Category: Birth Order

The argument of how an individual’s sexual orientation is determined is constantly up for debate. Some might argue that one is born gay while others may disagree and say that sexual orientation is a choice. A theory called “the older brother effect” may be used to argue that sexual orientation may be biological rather than social according to researchers in Toronto (LeVay, 2016, p. 135). They believe that on average gay men have more older brothers compared to straight men. Because this theory cannot apply to females it has also been called the fraternal birth order effect. This theory was proposed individually by Eliot Slater, Pat Moran, and Edward Hare during the 1960s to the 70s; But it was researched more in depth by Blanchard, Kenneth Zucker, and Anthony Bogaert since the early 1990s. They have published at least 25 papers on this particular subject (LeVay, 2016, p. 135).

Eliot Slater created The Slater’s Index which is used to represent the position of a person’s birth order. To use this you divide the person’s total amount of siblings with the number of the person’s older siblings. Although, this index cannot be applied to men without any siblings for obvious reasons. According to the Toronto research group’s research, their study showed that from their samples of gay men, the Slater’s Index was slightly higher compared to those of straight men. The reason for gay men having a higher Slater’s Index than the straight men in their study could have been due to the fact that they could have more older brothers, more older sisters, fewer younger brothers, or fewer younger sisters (LeVay, 2016, p. 135-6). According to Bogaert and Blanchard, each older brother increases the chance that a man will be gay with the same set percentage of the previous value which is 33% (LeVay, 2016, p. 139). However, some other studies show different results. For example, a study done by Schwartz and his colleagues found that the first two older brothers only have a small impact but grows with three or more older brothers.

Blanchard has emphasized that relying only on studies conducted on Western populations have limitations because male androphilia can be expressed differently depending on the individual’s culture (Vanderlaan & Vasey, 2009). In non-Western cultures there are gender categories for androphilic males that are outside of simply “men” and “women.” One study done by Doug P. Vanderlaan and Paul L. Vasey investigated birth order and sexual orientation in androphilic and gynephilic males in Samoa. Androphilic males in Samoa are referred to as fa’afafine which directly translates into “in the manner of a woman” (Vanderlaan & Vasey, 2009). However, fa’afafines do not limit themselves to only presenting themselves in a feminine manner. They present themselves in a variety of ways and can range from being very feminine to very masculine. This particular study was done on 133 men who self-identified as fa’afafine and 208 self-identified straight men by using questionnaires asking questions about sexual orientation and age. The study showed that although patterned differently, the older brother effect was apparent in the Samoan population as well. The gynephilic males showed to have fewer older brothers than expected, fa’afafines tended to be born later among their brothers compared to the gynephilic males, and the mothers of fa’afafine tended to have more children than the mothers of gynephilic males (Vanderlaan & Vasey, 2009).

It is important to note that the older brother effect is not the only factor in determining whether or not a man will be gay. But Blanchard, Bogaert, James Cantor, and Andrew Paterson used statistical techniques and estimated that around 15% of gay mens’ sexual orientation was determined by the older brother effect. This estimate was then increased to 29% by Blanchard and Bogaert using different samples as well as methods. However, these estimates were criticized due to the fact that there were historical trends in family size (LeVay, 2016, p. 140). In the early 19th century the average number of children an American woman would have was 7 which has since dropped to 2 today. If in fact 29% of gay men owe their sexual orientation to the older brother effect, then the number of gay men should have been much higher two centuries ago. Bogeart explained his side and believed that homosexuality in the U.S. has declined but this statement has been proven to be unlikely.

So what causes the older brother effect? A possible explanation is that the older brother effect does not necessarily increase a man being interested in the same sex but rather that he will admit to same-sex attraction when asked in a survey (LeVay, 2016, p. 141). This particular behavior can also be due to the fact that they are trying to stand out from the first born son by showing more rebellion or being open to new experiences and ideas. A biological factor for this theory can also be determined by the mother’s immune system. According to a study done by Bogeart and his colleagues the mother of gay men have immune systems that “remembers” the earlier pregnancy which could influence sexual orientation (LeVay, 2016, p. 143). When a woman is pregnant with males she may be exposed to certain antigens. Then they may develop antibodies so that when the mother’s immune system comes across the antigens again, the antibodies are able to block their function resulting in the fetus being less stereotypically masculine than their heterosexual counterparts.

In conclusion, although the older brother effect theory is certainly interesting and can explain homosexuality in males it is also fair to say that it is not always the case. However, it is important to acknowledge the research and the findings done by the mentioned researchers. Sexual orientation is still a widely talked about subject that always has new findings everyday. With improving technology and research, in the future, we will be able to learn more in depth about sexual orientations.

