the Messages its Articles and Advertisements are Sending to Teenage Girls,” negative themes were prominent. “Seventeen is a fashion magazine, and therefore it encourages girls to make themselves as beautiful as possible to attract the guys” (Fuller 2). The overall research for this specific case study suggests that Seventeen Magazine sends a lot of “mixed messages” to teenage girls that are simply not realistic. In Joel Miller’s article, “Media and Body Image,” Only five percent of women in the US fit the current body type popularly portrayed in advertising today. Additionally, problems with eating disorders have increased by over 400% since 1970 (Miller par. 2).

From a psychological perspective, magazines can appeal to teenage girls because of the colors or the images that are strategically placed on the front cover. They might see these magazines on the shelves next to the register while they are waiting in line or at the doctor’s office. Its contents may be something along the lines of how to get rid of their pimples to have clear skin or how to get a date with their crush (Gibbons par. 4). Either way, they will want to open it and read more because they will not be able to resist. It is almost as if they are letting a magazine dictate what they do with their lives and what they can change. In the same manner, social endorsements of an ideal body shape, such as those found in print and media formats, have been related to body image disturbance as well as implicated in the development of eating disorders (Thompson and Dale 701).

Before the 20th century, magazines were more innocent and a lot less negative. In ‘The Body Project: An Intimate History of American Girls,” by Joan Jacobs Brumberg, it is said that today’s society depicts the body as something that is most important when it comes to teenage girls, which makes them very different from what other girls were exposed to many years ago. Even though girls in the past may have felt self-conscious about their bodies, which is completely normal, they did not spend much time comparing themselves to others. “Today, many young girls worry about the contours of their bodies–especially shape, size, and muscle tone–because they believe the body is the ultimate expression of the self’ (Gibbons par. 6).

Magazines have a lot to improve on in the messages that they give out to their audiences. Magazines should begin working towards developing inspirational messages for teenage girls and creating standards that are more realistic because women come in all different shapes and sizes. Changes will only be made possible if the public speaks up about it and nothing is going to be done if everyone just stays silent. People can start by pressuring brands and letting them know that they should change what they advertise. They can also educate those who are younger by teaching them that what is shown in advertisements is not the reality. Think about the future ahead, and if it is not a positive one then things must change.

Works Cited

1. Fuller, Cheryl. “A Content Analysis of Seventeen Magazine and the Messages its Articles and Advertisements are Sending to Teenage Girls,” Senior Research Projects, 2005. https://knowledge.e.southern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1035&context=senior_research. Accessed 2 Oct. 2019.
2. Gibbons, Sheila. “Teen Magazines Send Girls All the Wrong Messages.” Women’s E-News, 29 Oct. 2003. https://womensenews.org/2003/10/teen-magazines-send-girls-all-the-wrong-messages/. Accessed 2 Oct. 2019
3. Miller, Joel. “Media and Body Image.” AdMedia, 2019. https://admedia.com/media-and-body-image.php. Accessed 2 Oct. 2019
4. Suggett, Paul. “The Impact of Body Image Advertising: Advertisements and Self-Esteem.” The Balance Careers, 25 July. 2019. https://www.thebalancecareers.com/the-impact-of-advertising-on-body-image-4151839. Accessed 2 Oct. 2019
5. Thompson J. Kevin, and Dale L. Cusumano. “Body image and body shape ideals in magazines: exposure, awareness, and internalization,” (1997). Sex Roles, Vol. 37, Nos. 9/10. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02936336. Accessed 2 Oct. 2019

