Category: Black Death

Historians suggest that The Black Death was a deadly epidemic that hit millions of people spread by the disease known as the bubonic plague. This all happened during medieval Europe, fleas and rats were the cause of to spread of the disease to other people and the bubonic plague did not stop, it was so contagious that it almost killed half of Europe’s population at the time.

As the people suffered during this epidemic, they kept thinking as to what caused this disease, was it God’s punishment for all the sins and heresy? However, the people also thought that the disease was being spread through the air, this became known as the Miasma theory, although it was disapproved of since the germ theory came around. During the time, there was no real cure, Plague doctors who would disguise dressed in masks that had long beaks and those beaks stuffed full of herbs and ointments such as garlic or mint, they had thought that this would prevent them from being infected.

The real cause of this deadly epidemic was Yersinia Pestis, a disease found by a man named Alexandre Yersin who was a Physician and Bacteriologist near during the 2nd world war during a Hong Kong epidemic. The Germ theory was discovered by a man named Louis Pasteur although this was discovered years later after the epidemic was over. What is the theory about? Small organisms, so small that the naked eye cannot see enter the body and infect the person, they are usually spread by human contact or maybe coughs and sneezes, of course, were not discovered back in Medieval days.

Society had changed drastically ever since the terror of the Black Death occurred although it was even worse for the peasants at the time. They would still work day and night but poverty struck many of the peasants and it also lead to malnutrition. As large numbers of peasants die from the Black Death rents are no longer paid, there is a shortage of labor and serfs are no longer available to be called into regional military forces in times of need. This was not the only impact the Black Death had on Society. Society’s economy was another impact, people would work for higher wages than usual because now it was either earning money to survive or living in suffering, if people did not start asking for higher wages, they would have a lesser chance of surviving of goods. The Feudal system was brought to an end; it was the system of service in return for a grant of land, this terribly defied society and affected many, but maybe it was also a hopeful thing for peasants.

During the time of the Black Death what also came about were the Crusades, the crusades were a series of religious and political wars that happened during 1096 and 1492. Crusades were battles against one another and they usually fought over land or places, there are 8 major crusades in history, they are: The First Crusade, The Second Crusade, The Third Crusade, The Fourth Crusade, The Fifth Crusade, The Sixth Crusade, The Seventh Crusade, and The Eighth Crusade. Here is a photo of the dates of each Crusade.

Although there may be many of the Crusades, The First Crusade was the most significant Crusade of them all, what was their goal? When did it take place? The First Crusade took place in a variety of places, including Anatolia, the near east, and the Levant but what was the goal of this battle? It was a battle for the Holy Land and to help Christians of the Byzantine Empire fight back against Seljuk Turks, this Holy Land was taken from the Christian Byzantines by the Muslims in the years 638-641. The pope had made the decision to call for a Crusade, merely to capture important Christian holy sites for instance Jerusalem.

To conclude, The black death was an epidemic that spread vastly across Europe killing millions of civilians not only that but to worsen the situation were Crusades, battles caused by people to gain control of territory or special sites and land from others.

Black Death swept across Europe like a horde of raging wild beasts, consuming everything in its path. Everywhere, the unsuspected disease with the horrible symptoms gave rise to fear. People tried to isolate themselves and avoid contact with others. But it was to little avail. When the infection left humanity alone some years later, about 50 million people, or around 60 percent of the population, had lost their lives. According to William L. Langer, the Black Death was undoubtedly the worst disaster that has ever befallen mankind.

The disease was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis that circulates among wild rodents where they live in great numbers and density. The plague among humans arises when rodents in human habitation, normally black rats, become infected. Of course the deaths of millions were horrible for the people of Europe, but in addition, the disease caused many laborers to die, which was hard on the landowners who relied on them as tenant farmers. In this essay, I am going to try to explain why the death rate was so high as opposed to other well-known diseases.

The biggest contribution to the death rate is so high is the fact that the disease spread so quickly. Historians have speculated that the fleas on rats are responsible for the estimated 25 million plague deaths between 1347 and 1351. The fleas on the rats were so small that their immune system was so weak that it was impossible for them to contract the black plague. There was no shortage of rats either because the number of rats in Europe during the 13th century was very high. They didn’t have the same type of cleanliness that we have now as a society. We can time the number of rats by 1000 to give the reader a reference to exactly how many fleas that had the plague were in Europe. Most historians in the world believe this to be true because there is virtually no other way it could’ve gone down.

