Category: Black Death

The Black Death of the Archbishop had serious implications on the development of contemporary science. It is observable that the archbishop delved into several issues of science. These include different subjects such as physics. He authored varied concepts ranging from velocity to physical science. His death led to an increased level of attention to his earlier scientific works and beliefs. Consequently, many interested philosophers and empiricists started to criticize and develop his postulations.

These initiatives led to rapid development and evolution in various domains. It is real that modern science would have developed more rapidly if Thomas Bradwardine had a long life. There are many factors to support this observation. Foremost, it became clear later after the death that he was also a victim of the plague. It is sad to note that his death played a crucial role seven decades following his death.

The death led to the development of potential domains in modern medicine. Some of these included concepts of epidemiology. Thomas developed deep rationality towards the universe and the existence of God as a supernatural power. His closeness to the king would have contributed to the rapid development of science. However, all these factors would have been attainable if he lived for a longer period. The fact that his death contributed to the advancement in modern medicine remains important. It is the most convincing evidence in these arguments. Thomas Bradwardine had immense contributions to the development of science.

The Black Death brought to Early Modern Europe considerable and irreversible changes. The consequences of the Bubonic Plague are reflected in the complete destruction of all spheres of life. The rapid contraction of the population had a negative impact on political life and the economy in particular. The demographic changes led to changes in trade, in societys attitude to church. The overwhelming depression interfered in music and art, and education as well. That horrible event induced people to a reconsideration of the previous conditions of life. Let us consider the main changes caused by the Black Death and its influence on society (Strocchia, Sharon T. 1).

European economy of that time became the weakest point. The decrease of the population had a considerable on commercial relations since due to the disappearance of the working class which the main basis in the medieval economy, peasants become more conscious and prudent. Consequently, the rural population acquired a more beneficial position since that was the main source of profits and, therefore, they were more appraised the richest layers of the city. In their turn, peasants, who had to work hard to put soul and mind together, consider urban layer parasites that lived off the peasantry. (Huppert, George 16). They view the city as a devouring monster in midst of a subjected countryside (Huppert, George 17). As it can be seen, the urban wealth was due to rural poverty taking advantage of the privileged position.

Bubonic Plague has changed European attitude to the church. After pandemics, the clergy lost their power on the villagers and, therefore was redundant. It was explained by the fact that all the bishops and the massagers of God did not a reasonable explanation for pandemics. Angry villagers expressed the burst of indignation through revolt and were discontent by the absence of answers (Huppert, George 144). They lost their faith in the church and believed that plague was the punishment of God. Consequently, the Christian church lost its reputation among the peasants. The rebellion was the result of the peasant discontent with the power and the reaction to the impossibility of the church to give reasonable answers. Peasants rebellion was also an outcome of their reluctance to feed the urban population and pay taxes and rent.

The Black Death also influenced less important areas of life such as art and education. The Great Depression after the Plague completely changed the plot of the painting and turning into dull reflection mass extinction of the population. Naturally, the development of music stopped at all except music with grim motives.

Dramatic demographic changes were followed by the rise of migration processes. The extreme decrease in population changed the political and economical system. While searching for a better place for living the survivors discovered new continents and set up new settlements. They tried to invent more means for protection and create a new vaccine for diseases. As a result, people began paying attention to education and science and tried to some scientific explanation of the Plague. Therefore, medieval Europe gradually approached a new era where science and knowledge prevailed. The further coming Renaissance period was a logical outcome of the previous event being the next step in the development of humanity. In addition, loss of faith in God and church shifted their attention to the cult of human creatures and the advance of scientific thought.

Works Cited

Huppert, George After the Black Death: a Social History of early modern Europe. US: Indiana University Press, 1998.

Strocchia, Sharon T. The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe. Journal of Social History 38.2 (2004).

Introduction

The Black Death also called Black Plague, or the Great Mortality, is one of the most appalling diseases in Medieval Europe influencing demographic sustainability. The world knows three plague pandemics: the first, Justinians plague (circa AD 541-542), the second called the Black Death (1347-1351) that had secondary waves until the XIX century, and the third that took place in the XIX century. Due to progress in paleogenomics, scientists proved the causing agent of plague was the bacterium Yersinia pestis that is transmitted via contact from an infected animal or human, air, or blood. Three forms of plague are relevant to the forms of the disease: bubonic, lung, and septicaemic.

The most spread forms are bubonic and lung plague, and the latter has shown higher rates of mortality. Bubonic plague received its name due to the appearance of infected lymphatic nodes. The bacterium persists more commonly in the lymphatic system of the groin, armpits, and neck, and increasing pain of the bubonic elements is one of the central symptoms of the disease. The fast spread and its possible causes of the Black Death and its impacts on the European economy are central issues in the history of the second pandemic.

The Acceleration of the Black Death and Its Possible Causes

The spread of the Black Death involved all of Europe, and various data has shown the tendency to acceleration and higher mortality rates within it extend. A study by Earn et al. assessing London Bills of Mortality and Parish Registers has estimated the faster speed of plague spread, so-called acceleration, in XVII century than in XIV century (27707). The possible reasons for that might be the evolution of pathogen or host, shifts in bacteriums genetic code, ecological and demographic changes, and environmental change (Earn et al. 27708).

The primary issue of plague spreading might be mostly focused on the reservoirs of the disease, which are rats and their fleas, the latter identified as Xenopsylla cheopis. The overflow of bubonic plague mostly spread via rat bites distinguishes the form of the disease among other ones. That is why the Black Death was mostly statistically bubonic plague supported by the big number of rats in European cities. Lung form of plague transmitted from person to person by air took more occasions in XVII century. That can be explained by the increase of human population between XIV and XVII centuries. Closer contact between citizens, low level of hygiene led to a faster spread of the Black Death.