“Androgyny is not trying to manage between the opposites; it is simply flowing between them”, says American analytical psychologist Dr June Singer. The past few years have been a period of dramatic changes in how people view others as well as themselves in terms of their respective gender roles. The preconceived notions regarding the traditional gender roles and the roles that each individual has to play in their own lives have been challenged, discussed and debated upon. The whole world is embracing changes and so do the people. Androgyny falls into the category of such changes which gives a broader idea to gender roles; a form of integration rather than that of polarization.

Sex-roles can be conceptualized in a different manner rather than the usual way of classifying into either masculine or feminine. This re-conceptualization focus on a combined aspect more than singular, independent concepts. Further, it reflects the idea that androgyny deals with a combination of both masculine and feminine traits that are interchangeably used to perform various life roles. In the light of androgyny, masculinity and feminity are not considered as contradictory; instead they are now regarded as complementary. Bem (1974) suggested the most familiar definition of androgyny: having the flexibility to engage in both masculine and feminine behaviors as the specific situation warrants. Since such a flexibility exists, androgynous individuals differ from one another with respect to their beliefs, behaviors, attitudes, values, life roles and so on. These variations have brought about different ways of defining psychological androgyny among the research community.

In light of these information, it is advisable to discuss various theoretical concepts in relation to androgyny. There exists several theories of personality that deal with how the personality and related characteristics of an individual is formed, what factors influence personality growth and so on. Alfred Adler’s theory on personality is a framework of how an individual’s personality is formed. This theory emphasizes the importance of birth order (whether the individual is the first born, second born, last born, only child etc.) in the development of personality. According to Alfred Adler’s birth order theory, the category of ‘only boy among girls’ may tend to be effeminate. Also the category of ‘only girl among boys’ may show tendencies to be tomboys and try to outdo the brothers. While a masculine self-concept leads to the inhibition of feminine behaviors, and a feminine self-concept to the suppression of masculine behaviors, the androgynous individual integrates both feminine and masculine traits. There is a chance for these two birth order categories to show psychological androgyny. In this context, it is important to make a comparison between the two categories.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) developed theories of personality that focused on a therapist’s need to understand an individual within the context of social environment. According to Adler, character traits and behaviors derive primarily from developmental issues, including birth order. Apart from the usually discussed categories of firstborns, middleborns, lastborns etc, Adler has also mentioned about various other birth order categories in his theory. Adler describes an only boy among girls. He suggests, this boy may develop into an adult who is always trying to prove his manhood or, conversely, may become effeminate. An only girl among boys may become very feminine or, attempting to outdo the boys, may become a tomboy. She may also tend to work hard to please her father.

In this context, it is important to discuss about the concept of psychological androgyny. The 1970s brought forth a new concept in masculinity and femininity research: the idea that healthy women and men could possess similar characteristics. Androgyny emerged as a framework for interpreting similarities and differences among individuals according to the degree to which they described themselves in terms of characteristics traditionally associated with men (masculine) and those associated with women (feminine). Androgyny comes from the Greek word andros meaning ‘man’ and gyne meaning ‘woman’. An androgynous person is, therefore, one who has both masculine and feminine characteristics. Masculinity and feminity consist of a multitude of dimensions and so androgyny can be viewed as a combination of these dimensions.

The major underlying assumption of this perspective of sex roles is that the individual may act in either a traditionally masculine or a traditionally feminine manner, depending on situation constraints and needs. An androgynous person is characterized as having both high masculine and high feminine traits without employing a gender schema; circumstances dictate which trait feminine or masculine is exhibited by an androgynous person. Research on psychological androgyny has tried to address mainly two questions which focused on Western cultural assumptions about socialization to traditional sex roles, thereby discussing psychological adjustment and mental health of individuals who are psychologically androgynous.

Psychological androgyny is a term used to describe someone whose personality traits fall somewhere in between the traits that are typically associated with males and those that are typically associated with females. In other words, psychological androgyny refers to a person’s ability to be at the same time nurturant and aggressive, rigid and sensitive, and submissive and dominant. The main explanation for the improvement of psychologically androgyny is offered by Sandra Bem. She is an American psychologist recognized for her works in gender and androgyny studies. This was something close to a revolution in how people think of gender. In other words, this brought about a sense of flexibility in terms of gender. Sandra Bem’s approach is based on gender schema theory wherein children have functioning schemas.