Some historians think that it wasn’t the rats, it was actually humans. The study explains that it would be unlikely for it to spread as fast as it did if it was transmitted by rats. It would have to go through this extra loop of the rats, rather than being spread from person to person. But there are reasons for this to be proven false. There is little historical and archaeological support for such a claim. For example, if rats really were the main cause of the plague, there would be more archaeological evidence of dead rats. Historians on both sides will agree that the pneumonic plague is more virulent or damaging and is an advanced form characterized by a severe lung infection. The infection can be transmitted from person to person via airborne droplets — coughing or sneezing. Of course, there is still going to be that airborne spread, just like there would be with a common cold or a stomach bug.

The plague spreading so quickly had effects on the social and economic structure of Europe which furthermore had an effect on why the death rate was high. The Black Death spurred monarchies and city-states across much of Western Europe to formulate new wage and price legislation. ( After the Black Death: Labour Legislation and Attitudes Towards Labour in Late-Medieval Western Europe) European agriculture was on a heavy decline when the workers of the farms started dying. The peasants began to demand higher wages. Lords began to realize they had less control over workers and began to change what they produced. Many workers were needed to grow and harvest grain, so some lords began to raise sheep instead. After the plague, workers asked for higher wages and better working conditions. Many lords agreed to these demands, and those who didn’t soon found that other lords would. So no matter what, peasants that were alive always had work, because there were not a lot of other people who could do it.

The major social effect had to do with Religion. Religion was an important aspect of daily life for European Christians. When the Black Death struck Europe in 1347, the Church struggled to cope with the plague’s damaging consequences, and its reputation suffered as a result. The majority of Europe at the time were Catholics, so lots of people thought that this was gods doing. Some felt that they should obey the maxim that was created by the people, ‘Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow you may die.’ (Garrett, Laurie. The Black Death) Faith in religion decreased after the plague, both because of the death of so many of the clergy and because of the failure of prayer to prevent sickness and death.

The social effect of this plague affected almost all of Europe and its towns. English towns experienced differing fortunes in the decades before 1348 and by that year some had already contracted, for a variety of both local and more general reasons. The Black Death spurred monarchies and city-states across much of Western Europe to formulate new wage and price legislation. These legislative acts splintered in a multitude of directions that to date defy any obvious patterns of economic or political rationality. (The Black Death in English Towns) A comparison of labor laws in England, France, Provence, Aragon, Castile, the Low Countries, and the city-states of Italy shows that these laws did not flow logically from new post-plague demographics and economics-the realities of the supply and demand for labor.

The doctors at the time had no idea what to do about this plague. They were trying anything and everything they could think of. They would rub onions, herbs, or chopped up snakes on the boils or cut up a pigeon and rub it over an infected body. They would also resort to drinking vinegar, eating crushed minerals, arsenic, mercury, or even ten-year-old treacle. Because this was so long ago, doctors only dealt with things that they could handle like a fever or a cough, but nothing like that.

14th-century doctors were at a loss to explain the cause of the Black Death, many Europeans ascribed supernatural forces, earthquakes, and malicious conspiracies, among other things, as possible reasons for the plague’s emergence. No one in the 14th century considered rat control a way to ward off the plague, and people began to believe only God’s anger could produce such horrific displays of suffering and death.

While mice are getting more and more acceptance in modern society, they are linked with cuteness, such as Mickey Mouse, a world-famous cartoon character, you won’t think that 600 to 700 years ago, mice caused a globally spread plague, which made countless global population decrease.

Especially in Europe, the plague directly cut off 1/3 of the middle century’s European population and strongly changed the relationship between rats and the crisis in politics, medication, and the social structure during the Black Death in Europe. After the Black Death, Europe’s religious activity and economics are deeply damaged as people started to realize that God didn’t show any favor to the priest in front of the plague and slowly changed their minds from asceticism to hedonism.

As we all know, the dark Middle Ages in Europe was associated with the rule of the church (Benedictow,2004), and the great destruction brought about by the Black Death became a turning point in history.

This great destruction caused the European population to plummet and become devastated and unrecognizable. Many survivors have therefore questioned the old system and shaken traditional values. Therefore, it is said that it is the epidemic of the Black Death that objectively destroyed the old social system and brought Europe to the dawn of the Renaissance.