The evolution and gene shift commonly occur with the causing agent when humans create an uncomfortable environment for them. Such changes happen during treatment intake, temperature variations, strong immune system fight, and on many other occasions. One can only suggest the cause of pathogen or human evolution; however, the theory of natural selection should have helped humans to overcome the disease. Europe has lost a significant population after the Black Death, and those who survived the disease or stayed resistant to it should have had genetic specialties in their code or immune system.

Modern research proved that genomes of the pathogens causing the Black Death in London and the Modern Plague are 99.99% similar (Earn et al. 27710). That means, throughout history, the main evolutionary changes happened to individuals, not the bacterium. Humans have always varied with sensitivity towards infection: while some are struggling to fight the disease presenting severe symptoms, the others barely feel it has so-called subclinical forms or even asymptomatic forms.

The Impacts of the Black Death on the European Economy

The demographic changes caused by the Black Death had major impacts on the economy. Using basic economic theory, we see that the population downturn caused an inward shift in both the supply and demand curve. This will lead to a new equilibrium in the economy, with a lower production quantity and lower production price. More trivial, we expect the standard of living to decrease using solely fundamental economic theory, and in this segment, we will explore if this theory holds.

Using relevant academic sources, the plague was highly disruptive, causing lasting impacts in the short and long run of the economy (Jedwab 17). The surprising finding is that the wages and income per capita grew in the short run. The wage increase cannot simply be explained by simple supply and demand curves, so we need to dive deeper into economic theory. This phenomenon can be explained by the scarcity of labor in the market (in contrast to capital), leading to a higher valuation of the labor as input and the increased wages. The increase in income per capita can partly be explained by the increased wages, but also additional factors. Given the large decrease in the human population, lead to a less competitive environment and an abundance of resources left by the dead. These resources were then taken by the remaining population, leaving them a higher disposable income for additional necessary resources.

Europe was arguably the hardest hit continent by the Black Death leading to the descent of between 30-60 percent of the population. Therefore, it is surprising that the plague led to a growth spurt in Europe comparing to the rest of the world (Jedwab 19). This can be explained by several different factors, but the most crucial was the abolishment of serfdom and feudalism. Serfdom was a political and structural system that tied individuals to the land, limiting their freedom and ability for personal development. With Serfdom eliminated, it left most of the farmers self-employed giving them a higher incentive to work hard and thus increasing the surplus of production in society.

With this larger surplus, it left more of the labor force available to other pursuits, such as science, art, and literature. The further development in these areas, led to much innovation and increased efficiency in production creating an even higher surplus compared to the Middle East and Asia. It also built the foundation for the supreme military technology and global supremacy the European continent would enjoy in later centuries.

The Black Death also started the demise of the religious institutions, simply because people lost faith when they saw the devastation and death surrounding them. The power vacuum left by the religious institutions was filled by stronger states. Paying taxes to a state compared to a religious institution gives higher returns for the citizens. This is because the state utilizes more of the available resources to improve and create new infrastructure projects. This enables trade between more distant regions which leads to higher efficiency. Additionally, the state is more capable of providing security for its citizens by building fortresses and having an army. Thus, the decreased power of the church gave the citizens of Europe a higher standard of living and more developed societies.

Hence, the acceleration of the plague is one of the central topics of its history and spread. Even though the actual causes of the vast spread of the infection can only be guessed, it is essential to study the possible influencing factors to understand the disease better. The Black Death, surprisingly, put a positive impact on the European economy and countries future growth due to easier access to a resource, improved infrastructure, higher productivity, and technological innovation.

Works Cited

Earn, J. D. David et al. Acceleration of plague outbreaks in the second pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 117, no. 44, 2020, pp. 27703-27711.

Jedwab, Remi, et al. The economic impact of the Black Death. GMU Working Paper in Economics, no. 20-45, 2020, pp. 1-52.

Introduction

Throughout history, there have been many pathogens that are well-known. One of the best-known pathogens is Yersinia Pestis (Y. pestis), more commonly known as the Plague. There are three basic forms of Plague: bubonic, septicemic, and pneumonic. Each form has similar symptoms with small variations, and the mortality rates vary.

Y. Pestis Pathogenesis

The Y. pestis pathogen is a coccobacillus that, when stained with Giemsa, Gram, Wayson’s, or Wright, is a gram-negative pathogen. Y. pestis looks like a safety pin, which makes it easy to identify. It comes from the Enterobacteriaceae family. Y. pestis must be contained in blood if it is to survive. Y. pestis is usually transferred from an oriental rat flea, but it can be transmitted by rats. When the Y. pestis bacteria enters the flea, it backs up the flea’s digestive system. This causes the flea to feel hungry, and it feeds on humans. When it does this, the bacteria is then transferred to the human. While in the flea, the outer layer of the pathogen is lost. Once in the human host, the immune system kills almost all the organisms by polymorphonuclear leukocytes. The tissue macrophages take a few of the bacilli, but they can not kill the Y. pestis. They, therefore, can not create the correct antibodies to fight off the bacteria.

The Y. pestis then spreads to the lymph system and quickly infects them. Many of the symptoms mimic the common flu, which makes it hard to diagnose. In Bubonic Plague, symptoms include high fever, general malaise, buboes (enlarged lymph nodes, usually in groin or neck areas), pain and tenderness in lymph node areas, septicemia, shock, convulsions, necrosis due to hemorrhagic changes, and cyanosis (why they call plague “black death”). Pneumonic Plague has the same symptoms with the inclusion of the lungs turning to liquid and causing the infected individual to cough up the lungs. Septicemic is the deadliest of these three due to it not only having the symptoms of both bubonic and pneumonic Plague, but the body loses the ability to clot. This means that the victim will bleed from all their orifices. (Chamberlain, N. R., & KCOM).