Bibliography

1. Ballentine, L. W., and J. P. Ogle. “The Making and Unmaking of Body Problems in Seventeen Magazine, 19922003.” Family & Consumer Sciences Research Journal, Vol. 33, No. 4, June 2005, p. 281. https://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=15ada2bb-53ca-430a-af50-cf331682c088%40sessionmgr102. Accessed 30 Sept. 2019
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3. Clay, Daniel, et al. “Body Image and Self-Esteem Among Adolescent Girls: Testing the Influence of Sociocultural Factors.” Journal of Research on Adolescence (Wiley-Blackwell), Vol. 15, No. 4, Dec. 2005, pp. 451–477. https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=1a3956dd-daef-46ea-8060-e6e750511d97%40sdc-v-sessmgr01. Accessed 29 Sept. 2019
4. Cusumano, Dale L., and J. Kevin Thompson. “Body Image and Body Shape Ideals in Magazines: Exposure, Awareness, and Internalization.” Sex Roles, Vol. 37, No. 9-10, Nov. 1997, pp. 701-721. https://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=409b39a2-f771-4159-851e-a2ebd6e2cd87%40pdc-v-sessmgr03. Accessed 29 Sept. 2019
5. de Freitas, Catarina, MPH, Helen Jordan PhD., and Elizabeth K. Hughes Ph.D. ‘Body Image Diversity in the Media: A Content Analysis of Women’s Fashion Magazines.’ Health Promotion Journal of Australia, Vol. 29, No. 3, 2018, pp. 251. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/2161043663?accountid=7058#. Accessed 29 Sept. 2019
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8. Glauert, Rebecca, et al. “Body Dissatisfaction and Attentional Bias to Thin Bodies.” International Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol. 43, no. 1, Jan. 2010, pp. 42–49. https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=dc4ebb3c-2106-4c90-9cfe-0cd8ad14f397%40sessionmgr4006. Accessed 29 Sept. 2019
9. Grogan, Sarah. Body Image : Understanding Body Dissatisfaction in Men, Women and Children. Vol. 2nd ed, Routledge, 2008. https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook?sid=2e57f4cd-6e68-459f-b871-dbf08df35995%40sdc-v-sessmgr01&vid=0&format=EK. Accessed 30 Sept. 2019
10. Jung, J., and S. J. Lennon. “Body Image, Appearance Self-Schema, and Media Images.” Family & Consumer Sciences Research Journal, Vol. 32, No. 1, Sept. 2003, p. 27. https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=42fe43a0-f828-4f6d-90f3-7feb16870da0%40sdc-v-sessmgr03. Accessed 29 Sept. 2019
11. López-Guimerà, Gemma, et al. “Influence of Mass Media on Body Image and Eating Disordered Attitudes and Behaviors in Females: A Review of Effects and Processes.” Media Psychology, Vol. 13, No. 4, Oct. 2010, pp. 387–416. https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=0&sid=d6af8671-6953-4107-a34b-ebf90bbb03bc%40sdc-v-sessmgr02. Accessed 29 Sept. 2019
12. Morrison, Todd G., et al. “Body-Image Evaluation and Body-Image among Adolescents: A Test of Sociocultural and Social Comparison Theories.” Adolescence, Vol. 39, No. 155, Fall 2004, pp. 571–592. https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=ff88a60b-8933-4182-8ecb-68cb1d61e5f8%40sdc-v-sessmgr03. Accessed 29 Sept. 2019
13. Pecora, Norma Odom, and Sharon R. Mazzarella. “Growing up Girls : Popular Culture and the Construction of Identity.” Peter Lang AG, 1999. https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook?sid=a7d5a6e9-2478-49c4-b687-8c0a2ce29c7d%40sessionmgr4008&vid=0&format=EB. Accessed 30 Sept. 2019
14. Thompson, J. Kevin, and Michael D. Coovert. “Body Image, Social Comparison, and Eating Disturbance: A Covariance Structure Modeling..” International Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol. 26, No. 1, July 1999, pp. 43–51. https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=dfb361e2-8a79-459b-ac30-c5d7f81cad17%40sessionmgr4007. Accessed 29 Sept. 2019
15. Vaughan, Turnbull, Catherine, and Vivienne Lewis. “Body Image, Objectification, and Attitudes Toward Cosmetic Surgery.” Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, Vol. 20, No. 4, Dec. 2015, pp. 179–196. https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=e5846b14-33be-4a43-969e-254ad1a8895a%40sessionmgr4008. Accessed 29 Sept. 2019