In Bowsky, William M’s “The Black Death: A Turning Point in History?”, he determines that during the Black Death, anatomy began to develop, and Western medicine gradually recognized human physiology, which in turn promoted the development of surgery too. Bowsky also acknowledges that the first time the body of the deceased was dissected with the support of the Pope and before this anatomy of the body was regarded as a big rebellion by the church. Therefore, the Black Death has objectively promoted medical advancement.

During the Middle Ages, people didn’t notice how important to keep themselves clean and keep their living environment clean which means there must be a lot of rats in the cities and towns and gives the plague more opportunities to spread around people.

Europeans have thus improved their hygiene habits. Prior to the black death, in the streets of Paris, Rome, Florence, and other cities, sewage flowed across the ground. People do not take a shower all year-round, in order to cover up the taste, talented French invented the perfume. (Horrox,1994)

After the plague epidemic, European countries actively strengthened the construction of basic sanitation facilities, such as excavating spacious sewers, and paying attention to the treatment of garbage, plus the widespread insecticide and disinfection, so that infectious diseases such as plague were effectively controlled. Therefore, the prevention and control of plague are called the “first health revolution”.

People’s attitude towards the church has changed from admitting the plague is God’s punishment into Giovanni Sercambi is trying to give the audience a picture of the terrifying disease that happened in Luccha in 1374, and his idea on why the plague was spread among the people is it’s God’s punishment and no one in his image survive under the angles’ arrows and sword infers how horrible the Black Death was that no one can escape from the disease as it nearly killed 30%-60% of the European population.

Within the years 1346 and 1352, a lethal epidemic swept throughout Europe at an alarming rate. Centuries later, the pandemic was named the Black Death. This title originated from a mistranslation of the Latin expression ‘atra’ meaning both ‘black’ and ‘terrible’. Caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which originates in areas with vast numbers of wild rodents, the three strains of the plague, bubonic, pneumonic and septicemic, killed approximately 25 million people in Europe alone, around a third of the population at that time. It is speculated that the disease spread from Lake Issyk-Kul in central Asia which was located along the Silk Road trade route which would enable it to become widely spread and progress to Europe, along with traders. The consequences of this vast reduction in the population prompted a change in lifestyle, and dismantled the feudal system, having a myriad of positive and negative effects on everyday life and the feudal economy. 

As the class system instigated through the feudal system was unable to be supported throughout the Black Death, afterwards, the social structure was changed greatly having negative repercussions for the government, monarchy and the church. Small scale upward mobility occurred, caused by the shortage of workers, primarily in professions that demanded specific training, enabling labourers to charge increased prices for their services. The government instigated laws that attempted to return fees to pre-plague prices. Due to the surplus of goods following the disease, there was a period of prolificacy, which was speedily succeeded by a time of inflation and shortage of goods. There was also a distinct increase in the crime rate, following this shortage as people became desperate. ‘God is deaf nowadays and will not hear us’, wrote William Langland a 14th-century poet, in his poem “Piers Plowman.” The Church lost countless followers, due to the clergy’s lack of ability to prevent the plague, terminate the plague and heal those who contracted it and triggered resentment to form in the general population. These consequences, anticipated and unforeseen, impacted Europe greatly.

Despite the plethora of negative consequences triggered by the plague pandemic, some beneficial effects are apparent. ‘…the Black Death might have represented a strong force of natural selection and removed the weakest individuals on a very broad scale within Europe,’ claims archaeologist Sharon N. DeWitte. An analysis of skeletal remains in a London cemetery proves that people who existed prior to the Black death had a higher chance of dying at any age than those who existed afterwards. Before the epidemic, only 10 per cent of the population could be anticipated to live beyond 70; post-plague, that figure swelled to 20 per cent, confirming DeWitte’s belief and maintaining the credibility of prior studies that proved; Human populations evolve when faced with large-scale illness, as gene variants assist certain people in fighting particular infections better than those who do not possess those variants.  Although the demise of the feudal system had negative effects for the nobility, it greatly benefited peasant workers, ensuring that they secured higher wages as lords grew an increasingly urgent need for workers. Giving the serfdom a source of power against the nobility for the first time. Beneficial effects of the Black Death like those stated above had lasting repercussions in society impacting the way modern-day society operates.