The gender schema theory tries to explain the cognitive process that happens as people learn and internalize gender roles. This theory denotes that gender becomes a core lens through which people learn to see the world, recognize people, things and characteristics as being inherently feminine and masculine. Sandra Bem states that if a person takes on both feminine and masculine personality traits in profusion, they become mentally androgynous. It means that they can pick personality traits as they want and people are not inhibited by cultural stereotypes symbolizing their sex. However, it is essential that one should not be confuse psychological androgyny with hermaphroditism. When an individual is a hermaphrodite, he is of mixed sex. Thus the person’s sex may not be definable. The androgyny person, on the hand other hand, has mixed gender.

Psychologically androgynous individuals may be able to interact with the external world in terms of a much varied and rich spectrum of opportunities. Since androgyny is a broad concept, it allows individuals to accept and embrace not only the strengths of their own gender but also that of the other one. This further paves the way for people with psychological androgyny to increase their repertoire of responses to the environment by almost two times than the non-androgynous individuals. This also allows them to come out of the dichotomy of some of the traits that are stereotypically allotted to each gender. When individuals who are psychologically androgynous in nature possess abilities to make use of behaviors that might be both assertive and yielding, instrumental and expressive and also both feminine and masculine, strongly sex-typed people may have a more limited “behavior arsenal”.

There has been different views on the psychological well being of individuals who are psychologically androgynous in nature. Contradicting viewpoints exist regarding the self esteem of such individuals. Several researches has also taken place to find out whether psychological androgyny is psychoprotective in nature. There has been arguments that psychological androgyny is adaptive in nature. Also that it has close associations with creativity and greater social adjustment.

The current study also includes the concept of self-esteem. Self-esteem is a positive or negative orientation toward oneself; an overall evaluation of one’s worth or value. Self-esteem is only one component of the self-concept, which Rosenberg defines as ‘totality of the individual’s thoughts and feelings with reference to himself as an object”. It can be considered a sort of measure of how much a person “values, approves of, appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself” (Adler & Stewart, 2004). It can be said that self-esteem comes into being when the ‘self’ present inside a human body can make value judgments based on internal or external sources or factors. Consequently, the judgments or evaluations may become very subjective which adds on to the diversified experiences or observations on self-esteem of different individuals. Fundamentally, in order to make such value judgments, one has to put together some basic frameworks like what one really is and what one is doing into an understandable and relatable concept. In its essence, the self-esteem of an individual can be summarized as all the judgments that the person can make about him or her while assessing oneself, what one possess, who one is, what he or she is capable of etc.

Self-esteem is not the same as the self-concept. However, self-esteem can be a part of an individual’s self or the self-concept. Self-concept deals with the individuals idea on who he or she is. It is basically how one answers the question of “Who am I?”. So it is necessary that self-esteem be considered as a different yet related construct to self-concept.

Early experiences in an individual’s life may contribute to his or her level of self-esteem. Parents, siblings, teachers, peers and several other significant figures in the individual’s life has an apparent role in contributing to his or her own self-esteem, thereby allowing those individuals to approach life-events and life in general with more confidence, enthusiasm as well as assertiveness. According to the World Health Organization’s recommendations mentioned in “Preventing Suicide” published in 2000, it is essential to strengthen students’ self-esteem in order to protect children and adolescents against mental illnesses, distress and despondency, thereby empowering and also enabling them to adjust, cope, manage and overcome difficult, stressful or negative situations in life. This can also help people in setting their goals appropriately and also in finding better ways of achieving them. However, it is essential to consider the importance of maintaining a balance regarding this construct. This in turn means that it is ideal to strike a balance between high and low self-esteem. To be more precise, maintaining a realistic yet positive view of oneself may be considered as the best way of putting it all together.

The term ‘self-esteem’ has been widely used in various contexts and has been centered upon conceptualizations that are closely related to personality variables that may deal with how people generally feel about themselves, based on their feelings of self-worth and also regarding their ways of evaluating their own abilities as well as attributes. So, people high self-esteem evaluate themselves more positively and experience higher feelings of self-worth than do low self-esteem people (Brown, 1998). Because of this complex nature of the concept of self-esteem, many researchers use it in different ways. This explains the fact that the dynamics of self-esteem is complex in nature and it requires a deeper understanding of the related concepts of self-esteem too.

Self-esteem does seem to have two .good effects (Baumeister, 2013). These good effects primarily include happiness because the value judgments that one makes about oneself may define how happy he or she is about his or her self. This is more evident in those with high self esteem. In fact, the person feels happy to consider how good he or she is. The other good effect or benefit of high self-esteem is initiative. This means that high self-esteem may help individuals in trusting and also acting on their own beliefs and impulses.