Yersinia Pestis throughout history

There have been three pandemics that have been the most devastating throughout history. The first pandemic lasted from approximately the 6th to 8th AD; this was named the Justinian Plague. The primary outbreak was located in the Mediterranean and eastern areas of the Roman Empire. It killed an estimated 25-50 million people, but that number could be higher. Similar to the outbreaks that followed, this pandemic is attributed to trade routes and changes in climate. The combination of these two factors is attributed to a heightened rat and flea population and an increase in poverty (Horgan, 2015). The second is more commonly known as the Black Plague, which ended the Dark Age. This one lasted from approximately the 14th – 15th century AD.

There are many controversies as to the exact number of people that it killed. They range from 25% to 60% of the European population. This is because the accounts differ between experts, and many are on the more conservative side of things. The last pandemic started in China in the 1860s and lasted until about the early 1900s, and it killed about 10 million people. This outbreak was transported then to the United States, which allowed for other species of animals to carry the disease. These include but are not limited to, squirrels, prairie dogs, chipmunks, and voles. Within the last five years, there have been more recent outbreaks in Madagascar, Africa, and South America. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention -CDC 2015)

Conclusion

Yersinia Pestis is one of the deadliest pathogens there is. During recorded history, Y. pestis has been responsible for some of the most devastating losses of the human population. Y. pestis is a pathogen that can never really be eradicated if there is poverty and unclean practices. The number of deaths has decreased thanks to the discovery of antibiotics. This is solely dependent on whether the correct form is correctly identified so the antibiotic can be administered in a timely manner.

References

1. Chamberlain, N. R., & KCOM. (n.d.). Yersinia pestis. Retrieved from http://www.kcom.edu/faculty/chamberlain/Website/lectures/lecture/plague.htm
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – CDC. (2015). Plague. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/plague/history/index.html
3. Horgan, J. (2015). Pandemic: The Black Death. History Extra. Retrieved from https://www.historyextra.com/period/medieval/pandemic-black-death/

Abstract

Preceding medical and biological research suppressed historic domestic and worldwide pandemics, but is modern society confident in the anterior brand of resilience? The World Health Organization (WHO) publicized an assertion that specified the potential of an unidentified infection as inevitable as opposed to probable, which evokes the process of procuring remedies as an endless quest and a common worldwide priority (Galsper, 2020). Glasper (2020) further suggested the modern-day spread of epidemics is conclusively associated with international travelers or intercontinental migrations.

However, politics and accountability seemingly infringe on the desired level of unison to combat global pandemics. American government suffers bipartisan accords, and lawmakers struggle with government and state authority to regulate threats of pandemics (Klain, 2018). Globally, culpability encumbers public safety in an effort to save economic desires for the perspective country. Experts who conduct investigative research to curb epidemics are confronted with the two main topics of this narration: research resolution for perseverance and the fluctuation of politics.

Epidemics; Trending Analysis

Viruses such as the Bubonic Plague, smallpox, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), and Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) are just a few that have plagued populations for generations on a global scale, claiming millions of lives. The existence of pandemics dates back to the prehistoric age that still afflicts havoc in our current society. Infectious diseases that manifest into epidemics are the leading cause of death in human history (Mead, 2019).

Although widespread viruses prove to be deadly, each disease substantiates different levels of lethal potency. The correlation between the Bubonic Plague and smallpox is both viruses are substantially deadly, but the foundations of the plagues are dissimilar. The Bubonic Plague confirmed a mortality rate of 80%, and the smallpox outbreak verified a mortality rate of 30% (Mead, 2019). Paul Mead (2019), Chief of the Bacterial Diseases Branch of the Center for Disease Control, simulated that pox is caused by a virus, and humans are determined to be the exclusive host of the illness, whereas the spread of the Bubonic Plague generated from the bite of a flea or another host. The conclusion of this study proves the onset of any epidemic is the key to reaching a plausible containment and vaccination. However, medical research and development to curb the effects of a disease is confronted by a social aspect and perspective that sways politicians, which impedes the process (Klain, 2018).

Bubonic Plague

Among a variety of viruses, the Bubonic Plague and smallpox will be examined as a focal point. The Bubonic Plague overwhelmed humankind on a global scale in the mid-1300s. This epidemic was generated in Europe and Asia in 1347 when ships reached a destination in Sicily after crossing the Dead Sea (Dols, 2019). Dols (2019) narrated half of the occupants and workers aboard this ship perished from an illness, and the other half presented unknown symptoms: black boils with oozing pus accompanied by other complications. Despite the need for medical attention, the Sicilian government ordered the ships to leave the harbor. Despite the reaction of the Sicilian government to turn the infected ship away, the plague claimed the lives of 20 million people in Europe, which was later identified as the Bubonic Plague.

According to historical evidence, Europeans learned of the pestilence before the plague ship arrived in the Sicilian Harbor (Mulhall, 2019). Mulhall (2019) specified that Europeans heard of the disease spreading across the trade routes in China, India, Syria, and Egypt. The Bubonic Plague was later termed the “Black Death” Plague and fashioned the alternative title from the ship that crossed the Black Sea into the Sicilian port. The Black Death Plague was deemed highly contagious, which caused widespread infections. In addition to ‘oozing boils,’ other symptoms were fever, chills, vomiting accompanied by diarrhea, and body aches. All of these are attributed to blood and lung infections that result in death when untreated (Mulhall, 2019).

This epidemic was generated from insects and rodents that spread to humans. Once the human was infected, the disease was able to spread to another by simply breathing the same air as the infected individual (Dol, 2019). Politicians warded all imports that impacted local economies, and citizens ultimately suffered the loss of employment. Experts conducting the research urged this type of isolation to minimize the spread, but locals revolted and ultimately rescinded precautions, causing more devastation (Malhall, 2019).