When studying the social and economic effects of the Black Death, both short term and long term, it is clear that the population was still reeling after witnessing mass loss to such a large extent. The shock of losing countless family members, close friends and neighbours fostered an atmosphere of hopelessness and grief. Survivors ‘were like persons distraught and almost without feeling,’ wrote Agnolo, who lost his wife and five children to the epidemic. Others strived to provoke death by singing, dancing or drinking in the streets. This wave of shock was followed by apathy. People neglected routine chores and saw no point in maintaining their appearance. One of the more lasting changes in society, was the creation of the English language, beginning the evolution to modern English. Literacy developed faster than ever before, because, after the deaths of almost all literate monks, Europeans felt the need to create a simpler language than Latin, to be implemented when coping books. Society was not only changed in the short term but also permanently after the Black Death.

The effects of the aftermath of the Black Death impacted society both positively and negatively, a significant reform being the downfall of the feudal system, and then consequently the serfdom’s gain of power. As civilisation tried to recover from the decline in population, some of the ameliorations put in place continue to play a vital role in modern-day lifestyle. 

In our modern-day Europe is one of the most advanced continents in the world with countries that have a good economy, education and many other important things not all continents have. But before that Europe wasn’t ever like it is today until a certain period known between historians called the “renaissance”. This time period changed everything in Europe because people started to learn and educate themselves and stopped just dedicating their lives to god and focused more on their life on earth. But theirs also another event that happened which is the black death. The black death also known as the plague and was a very deadly disease. According to history today the plaque killed 50 million people in the 14th century, or 60 percent of the population (1) .

And To this day there are arguments that they are links between the renaissance and the black death. So, in this essay, I will give arguments and counter arguments about this topic and the final question I need to answer will be is “Did the black death cause the renaissance?” I will be explaining if it did cause the renaissance in terms of education and art etc.

Historians have many arguments to support the statement “Did the black death cause the renaissance” saying it did in many ways, which I will mention, and also other historians have counter arguments saying “black death didn’t cause the renaissance”. So some of the people say the black death cause the renaissance because after the death of many people and the population decreased a lot of the people who were poor before started to get more jobs because their weren’t any people around, and then with the money they had they educated their children and took them to school according to (2). Which is true because the amount of kids that go to school increased around that time. Also another debate is that people who survived the black death started to focus more life and not just dedicate it to god. Because they saw all their friends and family members die and suffer and mad them think twice and focus and life and not just look it as a bad period they will pass and go to heaven. So people started to study and more scientists started to appear and also many survivors went against the church with more doubts. They had turned to the church for an answer to the black death, and the church had been able to offer no help to any of the people who were there. Additionally, priests, who, along with doctors, had the highest rate of contact with the diseased, also had one of the highest rates of fatalities. Several new heretical movements sprang up (2). Accurding to

Bibliography:

1. “The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever.” History Today, www.historytoday.com/archive/black-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever.
2. Edmonds, Molly. “How the Black Death Worked.” HowStuffWorks, HowStuffWorks, 27 Feb. 2008, https://history.howstuffworks.com/historical-events/black-death3.htm

The Black Death started in Asia and quickly spread through to Europe while and after it was spreading/had spread it left many horrible consequences for the both the long and short term but the Black Death also left quite a few good changes in the short and long term specifically in the long term. Three consequences that the Black Death left are in the long term people who lived after the Black Death lived longer and healthier lives, in the short term the cost of labour increased so workers could get better pay and in the long term medicines improved.

One of the long term benefits of the Black Death were people lived longer and had healthier lives. The evidence to support this is a study done dug up the bodies of people who lived before, during and after the Black Death (University of Carolina 2014). This study found that after the Black Death people were more commonly reaching ages like 70-80 years and a showed hardiness towards disease. This also made a huge difference in the genetic makeup of the populace as the people who survived the Black Death usually had a specific gene/s that helped them. Also the study found that people were hardier because the Black Death acted as a force of natural selection weeding out those who were weak and frail and leaving those who were healthy and strong to breed therefore making the populace healthier and helping them to live longer.