Another related concept being studied is cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility is the human ability to adapt the cognitive processing strategies to face new and unexpected conditions in the environment (Cañas, Quesada, Antolí and Fajardo, 2003). This increases an individual’s ability in adapting to new situations, encountering changes, overcoming obstacles thereby finding novel and flexible ways of facing them. It is generally said that the cognitive flexibility increases with the number of neural pathways and connections made in the brain. The more number of neural pathways available, the more connections can be made.

Cognitive flexibility is the ability to break old cognitive patterns, overcome functional fixedness, and thus, make novel (creative) associations between concepts (Guilford, 1967). In other words, cognitive flexibility refers to the brain’s ability to transition from thinking about one concept to another. This means that the quicker the person is able to switch or shift their thinking from one dimension (e.g. color of an object) to another (e.g. shape of an object), the greater their level of cognitive flexibility. In its essence, cognitive flexibility may help individuals pursue complex tasks. This may include multitasking and finding new, innovative or adaptable solutions to various problems as well as changing demands.

This kind of flexibility is also responsible for updating new information into the person’s belief system. This is especially important when the person comes to know some piece of information better than his or her own existing knowledge. Cognitively flexible people may also have an expanded sense of awareness. Since they can easily adapt to new situations, they may also be able to become more resilient during times of stress. Being cognitively flexible allows you to see different points of view with empathy and understanding, which is a particularly important skill in today’s diverse society. As a result, such individuals may look out for new information and new experiences in life. Cognitive transitions are relatively easier for such individuals. It is to be noted that there exists varying degrees of cognitive flexibility. Even if two individuals are cognitively flexible, one may be more efficient in shifting between concepts and thus may process information faster than the other person.

Cognitive flexibility can be viewed as an aid to various other thought processes. This factor may allow individuals to consider multiple aspects of an object or situation. This is especially important when one has to think and find multiple solutions to real-life problems and other related situations. Consequently, the individual with higher level of cognitive flexibility would try to view the situation from various perspectives and therefore, they may be able to find different alternatives of thoughts as well as actions to deal with the situation. Different researchers have varying views on this cognitive flexibility and hence some view it as a very complex concept. Controversies exist in this case and the fact that cognitive flexibility is a cognitive skill or a property of the cognitive system is still debatable.

Thus, it is very important to consider the level of self-esteem and cognitive flexibility in relation to psychological androgyny among the two birth order categories of ‘one boy among girls’ and ‘one girl among boys’. This may reveal significant information regarding how androgynous individuals are different from the masculine, feminine and undifferentiated types with respect to their self-esteem and also the ability to be cognitively flexible. It is a notable aspect that the integration of both feminine and masculine characteristics in an individual may allow him or her to act in different ways according to the needs of the situation. Acting according to one’s own will and interests may also give the person a sense of confidence in oneself which may or may not manifest in his or her own self-esteem. However, there can also be chances that such androgynous individuals may encounter chaos and confusion due to their contradicting ways of behavior in varying situations. This can in turn affect their level of self-esteem and sometimes may hinder their flexible ways of thinking too.

Earlier research literature suggests that there are no existing significant researches on the two birth order categories of ‘one boy among girls’ and ‘one girl among boys’. Here ‘one boy among girls’ refers to a male adult who has two or more sisters but not brothers and ‘one girl among boys’ refers to a female adult who has two or more brothers but not sisters. In that case, the findings of the current study would be useful for the research community and related fields. Another fact to be noted is that there are contradicting studies regarding the self-esteem of androgynous males and females. If psychologically androgynous individuals lack self-esteem, then this information would be an eye-opener for the research community. Consequently, it helps in suggesting some of the techniques in which such individuals can be trained in order to boost their self-esteem. Also different views on cognitive flexibility of androgynous individuals exist. This means that there are varying opinions or views as well as findings associated with the relation of psychological androgyny with respect to the other two variables, which include self-esteem and cognitive flexibility. The current study is intended to aid this set of existing knowledge about these variables.

The results of the research may also add on to the information regarding individuals who are psychologically androgynous. Since the study is regarding the birth order categories, this may also be useful for effective parenting, dealing with siblings and various other concepts related to families. On the other hand, the research may be of practical application in family therapy, especially for cases with systemic causes. Systemic causes include those causal factors that mainly involve the individual along with a prominent issue in ‘systems’ that the individual is a part of. These systems may include the settings like family environment, educational settings like schools, society that he or she belongs to, peer groups and various other settings that form a system. Such causal factors have to be brought into attention because they may manifest in the form of various psychological symptoms in individuals.