Small Pox

The smallpox epidemic predates the Bubonic Plague, and historians asserted this plague began to eradicate humans 12,000 years ago. The manifestation of smallpox resulted in a highly contagious disease that killed an estimated 7 million people (Meyer et al., 2020). This epidemic was generated in Athens in 430 B.C. and imminently infected Egypt by 1570 B.C. The similarities between the Bubonic Plague and Small are that both developed pus-filled legions that eventually affected the bloodstream and lungs, causing death. Smallpox ultimately caused disfiguration and blindness before inflicting death if untreated.

However, the difference is the onset of the diseases. Smallpox is proven to spread from human to human as opposed to air contagions, and there is no evidence of spread through insects or animals (Meyer et al., 2020). Therefore, humans are the sole host of this plague, but it is believed that healed patients were not susceptible once immunity was established. Therefore, injecting small amounts of the disease would create immunity, but it was not a full-proof vaccination (Meyer et al., 2020). The notion was capitalized in England in 1796, when indirect exposure proved to have a lasting effect (Eto et al., 2019). The WHO finally eradicated the smallpox epidemic in 1980, and the search for a vaccination took centuries to resolve.

Smallpox is blamed for being used as a biological weapon during the French and Indian War in 1763. Historians recalled the British Commanders inflicted the disease against their rivals and reduced the Native American population by 90 percent (Meyer et al., 2020). Rival countries would target opposing rulers with the disease, which would eventually spread throughout the contending regime (Meyer et al., 2020). Despite the deadly aftermath of the smallpox epidemic, this disease was a driving force for political gain, and medical urgencies were suppressed.

Conclusion

Historically, epidemics proved to have an impact on international cultures. Despite the death toll, diseases tore down and built many countries depending on the perspective. However, the threat of plagues continues to be a looming concern. In contrast, the Bubonic Plague and smallpox inflicted international devastation that changed history. Did the effects of past epidemics invoke current lessons to curb looming epidemics? Depending on the perspective amid the COVID-19 infection, the same trepidations experienced centuries ago still remain.

To limit the Black Death and Small Pox epidemics, the source of the disease was pursued much like the intentions of current experts to get rid of the COVID-19 virus. Moreover, locals demand leaders lift restrictions and return to work despite the threat of an active epidemic, similar to the locals reacting to the Bubonic Plague. In addition to the domestic concerns, COVID-19 was generated in another country before infecting America and likewise to the forenamed plagues. This narrative is not to point out blame but to highlight the trending facts of past epidemics, proving history actually repeats itself.

Research and development derive around the onset of the infection; lawmakers and leaders utilize the vulnerability for political gain, and governments ultimately make efforts to curb the pandemic. Economies suffer, and panic strikes the populations. Despite the innovation, the study to curb a pandemic is persistent with past plagues, and the reaction of the populous and politicians presents a comparable trend to the old.

References

1. Dols, M. W. (2019). The black death in the Middle East. Princeton University Press. Retrieved from:https://books.google.com/booksl=en&lr=&id=F22DDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=bubonic+plague&ots=nm7slhXLu&sig=aX4rayfDoEPUbhn3AIg8xOlaojg#v=onepage&q=bubonic%20plague&f=false.
2. Eto, A., Fujita, M., Nishiyama, Y., Saito, T., Molina, D. M., Morikawa, S. & Kanatani, Y. (2019). Profiling of the antibody response to attenuated LC16m8 smallpox vaccine using protein array analysis. Vaccine, 37(44), 6588-6593. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X19311946.
3. Glasper, A. (2020). Potential global pandemics: the role of the WHO and other public health bodies. British Journal of Nursing, 29(5), 322–323. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.12968/bjon.2020.29.5.322.
4. Klain, R. (2018). Politics and pandemics. New England Journal of Medicine, 379(23), 2191–2193. Retrieved from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1813905.
5. Mead, P. (2019). Epidemics of plague past, present, and future. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 19(5), 459–460. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30794–1.
6. Meyer, H., Ehmann, R., & Smith, G. L. (2020). Smallpox in the Post-Eradication Era. Viruses, 12(2), 138. Retrieved from: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/12/2/138/htm.
7. Mulhall, J. (2019). Plague before the Pandemics: The Greek Medical Evidence for Bubonic Plague before the Sixth Century. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 93(2), 151–179. Retrieved from: https://muse.jhu.edu/article/729236.

Introduction

“The Black Death”, “The Great Mortality”, “The Bubonic Plague”, all of these refer to a time in history where disease followed by death were almost inevitable. Disease was covering Europe and killing its people without hesitation; death rates were unbelievably high.

The Ravaging Plague

It is important to realize that about 1/3 of the world’s population was lost during this awful time and the people, at this time, did not understand the plague. They had no idea what was causing this sickness and even thought that slaughtering cats could be the answer. The medical knowledge at this time also made it harder to end the plague due to the limited knowledge they possessed. The doctors of the plague knew so little that they believed they could not be infected with this disease. All of these factors led to the spreading of the disease and mass death in Europe. The Black Death began with tiny creatures that are usually completely ignored by humans, fleas. The bacterium, Y pestis, inhabit the digestive tract of these insects and, because of their small size, the disease spread like wild fire. The disease originally resided in rats, and then rat fleas would suck the blood of the rats, becoming infected themselves.

After a single flea bite, a human would die within a week or less; the quickness of this disease also caused the death rates to climb at exponential rates. The infected human would begin to cough and ache, followed by the appearance of large black boils.1 Next the person would begin to throw up blood and could then have high fevers causing hallucinations.1 Between humans, exposure to body fluid was the only thing needed to become infected and this meant that a simple cough, spreading saliva, could infect anyone nearby.