One of the short term benefits of the Black Plague was a decrease in available labourers. The mass death from the Black Death helped peasants and serfs to get better wages and treatment as the lords had to fight for their work (msh.Council.org 2020). The scarcity of available workers lead to increase in wages and better treatment as peasants found that they could chose not to do a job because its dangerous. They could move to another lord for better pay and treatment, the lords that didn’t want to give their workers better quality conditions soon found that other lords were more than happy to take their worker from them and their workers were all to happy to leave them. This all lead to workers being treated better than they were before the Black Death.

One of the long term benefits of the Black Death was how medicine improved with the development of the Black Death. Medicine at the time of the Black Death was all forms considered mostly quackery and religious healing. The Black Death forced medicine to improve and create treatments that actually healed people. There was a study (Wayne State University 2010) where they looked at the future of medicine after the Black Death. This study points out that the Black Death did in fact reveal some very disastrous short comings and how the Black Death prompted physicians of the time to focus more on the practice of medicine. The study also points out that because of the Black Death universities started teaching the anatomy of the human body to their medical students. The Black Death caused the medical community and its practitioners to improve drastically for the better.

The Black Death started in Asia and quickly spread through to Europe while and after it was spreading/had spread it left many horrible consequences for the both the long and short term but the Black Death also left quite a few good changes in the short and long term specifically in the long term. Three consequences that the Black Death left are in the long term people who lived after the Black Death lived longer and healthier lives, in the short term the cost of labour increased so workers could get better pay and in the long term medicines improved.

One of the long term benefits of the Black Death were people lived longer and had healthier lives. The evidence to support this is a study done dug up the bodies of people who lived before, during and after the Black Death (University of Carolina 2014). This study found that after the Black Death people were more commonly reaching ages like 70-80 years and a showed hardiness towards disease. This also made a huge difference in the genetic makeup of the populace as the people who survived the Black Death usually had a specific gene/s that helped them. Also the study found that people were hardier because the Black Death acted as a force of natural selection weeding out those who were weak and frail and leaving those who were healthy and strong to breed therefore making the populace healthier and helping them to live longer.

One of the short term benefits of the Black Plague was a decrease in available labourers. The mass death from the Black Death helped peasants and serfs to get better wages and treatment as the lords had to fight for their work (msh.Council.org 2020). The scarcity of available workers lead to increase in wages and better treatment as peasants found that they could chose not to do a job because its dangerous. They could move to another lord for better pay and treatment, the lords that didn’t want to give their workers better quality conditions soon found that other lords were more than happy to take their worker from them and their workers were all to happy to leave them. This all lead to workers being treated better than they were before the Black Death.

One of the long term benefits of the Black Death was how medicine improved with the development of the Black Death. Medicine at the time of the Black Death was all forms considered mostly quackery and religious healing. The Black Death forced medicine to improve and create treatments that actually healed people. There was a study (Wayne State University 2010) where they looked at the future of medicine after the Black Death. This study points out that the Black Death did in fact reveal some very disastrous short comings and how the Black Death prompted physicians of the time to focus more on the practice of medicine. The study also points out that because of the Black Death universities started teaching the anatomy of the human body to their medical students. The Black Death caused the medical community and its practitioners to improve drastically for the better.

The Black Death of the Archbishop had serious implications on the development of contemporary science. It is observable that the archbishop delved into several issues of science. These include different subjects such as physics. He authored varied concepts ranging from velocity to physical science. His death led to an increased level of attention to his earlier scientific works and beliefs. Consequently, many interested philosophers and empiricists started to criticize and develop his postulations.

These initiatives led to rapid development and evolution in various domains. It is real that modern science would have developed more rapidly if Thomas Bradwardine had a long life. There are many factors to support this observation. Foremost, it became clear later after the death that he was also a victim of the plague. It is sad to note that his death played a crucial role seven decades following his death.

The death led to the development of potential domains in modern medicine. Some of these included concepts of epidemiology. Thomas developed deep rationality towards the universe and the existence of God as a supernatural power. His closeness to the king would have contributed to the rapid development of science. However, all these factors would have been attainable if he lived for a longer period. The fact that his death contributed to the advancement in modern medicine remains important. It is the most convincing evidence in these arguments. Thomas Bradwardine had immense contributions to the development of science.