Annotated Bibliography

Barclay, KJ 2018, ‘The birth order paradox: Sibling differences in educational attainment’, Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, vol. 54, pp. 56-65. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2018.02.001. [5 September 2019]

This article explores the inverse relationship between the net effect of birth order and educational attainment. Later-born children were shown to spend longer in education and attain higher qualifications, however this was attributed to the educational expansion that took place in 20th century Sweden, in conjunction with longer average birth intervals within large sibships. This supports my hypothesis, where in the absence of such educational expansion, first-borns tend to succeed more in education due to increased parental investment, compared to later-born children.

Dong, H, Manfredini, M, Kurosu, S, Yang, W & Lee, JZ 2017, ‘Kin and birth order effects on male child mortality: three East Asian populations, 1716–1945’, Evolution and human behavior, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 208-216. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.10.001. [5 September 2019]

This study analysed the allocation of parental investment as being crucial in child survival outcomes within three East Asian populations (1716-1945). It was concluded that although parental investment is essential for all offspring, it is more beneficial for first-borns in the long term compared to later-born children. This notion underpins my hypothesis whereby increased parental investment in older siblings is often perceived as being advantageous for the whole family.

Ekman, J, Eggers, S & Griesser, M 2002, ‘Fighting to stay: the role of sibling rivalry for delayed dispersal’, Animal Behaviour, vol. 64, no. 3, pp. 453-459. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2002.3075. [5 September 2019]

This article studied the relationship between sibling rivalry and delayed dispersal among the Siberian jays. This pertains to my study where in controlling for sex, sibling rivalry was seen to precede early dispersal, resulting from within-brood competition for resources. However, it was also found that delayed dispersal was more common among this species, due to the benefits that may be gained from remaining in the natal home.

Ekman, J, Baglione, V, Eggers, S & Griesser, M 2001, ‘DELAYED DISPERSAL: LIVING UNDER THE REIGN OF NEPOTISTIC PARENTS’, The Auk, vol. 118, no. 1, pp. 1-10, 10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1642/0004-8038(2001)118[0001:DDLUTR]2.0.CO;2. [5 September 2019]

This article explores parental nepotism and the concession of resources to selected offspring as an inclusive fitness gain, wherein the underlying power dynamics among large sibships, can impact the allocation of parental investment and inheritance of resources. It was concluded that offspring often delay dispersal if their natal territory offers more inheritable resources and therefore increases their chances of survival. This notion underpins my study, whereby children may choose to leave their natal home earlier if they can inherit or acquire better resources elsewhere.

Ginja, R, Jans, J & Karimi, A 2017, ‘Parental investments in early life and child outcomes evidence from swedish parental leave rules’. Available from: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3069449. [5 September 2019]

This study analysed parental investment outcomes among offspring in Sweden. Parental investment was measured in terms of time spent with offspring and monetary resources available. This study highlights the importance of disposable income, wherein higher-income mothers were shown to invest more in first-born children, which in conjunction with my hypothesis, leads to improved educational outcomes, compared to later-born children.

Hayami, A 1983, ‘The myth of primogeniture and impartible inheritance in Tokugawa Japan’, Journal of Family History, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 3-29. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F036319908300800101. [5 September 2019]

This article investigates the impartible inheritance of resources based on birth order within the Japanese village of Nishijo (1773-1869). The study first highlighted how primogeniture was not always sex-biased, wherein many households were being headed by women. In addition to this, it was proposed that ultimogeniture ultimately delayed the age at which the household could be inherited by succeeding generations and therefore was more prevalent in higher socioeconomic areas.

Koenig, WD, Pitelka, FA, Carmen, WJ, Mumme, RL & Stanback, MT 1992, ‘The evolution of delayed dispersal in cooperative breeders’, The Quarterly review of biology, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 111-150. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1086/417552. [5 September 2019]

This article examines the delayed-dispersal threshold model as a guide in analysing the costs and benefits associated with delayed dispersal among cooperative breeders. The study highlighted a multitude of ecological factors influencing dispersal, including population density and spatiotemporal variations in territory quality, all of which can be linked to the impact of number of siblings and parental investment on offspring dispersal.

Low, BS & Clarke, AL 1991, ‘Family Patterns in Nineteenth-Century Sweden: Impact Of Occupational Status and Landownership’, Journal of Family History, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 117-138. Available from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/036319909101600202. [6 September 2019]

This article investigates the impact of resources on family patterns, through analysing the occupational status, land ownership, legitimacy and parity of individuals in 1800s Sweden. It was found that birth order had a significant effect on accessibility and acquisition of resources, which pertains to my study as it emphasises how resource competition between siblings can impact dispersal from natal home.