Between 1347 and 1352, 25 million people were infected and killed by the Black Death.1 Although this seems to be an unimaginable number, the amount of death rates in Justinian’s Plague could have been anywhere from 25 million to 50 million. Because the Black Death caused so many people to die, many jobs were open for those who were left. Peasants were given an opportunity to take on higher paying jobs and possibly do better for themselves. The government, however, began to put laws in place that caused these peasants to not make the money they deserved. Laws and limitations like these are what caused the English Revolt of 1381. The peasants did not believe that this was fair treatment, and so they fought for more rights.

Religious Disruption and Quality

The Ciompi Revolt began over the desire of more rights by the merchant class, which of course was denied by the government. These people rebelled and fought for the rights they felt they deserved. These brave men do in fact take over the oligarchy, however, they were not able to continually keep this power. Because the plague was taking out large masses of people at once, priests were becoming few and far between. Priests were extremely important to have around, however, and therefore the requirements for becoming a priest were done away with.

People of all ages and backgrounds could be priest now and this greatly lower the quality of these priests. One had to have no background of the church and was not required to possess any particular amount of religious knowledge to become a priest. They simply had not been trained and did not know enough about the religion to be a leader in religious affairs.

Conclusion

Even the quality of services for the dead were lowered and the rituals were all but cut out completely. The rate at which people were dying did not allow time for a full ceremony, but only for the bodies to be placed in a graveyard with the other victims of the plague. This plague was a gruesome time for all of Europe and many places suffered massive losses. As previously written, nearly 25 million people died in just under 5 years due to this death ridden Bubonic Plague. The rate at which this disease spread made the situation even worse because doctors could not isolate the infected fast enough. The Bubonic Plague was a negatively extraordinary disease that killed millions in Europe and one can only pray it never appears again.

References

1. “The Black Death: A Personal History” by John Hatcher
2. “The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time” by John Kelly
3. “The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe” by Robert S. Gottfried

Introduction

The Plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. There are three extremely well-known pandemics; the first well-documented crisis was the Plague of Justinian. The most infamous, with the highest estimated death toll, was the Black Death. Then came the Great Outbreak of London as a result of the migration of the bacteria. Yersinia pestis is the lethal bacterium known for killing an estimated 70-200 million people in Europe, Asia, and Africa during the Black Death. Scientists concluded that even though the Plague originated in Asia, it was likely that the fleas that lived on rats, called Xenopsylla cheopis, transported this disease to the other two continents. The two different types include primary bubonic Plague and septicemic Plague. Plague bacteria are most often transmitted by the bite of an infected flea.

Tracing the Footprints of Death: Historical Pandemics

During plague epizootics, many rodents died, causing hungry fleas to seek other sources of blood. The enzootic cycle was when the Y. pestis was able to circulate at low rates within populations of rodents, mostly undetected because it didn’t produce an outbreak. When the bacteria pass to other species during an epizootic cycle, humans face a greater risk of becoming infected with plague bacteria. People and animals that were near areas where dead infected animals were were at risk of being infected from flea bites. Dogs and cats also plague-infected fleas into homes.

From the teeth of plague victims, scientists have pieced together a family tree of Y. pestis, discovering that the strain from the Justinian Plague was related to, but distinct from, other strains of the Plague. Scientists discovered last year, during the construction of the new cross-rail underground rail link beneath London, recovered DNA of Yersinia pestis from skeletons from the Great Outbreak of London. The DNA was identified by teams of scientists from the Museum of London Archeology (MOLA) and the Max Plank Institute in Germany.

Tooth enamel preserved the genetic information of any bacteria that was circulating in the individual’s bloodstream at the time of death. The bacteria perished shortly after its host did, so the remains posed no risk. Stable isotope analysis of strontium (a highly chemically reactive element) and oxygen in the individuals’ teeth enabled scientists to learn if they were native Londoners or if they moved to the city from elsewhere. Carbon and nitrogen isotopes revealed how much meat, vegetables, and seafood they ate. Microbiome DNA from their teeth helped to further determine which airborne particles and pollutants they ingested in life.

Unlocking the Genetic Secrets: From Ancient Victims to Modern Revelations

Many scientists believed that the Y. pestis could not have been the cause of the Plague because of how mild other Bubonic plagues were in comparison to ancient outbreaks like the Black Death. A team led by Didier Raoult, a microbiologist at the University of the Mediterranean in Marseilles, France, successfully recovered Y. pestis DNA from the teeth of a child and two adults dug up from a fourteenth-century mass burial site in Montpellier. The team identified the bacterium using a sensitive technique called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify a portion of a gene from Y. pestis called pla. Proving that the Y. pestis was the bacterium during the plague outbreaks.

Hendrik Poinar, a palaeogeneticist at McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada, who co-led the sequencing efforts, considered drilling into teeth and bones to find Y. pestis DNA but wasn’t satisfied with the available detection tools, which were based on PCR. Next-generation DNA sequencers (machines that read short amounts of DNA) could sequence DNA that had been damaged, spending hundreds of years underground. The sequencers allowed Svante Pääbo, a palaeogeneticist at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, and his team to sequence a draft of the Neanderthal genome. However, finding and sequencing ancient pathogens in a human skeleton was extremely difficult. Pääbo and his team developed a technique called targeted capture. Using lab-synthesized DNA, it isolated ancient DNA strands from a bone sample, leaving soil microbes and other sequences behind.

In an experiment published in August of this year, Krause and Poinar’s team used sequences from a contemporary plague strain to find and isolate Y. pestis DNA from the teeth of the buried victims. They then sequenced a short loop of DNA called the pPCP1 plasmid (the plasmid partially responsible for bubonic plague infection in humans).

Their results have convinced most scientists that the bubonic Plague was involved in the Black Death. In their most recent paper1, Poinar and Krause completed the ancient genome and showed that it sits at the root of an evolutionary tree that comprises 17 contemporary strains of Y. pestis. This indicates that the Black Death strain spawned many of the forms of Y. pestis that infect humans today.