It is necessary to say that the Black Death was a critical moment in the history of the world, and the number of casualties is astounding. The fact that it is a frequent topic of controversies and discussions should not be disregarded. It is paramount to mention that some authors have suggested theories that are particularly interesting. The work of Michael Dols titled “The comparative communal responses to the Black Death in Muslim and Christian societies” is especially fascinating, and the thesis that is suggested by the author can be regarded as reasonable. However, the issue is that he did not study the documents that were available and did not take into account different opinions on this situation.

The author notes that the dissimilarity between the responses to this disaster is significant and should not be overlooked. Michael Dolls thinks that plague epidemics in Muslim communities did not lead to the creation of movements and other issues that occurred in European countries at that time because of differences in cultures and traditions. He believes that they reacted like they did because they did not think that it was a punishment from God. The author also suggests that Muslims had an opinion that it was not necessary to take the measures to avoid the plague (Dols 275). He has studied a broad range of articles and literature and uses the knowledge that was gained as evidence to support his ideas.

“They were further asked to go on the fourth day, a Friday to the Mosque of the Foot to in order to humbly beseech God to take away this plague” (Albert 11). It is imperative to mention that this passage is especially important because it indicates that Muslims were worried about the situation, and the idea that it was a kind act from God was frequently questioned. The fact that the belief that it was martyrdom was widely spread should not be overlooked, but it is evident that there was no consensus on this issue. It is also quite interesting that it is believed that some rulers have taken advantage of the situation, and have taken control over the property that belonged to individuals that were infected (Necipoglu 69).

It needs to be said that this fact is especially fascinating, and it may mean that rulers intentionally did not try to educate the masses about this problem. Meri suggests that there is a contradiction that is present because plague cannot be perceived as both punishment and reward at the same time (236). It is necessary to note that many authors have tried to address this issue, but it is evident that many Muslims were confused by this event. The problem is that they did not have an understanding of the course of action that should be taken in such situations because it was not precisely stated in the holy books, and there were several interpretations.

“We pled with You, the most honored of the advocates, Mohammed, the Prophet of mercy, that you take away from us this distress” (Albert 114). It is paramount to note that this passage suggests that Muslims agreed that they have sinned and deserved it. However, they are asking for forgiveness, and they believe that the Prophet has the power to stop this pandemic. It is necessary to mention that it can be viewed as a regional problem, and an economic downturn has followed because of territorial aspects (Cohn 412). Another factor that should be noted is that it is believed that one should not enter the territory that is plagued, but cannot leave such area if he or she was there when the pandemic started.

It is necessary to mention that it is an interesting idea from the perspective of religion, but it has lead to numerous casualties. The fact that this caused many discussions among the scientists on the territory of Muslim lands should not be disregarded. It is paramount to note that it signifies that many understood that this issue needs to be addressed, and the population should have learned of what should be an appropriate response in such situations. It needs to be said that many individuals did not agree with this approach, and have escaped. It is paramount to mention that it is especially true for Christians, and many of them tried to educate the masses and they suggested that such behavior is not reasonable in such situations.

“Although the intent of the divine law is innocent of harm, when a problematic statement is contradicted by the senses and observation, it is incumbent upon us to interpret it in a way so that the hadith fits reality” (Albert 115). It is imperative to note that this passage suggests that there were issues with the understanding of the reasoning behind the plague. The biggest problem is that many believed that it cannot be contagious because of religious reasons, and it has led to numerous casualties. On the other hand, some understood that necessary measures should be taken to limit the spread of the disease.

However, the issue is that it was not possible to control the situation because of numerous disagreements. The biggest problem that should be noted is that an enormous number of individuals were illiterate, and did not want to listen to the ideas that were suggested by scholars (Ayalon 23). It is imperative to note that many have acknowledged the fact that it was possible to limit the spread of the disease, but they still believed that God has decided if the person becomes infected or not. Another interesting aspect that needs to be discussed is that some thought that it was a combination of different factors.

In conclusion, it is evident that the thesis that is suggested by Michael Dols. It is imperative to understand that one of the primary causes for the situation that occurred is that many Muslims were not properly educated at that time and were incredibly religious. It should be said that the dissimilarity between the cultures and traditions should not be viewed as the primary issue, and numerous internal and external factors should be taken into account. The core problem is that some of the opinions that were suggested by scientists were rejected, and it has led to severe consequences. It was not an easy task to deal with contradictions that were present, and many scholars were not able to justify what is the correct course of actions in such cases. It is imperative to note that the author was able to identify few possible reasons why Muslims demonstrated such behavior, but did not take some aspects into account.