Mulder, MB 1998, ‘Brothers and sisters’, Human Nature, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 119-161. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-998-1001-6. [6 September 2019]

Parental investment can often be measured in terms of educational attainment and resource and property inheritance. In testing the Trivers-Willard hypothesis, it was found that educational investment in daughters from the Kipsigis of Kenya, was greater among poor families. Although this study focuses on sex-biased investment, it also illustrates how allocation of parental investment among offspring in large sibships can either result in competition or cooperation.

Nitsch, A, Lummaa, V & Faurie, C 2016, ‘Sibship effects on dispersal behaviour in a pre‐industrial human population’, Journal of evolutionary biology, vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 1986-1998. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.jt03g. [5 September 2019]

This article focuses on the pivotal role sibship plays in dispersal within a Finnish population. It was revealed that limited access to land resources was the main cause of early dispersal among males, whereas competition over access to wealthy mates was the major cause of dispersal among females. Despite sex differences, these findings pertain to my study by highlighting the crucial role of sibling interactions in causing early dispersal from natal home.

Pollet, TV, Dijkstra, P, Barelds, DP & Buunk, AP 2010, ‘Birth order and the dominance aspect of extraversion: Are firstborns more extraverted, in the sense of being dominant, than laterborns?’, Journal of Research in Personality, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 742-745. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.10.002. [6 September 2019]

Early dispersal from natal home can often be influenced by an early acquisition of independence, resulting from increased parental investment. First-born children often experience increased parental investment during early stages of life, due to the absence of sibling competition. However, in controlling for age and sibship size among 1500 participants, this study found later born children to be more extraverted and dominant than first-borns. This highlights how independence can be influenced by social attitudes and personality, which may delay dispersal.

Towner, MC 2001, ‘Linking dispersal and resources in humans’, Human Nature, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 321-349. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-001-1002-1. [5 September 2019]

This article investigates the interplay between offspring dispersal and resource acquisition, through examining age at dispersal, birth order, sex and father’s social status and wealth in individuals from Oakham, Massachusetts (1750-1850). It was concluded that birth order and number of siblings were not significantly associated with early dispersal. Therefore, this study highlights the importance in controlling for sex, when discerning whether birth order and subsequent parental investment impacts dispersal from natal home.

Before I begin I would like to ask a question. Who here has siblings? Who has more than one sibling? Now, raise your hand if you are a middle child.

My name is Layla and today I will be discussing birth order.

What is birth order? Well, the definition has two parts. The first is ordinal position which refers to the actual order that siblings are born in. This is the idea of first-born children, middle children, youngest children, and so on. The second part is psychological position, this explains the role that children learn and accept based on how they interact with other individuals. Things like a big age gap, a loss of a sibling, or living in a blended family situation can all impact an individual’s psychological position. (Eckstein, et al. 2010). All these factors can have an impact on a person’s identity and personality.

Today it is commonly believed that individuals have different personalities due to three major factors. 40% of the difference is attributed to genetic differences, 35% of the difference in personality is due to ‘non-shared’ environments, and 25% is due to shared environment (Salmon, 2013). A shared environment describes influences that are common, like a shared community or shared status (Eysenck, 2006). A non-shared environment is unique to an individual, like a friend group (Eysenck, 2006). Birth order is considered a non-shared environment, although siblings grow up in the same family environment, each sibling experiences development in a different way due to their unique ordinal position (Salmon, 2013). Birth order has been known to impact many facets of life, such as an individual’s personality, mental health, creativity, among other factors (Salmon, 2013).

So if birth order can change the way we experience development can it also change adulthood? My inquiry question is: How does being born as a middle child impact adulthood? To further break down the question, let us examine the key terms. Firstly, a middle child is any child born after the eldest, but before the youngest typically in a family of three. Adulthood is the stage of life when an individual is completely mature and independent. Lastly, an impact is the lasting effect of an environment or situation on an individual. It can be both positive or negative.

The purpose of my research is to bring attention to the stigma that surrounds middle children, and to overcome it. As well my goal is to show that research needs to be done using critical thinking in order to highlight positive and negative aspects of birth order. And lastly, I think it is important to consider long-term results and findings, which is why I am researching adulthood.

To answer my question, we will examine my findings. I have found three main themes, parental investment, communication, and personal identity.

First is parental investment. In Buss and Hawley’s book ‘The Evolution of Personality and Individual Differences,’ there is a chapter called ‘Why Siblings Are Like Darwin’s Finches’. Darwin’s finches are based on Darwin’s theory of natural selection which states that desirable qualities for survival are passed down to offspring to help a species survive in the wild (‘Darwin’s Theory Of Evolution’). Based on Darwin’s theory, siblings act different from one another, because they are fighting for resources to survive in different ways (Buss & Hawley, 2011). The amount of time their parents invest in them changes their methods of getting resources (Buss & Hawley, 2011).