Conclusion

Y. pestis seemed to have changed very little over the past 660 years. The genome of the Black Death strain differs from the modern Y. pestis, but each genetic difference is found in at least one contemporary strain. These results contradict the findings of Pionar and Krause as there is no evidence for why the bacterium could suddenly create such a massive outbreak as the Black Death. The team is now looking for other genetic changes that could account for the ferocity of the Black Death, such as rearrangements in the genomes.

References

Introduction

The topic that I chose was how the bubonic plague would spread if there was a modern-day pandemic. I chose this exploration because the bubonic plague interests me. I learned in history class about the Black Death, which wiped out around two-thirds of the world’s population during the fourteenth century (Benedictow). I wanted to know if it was possible for the bubonic plague to spread and be fatal to that degree during modern times. I have always been interested in diseases, and this gives me the perfect opportunity to look into something I am interested in. The bubonic plague was spread by fleas that had been infected by Yersinia pestis (Plague). Typically, a person who is infected wouldn’t know for about one to seven days (Plague). This allows the disease to grow and spread in the lymph nodes of the human host’s body, which could go to the lungs and kill the person (Plague). When the host has the pneumonic plague, they can spread it to the people around them. In this exploration, the math that can be used is probability, mainly conditional probability, expected value, and tree diagrams. This math can be used because I will be tracking the spread of the disease from host to host.

Body

Spread Dynamics

The Bubonic Plague is caused by the bacteria Yersinia Pestis, which is transferred by rodents or fleas (Plague). In my exploration, I am saying that there is no way to prevent the plague, such as pest control or a vaccine. Pest control would lessen the chances of fleas and rats being able to be in close proximity to people. The vaccine or other ways of treatment also need to be taken out of the equation because I am just focusing on how fast the plague could spread without those factors. I will be using New Mexico as the place for which I will be infected. New Mexico is one of the common places in the United States where the plague can occur (‘FAQ | Plague | CDC.’).

Rodents carry fleas, which can then be transferred to people. Around 63% of cases of the plague in New Mexico come directly from flea bites (PLAGUE IN NEW MEXICO ). This leaves 37% that come from other sources. The other sources can include fluids from an infected animal, being scratched, and inhaling droplets from an animal or person with pneumonic plague (PLAGUE IN NEW MEXICO ). Mexico has a population of about 2,090,708 people (‘World Population Review’). The equation that represents how many people are affected by rodents in New Mexico is y=(x100)2090708. In this equation, y is the number of people who have a rodent problem, and x is the average percentage of people who have rodent problems. I can use this equation and make a table out of it to see how many people could be affected by rats. The equation is only good when 0X100. This is because there cannot be negative people, and there cannot be more people than there already are.

Potential Impact and Mortality

Having rat problems potentially exposes people to fleas, which can carry the Yersinia Pestis bacteria, which is the cause of the Bubonic Plague. The probability of getting the plague directly from a flea bite is 63% or .63 (PLAGUE IN NEW MEXICO). If someone has a rodent problem, it can be assumed that the fleas will eventually change what they host and jump to other mammals in the household. The probability of getting the plague from anything but a direct flea bite is 37% or .37 (PLAGUE IN NEW MEXICO). A tree diagram can be used to potentially show how a family of four could possibly become infected.

From the diagram, we can see that the probability of all four people getting infected from a flea bite is .15752961. The probability of all four getting infected from anything but a flea bite is .01874161. Most people appear to get the plague from a flea bite rather than by other forms of transmission. For the next part, I will focus on how people could get infected just by getting bitten by fleas.

If the person has a dog or cat, the fleas will use the dog or cat as a host as well as people. The American Veterinary Medical Association states that “New Mexico ranks second in the nation for pet ownership with 67.6 percent of the state’s households owning a pet” (Gerew). The fleas could spread the bacteria from rat to cat or dog to human. Cats and dogs have an average of twenty fleas but can have up to 200 or 300, but 150 is a high amount (“How Many Fleas Can Live on a Cat or Dog?”). Since 300 is the maximum amount of fleas, the denominator for probability has to be 300. So the P(fleas on the cat) = 115 and the P(fleas on the dog)=115.

The probability is 115 because that is what 20300 is reduced to. Since 67.6% of people in New Mexico have pets, we can multiply the total population of New Mexico by .676, which is 67.6% in decimal form. So .6762090708=1413318.608, and since it is not a full person, I will round up; this means that 1413319 people in New Mexico will have pets. Since the average number of fleas on dogs and cats is 20 (“How Many Fleas Can Live on a Cat or Dog?”), This means that there is a 120 chance of a flea jumping onto a human from a dog or cat. With this information, I can make an expected value chart.

The expected value for the future is 143.5 or 2872 when you add the X P(X) column together. In the future, there could be more than 20 fleas on a person at once. I can also use the numbers with fleas and pets to do conditional probability.
PFleas|Has Pets=PFleasPetsPPets
PFleas=120
P(Pets)=.676
P(Fleas Pets)=1695000
PFleas|Has Pets=(169/5000).676
PFleas|Has Pets=.05

There is a 5% that a person will have at least one flea jump onto them given that they have pets. In New Mexico, 33105 species of fleas have been found to carry the Yersinia Pestis bacteria (PLAGUE IN NEW MEXICO). Based on my findings above, I can multiply 5% by the species of fleas ( .0533105=11700 ) to find out the chance of someone getting bitten by a flea that can carry the bacteria, which is a 1.57% chance. Out of the 1413319 people who have pets, 1.57% will get bitten by a flea that carries the bacteria; this is 141331911700=22209.29857, and it has to be rounded up to 22210.
In relation to rodents with fleas, 29% of people will have a rodent problem (“Of Mice and Men”). Using the earlier equation, y=(x100)2090708, I can plug in 29 as X. (29100)2090708=606305.32. There would be 606306 people in New Mexico that would have rodents in their homes. On average, each rat will carry 4.1 fleas (Frye); there is a 14 chance of the fleas jumping into people. Conditional probability can also be used here to find the percentage of people who will get bitten by fleas, given that they have a rodent problem.