Works Cited

Albert, John. The Black Death: the great mortality of 1348-1350: a brief history with documents. Boston, NY: Bedford, 2005. Print.

Ayalon, Yaron. Natural disasters in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Print.

Dols, Michael. “The Comparative communal responses to the Black Death in Muslim and Christian societies.” Viator: Mediaeval and Renaissance Studies. 5.1 (1975): 269-288. Print.

Kohn, Samuel K. “Book review: the Black Death in Egypt and England: a comparative study.” Med Hist. 50.3 (2006): 411-412. Print.

Meri, Josef W. Medieval Islamic civilization: an encyclopedia. London, UK: Routledge, 2005. Print.

Necipoglu, Gulru. Muqarnas: an annual on the visual culture of the Islamic world. Leiden, NL: Brill, 1996. Print.

Tragedies do not just disappear in historical upheavals and victories. Large-scale tragedies shape cultures, affecting their psychology, attitudes to religion, art, and economics. The XIV century was marked with an unprecedented tragedy – the pandemic of Black Death. It had a great influence on the cultural and economic life of the medieval Europe, causing people to change their attitudes towards religion, power, and, eventually, hope.

When dealing with pandemic and its influence on culture, one approach is not enough. Researchers should consider environmental conditions of the planet, ideological tendencies, the state of medicine, and other factors to use a holistic approach. It is inappropriate to perceive the problem only in the light of sharply declining numbers of population, and changes in the patterns of settlement. According to Lageras (2016), “the crisis had long-lasting consequences for society, for instance by changing the economic and political relationship between social classes, by agricultural change and by stimulating technological development and increased consumption and trade” (p. 6). To understand the crisis properly, one should admit that it led to colossal changes in society, undermining progress in some spheres and enhancing it in others.

One of the crucial spheres of life affected by the Black Death was religion. There are different opinions as to why people relied on religion during the Black Death. Some state that they did so to overcome suffering and revive hope. There are also opinions that people, especially women, found consolation in religion to empower themselves. French (2013) assumes that “through active participation in their parish church, women could promote their own interests and responsibilities, giving them social and religious significance” (p.1). Many researchers underline the fact that the post-plague period was marked by the changes in the European women’s attitudes to their traditional roles. Therefore, politicians tended to make behavioral rules stricter. For instance, according to French (2013), “communities and families worried about unsupervised women and purchased and recited didactic literature that emphasized modesty, passivity, and silence as the hallmarks of virtuous female behaviour” (p. 4). The role of women in labor market also increased due to workforce shortage. Therefore, the plague influenced the role of women in different spheres of life, affecting perceptions of gender in culture.

As the plague had contributed to the significant loss of population, economic situation changed. Before the plague, the land had been expanding and agriculture had been progressing. Europeans were able to grow more food for the increasing population. The Black Death caused regress in farming. Another implication of the plague was the change in the percentage of the poor. According to Lageras (2016), “two factors – the very high mortality from the plague among poor people and the opportunities for the survivors to improve their status – resulted in a general decrease in the number of poor” (p.25). Landowners proposed more decent conditions to tenants as there was the lack of human resources. Thus, the improvement of working conditions took place, resulting in the increasing willingness of the wealthy to enhance technologies to be more productive regarding labor force shortage.

The Black Death was not the only disastrous disease affecting the medieval Europe. However, there is a significant difference between it and such diseases as cholera or tuberculosis. As Lageras writes, “in contrast to tuberculosis, cholera, and some other diseases, plague is not restricted to the poor and malnourished” (p. 25). The disease could approach anybody, being ruthless to the poorest of the poor as well as to influential ones, underlining the simple truth: everyone is the same to the destiny and death.

Undoubtedly, the Black Death was the disease that led to multiple changes in the medieval society of Europe. It changed the economic participation of women, forced landowners to provide tenants with more proper labor conditions. In addition to this, it led to some changes in gender roles, and illustrated that there were challenges that can affect the standards of the whole society and not just the poorest of the poor.

References

French, K. (2013). The middle ages series: The good women of the parish: Gender and religion after the Black Death. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Lageras, P. (2016). Environment, society and the Black Death: An interdisciplinary approach to the late-medieval crisis in Sweden. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books.