Natural selection impacts sibling behaviour based on parental investment (Buss & Hawley, 2011). Human siblings become different by learning different roles and behaviours in their families, which eventually lead to different personalities (Buss & Hawley, 2011). Simply, the amount to time parent put into caring for a child can impact their personality. First and last children receive the most parental investment and attention (Shah & Jadav, 2016). Middle children never receive 100% parental investment (Shah & Jadav, 2016).

Now how does this impact middle children in adulthood? First of all, middle children are at a disadvantage since they receive the least parental investment (Buss & Hawley, 2011). This disadvantages really means that middleborns learn to share resources with their siblings (Buss & Hawley, 2011). This can lead to adulthood where middle children will face the same environments of competition in the real world (Buss & Hawley, 2011).

As a result of having experience with competition, middle children grow up to become innovative adults (Shah & Jadav, 2016). Middle children are known to be neglected in terms of attention, but this can actually be beneficial. It can result in; Greater independence, greater creativity, less pressure to conform, and more empathy (Griffin, 2012). Since middle children do not rely on attention from parents they are generally less anxious (Shah & Jadav, 2016). As adults, middle children go with the flow, are easy going, and extroverted (Shah & Jadav, 2016).

But low parental investment can also be negative. Middle children’s association with competition could possibly result in neuroticism (Shah & Jadav, 2016). Least parental investment can lead to middle children having low self-esteem and being more self-conscious (Buss & Hawley, 2011). Middle children can also become rebellious (Shah & Jadav, 2016).

Now let us move on to communication.

Now that we have established that middle children spend less time with their parents, it is understandable that they would be less dependent on their parents (Dodgson, 2017). In fact, middle children turn to siblings or friends for support and help (Dodgson, 2017). This means that middle children have stronger social skills and good communication skills so they are able to negotiate (Dodgson, 2017).

Here is a chart that shows the traits of middle children and the frequency of the trait being observed. In the chart we see; sociable, success in team sports, and relates well to older and younger people (Eckstein, et al. 2010). This shows that middle children work well in team settings, are cooperative, and trusting (Griffin, 2012). All these traits display strong communication skills.

These traits affect adulthood for a middle born individual. It can impact how they experience the workplace. The ability to negotiate and skills like flexibility, independence, sociability, and teamwork are all very useful for employability (Dodgson, 2017) (Griffin, 2012). Ordinal position can influence career path choice too (Griffin, 2012). Middle children tend to become teachers, actors, stuntmen, social workers, lawyers, diplomats, firefighters, musicians, or photographers (Eckstein, et al. 2010) (Griffin, 2012). Middle children tend to avoid isolated jobs like cubicle office jobs (Griffin, 2012).

Another way being born as a middle child can impact adulthood is in relationships. As I mentioned middle children value friends for support more than firstborns or last born (Dodgson, 2017). The value of relationships for middle children makes them good friends and good partners (Dodgson, 2017). Middle children are less likely to cheat since they value relationships so much (Dodgson, 2017). Middle children are more bonded to friends and are least likely to turn to parents during traumatic events (Buss & Hawley, 2011).

Again in the chart, we can see middle children are more faithful in monogamous relationships (Eckstein, et al. 2010).

Quotation’ “I think that’s why they tend to be very successful with their friendships, and very successful with their marriages, but that probably translates also into how they manage things in the business world too,’ Salmon said.” (Dodgson, 2017).

Moving on to the final theme, personal identity.

Identity is formed from childhood and can extend into adulthood (Zara, ‘Identity/Identity Formation”). Middle children are not seen as the centre of attention, so they do not see themselves as always right, they form their identity to be more critical of themselves (Dodgson, 2017). Self-regulation becomes a big part of identity. Having less parental investment leads to being more independent and more capable (Dodgson, 2017). Identity is formed around the idea that middle children can’t rely on being treated like the baby or being the responsible eldest. (Dodgson, 2017). Middle children “would be the most stable, as they never experienced dethronement or being spoiled” (Salmon, 2013). Alfred Adler, a leader in birth order studies, stated that middle children “observe and profit from the mistakes the firstborn children make” (Eckstein, et al. 2010).

Media is a big pusher of the idea that middle children are left out and loners. (Dodgson, 2017). Although many studies have found that middle children display feelings of not belonging (Eckstein, et al. 2010). So it may hold some truth. Now, while these characteristics make up an identity, how is the identity itself formed?