PFleas|Has Rodents=PFleasRodentsPRodents
PFleas=14
P(Rodents)=.29
P(Fleas Rodents)=29400
PFleas|Has Rodents=(29/400).29
PFleas|Has Rodents=.25

Given the calculations, 25% of these people who have rodent problems will have been bitten by a flea. Since 33105 species carry the bacteria, I can multiply the number of people who have rodents by 25%, then multiply that number by 33105 to find the number of people who could get the plague just from having rodent problems.

606306.25=151576.5rounded up, that is 151577 people who will get bitten by a flea if they have a rodent problem. I can then take the 151577 people and multiply that by the number of fleas that carry the bacteria to find the number of people who will have the bacteria. 15157733105=47638.48571rounded up, this is 47639 people. Adding this number to the people who have pets and could get infected, 47639+22210=69849 people will get infected directly from a flea bite. The bubonic plague, if left untreated, is deadly about 50% of the time (PLAGUE IN NEW MEXICO). Taking the number of people infected by flea bites and multiplying by 50% or .50, 69849.50=34924.5rounded up is 34925 people will die of the plague just from getting bitten by a flea if they have a rodent problem or pets.

Conclusion

The Bubonic Plague is notorious for having been the cause of death for millions in Europe when an outbreak occurred in the fourteenth century (Benedictow). I decided that I wanted to find out whether or not the plague could be that deadly in modern times. To do this, I used New Mexico and used probability to find out the numbers. I used a tree diagram to show the different ways a small family could get the plague and the probability of each way; I used expected value as well as conditional probability. From my calculations, I have found out that the bubonic plague could come back, just not as deadly as it once had been. Only 34,925 people out of the 2,090,708 people in New Mexico would die from the bubonic plague; this is 1.67% of the population, which is not close to the 60% of the population that died in the fourteenth century (Benedictow). In conclusion, the bubonic plague currently will never be as bad as it was in the fourteenth century.

References

1. Benedictow, Ole Jørgen. “The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever.” History Today, vol. 63, no. 3, 2013, pp. 2-8.
2. Gerew, Sam. “New Mexico Ranks Second in the Nation for Pet Ownership.” KVIA, 4 Nov. 2019, https://kvia.com/news/new-mexico/2019/11/04/new-mexico-ranks-second-in-the-nation-for-pet-ownership/.
3. Frye, Matt. “Fleas on Rats and Cats.” Pest Control Daily, 18 Feb. 2022, https://pestcontroldaily.com/fleas-on-rats-cats/.
4. “How Many Fleas Can Live on a Cat or Dog?” PetMD, 11 Mar. 2020, https://www.petmd.com/dog/general-health/how-many-fleas-can-live-cat-or-dog.
5. “PLAGUE IN NEW MEXICO.” New Mexico Department of Health, https://www.nmhealth.org/about/erd/ideb/zdp/plg/.
6. “World Population Review.” World Population Review, https://worldpopulationreview.com/states.

The Church played a significant role in the lives of medieval peoples during the Middle Ages. Religion was involved in almost every aspect of daily life, so much so that during this time the laws of Europe were governed by the Church. When the Black Death devastated Europe from 1347 onwards, the damaging consequences meant that the reputation of the Christian church suffered as a result as they were unable to provide any answers or reasoning for the pestilence. The Medieval Europeans turned to the Church and its officials in a time of crises searching for an explanation that provided a degree of order and solidity. The faith and overall confidence in the Church and its followers from the laypeople diminished during the plague and following outbreaks that showed no signs of hindering. Consequently, the people have presented the “human” side of the Church that was unable to save them from the onslaught of the plague (McLaurine, 2017).

It is important to note that prior to the plague the church had already begun to experience a decline in faith. The institution had progressively become more secular as its focus began to turn towards wealth and abusive political power, thus, it was already in a weakened state. Hence why the plague had such damaging effects due to the deterioration of hierarchal bureaucracy already in occurrence. The increasingly corrupt system was forced to respond when its spiritual and informative capabilities were so heavily depended on. Europeans did not experience a decline in their faith in God, but rather a decline in their confidence in the ability of the institution of the Church (Kelly, 2006). In addition to this, the church had experienced a major deterioration in the quality of its clergy. Great numbers of church officials succumbed to the plague, and consequently, the individuals selected to replace these could not adequately complete the roles. Because of this, there was also a significant upsurge in the flagellant movement, in which groups of both men and women would publicly flog their bodies in an attempt to reconcile with God whilst preaching their own Christianity when without permission, posed a serious threat to the church. Another disturbing exploit that emerged in the wake of the pestilence was the extensive violence directed at the Jewish population. The Christians and Jews had a longstanding tension and with the arrival of the plague, it was believed that the Jews were responsible and so violent attacks were inflicted upon them. Though Western society ultimately recovered from the presence of the black death, its population had been significantly reduced, however, more importantly, the structure of society and the foundations that had been relied on for many years was changed in lasting ways (McLaurine, 2017).

Although at the time it seemed as though it was the end of the world, the benefits derived from the devastating pestilence were numerous. The Black Plague brought immense scientific and economic benefits to the people of Europe through a series of breakthroughs in medicine and technology that revolutionized the medieval world. The black death has been estimated to have wiped out a third of the European population and as a consequence, there was a shortage of people available or willing to carry out labor services. There was a high demand for service among the nobles and so, taking the opportunity to improve their lifestyle, laborers began to demand higher wages along with better working conditions with fewer responsibilities (Kelly, 2006). Moreover, the high rate of mortality allowed for the minority of survivors to benefit through inheritance which when distributed through fewer hands and higher wages, meant the European population was able to earn a considerably larger amount of money. Prior to the plague, there was a distinct social hierarchy, with the new redistribution of concentrated wealth this structure began to crumble as the differences between the poor and the wealthy became fewer. Depopulated parishes consolidated, Large neighborhoods replaced small villages, infrastructure grew in size and quality, and large regional centers and cities were constructed and expanded at a rapid rate as laborers, apprentices, and servants were drawn in from the countryside (Braxton-smith, 2009).

During the continuous outbreak of the Plague, Europe became a labor-scarce environment, which encouraged the creation and development of labor-saving technology as people had to come up with new and innovative ideas to meet the growing economy. Because of this, countless useful devices were invented in a time of need, many being the foundation for advanced technology in modern society. One was Johann Gutenberg’s printing press, developed to replace the extensive amount of monastic copyists who had perished as a result of the black plague, allowing books to be produced in mass, at a lower price as it required less physical labor. The high rate of mortality and need for physical labor meant that there was a lack of men readily available to fight in the army, subsequently, the wages of soldiers increased and so did the cost of war. However, this led to the development of various firearms, some including canons and muskets, weapons able to cause a great deal of damage to compensate for the limited soldiers available. Due to the increased demand for bullion and metal for guns, there was a general expansion in mining and metallurgy, the developments that instigated the creation of many other technologies including water pumps, and new techniques in shaft shoring (Gottfried, 1983).

The Black Death was the deadliest pandemic to ever hit mankind- killing more than 75 million people every day. This pandemic came with many devastating after-effects causing the world to rebuild itself, this horrific plague killed a third of Europe. The effects of the Black Death have short-term and long-term effects on the human population across the world, the short-term effects include a series of trade difficulties, large shortages of agricultural laborers, and extreme poverty for peasants. The long-term effects included the decrease in the population, the confidence in the churches, and the vicious attack on Jews. These are all of the topics that I will cover in this assignment.

When the trade increased it had brought many positive changes in particular when the larger trading routes were established. Which then had a large impact on trade with the west. When the trade grew, towns and cities started popping all over Europe, when the trade started to grow so did the population. The cities and towns started becoming very fertile places because they all lived very closely together and with fleas and rats, this all started when the population started to increase. This then started to expand the disease even more and increased the potential damage to the world. According to BBC UK published on February 11, 2017, they wrote that” rats and fleas carried the Black Death across Asia and Europe which was helped by man’s trading routes.”. In the end, the trading difficulties largely influenced the spread of the Black Death.

When the worker population decreased, the land and the farms didn’t improve as much as they needed to. When most of the workers and their animals died, the remaining laborers had more tools and land to work. They became more productive and produced more goods and services, when the workers were more productive the employers were more willing to pay higher wages. Many workers were needed to gather grains, so the employers decided to care for sheep. Looking after sheep needed a smaller amount of workers, When their wages began to rise the workers were able to shop for more vegetables, fruit, and clothing. The workers became able to move away from their employer’s land and buy their own land to live on. An article called the Economist published on October 21 2013 they had said that “ the Black Death was literally swamped by the post-Plague inflation, so that real wages fell, which then led to an abrupt rise in real wages, for both agricultural laborers and peasants”. The decrease of population caused by the plague boosted the wages of the workers, therefore the workers began to appreciate an outstanding living and more freedom.

The Black Death killed more than sixty percent of Europe’s population. Once occupied towns the remaining people were left to live there in ruins after the Black Death. Elderly people were most likely to contract the disease, but the plague killed healthy and young people as well. The world population lessened dramatically by about sixty to seventy-five million people. The population of Western Europe didn’t reach its 1348 level until the start of the 16th century. Forbes published that “Dr. Weite examined the skeletal remains of 464 pre-Black Death Londoners who died in the 11th to 13th Centuries. She also examined the remains of 133 post-Black Death Londoners who died between 1350 and the mid-16th Century. Given the better standard of living following the Black Death, Dr. DeWitte reasoned that the post-Black Death population should have lived longer. And that’s exactly what she found.“ At the end of 1350, the survivors of the Black Death realized that their nightmare was finally ending.

Local churches were largely involved in medieval times because religion was a very major feature of Christian’s daily life. The reason why people lost confidence in churches was that they thought that God was displeased with them since some people had lost faith in the church, so the church had weakened its position in society. When the plague hit Europe, church’s began to feel the strain and started to attempt to fix the consequences of the plague but their reputation suffered as a consequence. According to Wikipedia, they had said that “ Eventually the losses were replaced by hastily trained and inexperienced clergy members, many of whom knew little of the rigors of their predecessors. New colleges were opened at established universities, and the training process sped up”. The Black Death had a huge impact on the church’s and the churches were largely affected.

Jews were commonly blamed for the Black Death, during the period of the Black Death more than 200 hundred Jewish communities were abolished. They were wiped out because people thought that they were the main reason why all this is happening, Jews were accused of poisoning food and water sources. Because of that accusation, all of the men, women, and babies were massacred, the accusations and the massacres only took place in 1348 and 1351. Thousands of Jewish communists were ruined by violence in the Black Death Massacres, this was a form of genocide. According to MPRA( Munich personal reps archive), they published that “this evidence is highly consistent with the claim that contested political authority made Jewish community’s more vulnerable in the medieval times”. To conclude this paragraph the Jews were wrongly accused and in my opinion, it was not fair how they were treated.

Before the speedy spread of the Black Death, Europe was overpopulated and had many land shortages, in conclusion, the Black Death had many positive impacts on the population.