Identity is formed through interaction. A way to examine this is through the theoretical perspective, symbolic interactionism. Symbolic interactionism states that individuals develop a sense of self based on their interactions with others (IN CLASS). Individuals choose to act based on their perception of self and others (IN CLASS).

Alfred Adler was one of the first people to theorize about how birth order can affect children. He said that the situation a child is born into and how the child interprets that situation is what influences the child’s behaviour and character, not necessarily they physical ordinal position of the child (Eckstein, et al. 2010). While a child may be born in the middle, the role they accept is what truly forms their personal identity. Birth order is a really big factor for individuals to learn their roles within the family. The role you take on as a child can greatly affect your identity as an adult.

After learning about birth order, we can look back at my inquiry question. How does being born as a middle child impact adulthood? Well being born a middle child can positively impact workplace experience by developing negotiation skills. It can contribute to relationship successes, by placing value on friends and partners. And lastly, being middle born can form a unique identity through symbolic interactionism, that will be sustained in the adult stages of life. We reach this conclusion by analyzing parental investment, communication skills, and personal identity.

I mainly studied how birth order impacts personality but there are many other birth order studies that need to be researched and analyzed. Such as how birth order impacts cognition, development, society and so on (Salmon, 2013). Next, research should be done on all the other ordinal positions, long-term. The statistics and patterns examined can be a good way to analyze society and development (Eckstein, et al. 2010). These findings can impact future research and development to update birth order. Whether you have two siblings, one, or none birth order will have an impact on you as adults.

To finish off my presentation please open up kahoot on your phones for a very short game on what we have learnt today.

Annotated Bibliography

Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm. “Bluebeard (1812).” The Golden Age of Folk and Fairy Tales: from the Brothers Grimm to Andrew Lang, edited by Jack Zipes, Hackett Publishing Company, 2013, pp. 636-637.

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were two philologists and they eventually become two well known folklorists. They have collected translated and published stories of all social classes in order to preserve the traditions. The young maiden was given a key to the forbidden room that contained the bodies of Bluebeard’s victims and caused her to get blood on the key which she could never wash off. Bluebeard saw the blood on the key and made attempt to murder the young maiden for her disobedience. The young maiden’s three older brothers heard her screams and killed Bluebeard in order to save their sister. It was interesting to see how quickly the brothers came to their sister’s aid just when she was about to be murdered by Bluebeard and this shows how close the brothers were to their sister. I will be using this story to back up my thesis that the strong, positive sibling relationships in the “Bluebeard” trope are due to the established birth order roles understood and acted upon by all the siblings which are similar to how it is perceived in the modern world. But I will explain why older siblings feel the need to protect their younger siblings.

Grimm,Jacob and Wilhelm. “ Fitcher’s Bird (1812).” The Golden Age of Folk and Fairy Tales: from the Brothers Grimm to Andrew Lang, edited by Jack Zipes, Hackett Publishing Company, 2013, pp. 639-640.

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were two philologists and they eventually become two well-known folklorists. They have collected translated and published stories of all social classes in order to preserve the traditions. The sorcerer would disguise himself as a beggar to kidnap women, so he can make them be his would-be brides. He first would take the oldest sister and take her to his home before giving her the keys to all the rooms including the forbidden room. He also gave her egg and told her do not go into the forbidden room or die. She disobeyed him by going to the forbidden room and finding the bodies of women that the sorcerer murdered. She got blood on the egg and sorcerer found out that she disobeyed him then he killed her. The second sister was kidnapped by sorcerer and she suffered the same as her older sister. The third sister was smart enough to put egg in the basket before entering the forbidden room where she found her two murdered sisters. She brought them back to life and hid them in the basket which she made the sorcerer carry the basket to her family’s home. The third sister just dress like a bird and escaped. As soon as the sorcerer and his friends arrived in the house, they were burned alive by the angry mob that the sisters have sent. It was interesting to see how far that siblings will go to bring back their dead brother or sister back to life. The story seems to portray the third sister as the brightest out of three sisters and ends up being the hero who saves her two sisters and herself. I will be using this story to discuss the importance of sibling bonds and what lengths that siblings will go to bring their dead brother or sister back to life.

Meier, Ernst. “King Bluebeard (1852).” The Golden Age of Folk and Fairy Tales: from the Brothers Grimm to Andrew Lang, edited by Jack Zipes, Hackett Publishing Company, 2013, pp. 646-647.

[bookmark: _Hlk2253030] Ernst Meier is a German professor of oriental studies and folklorist, who also published studies of Swabian folklore. He also collected German folk tales just like the Grimm brothers. The young maiden in this story has three older brother and older sister, and her father forces her to marry Bluebeard. She was given the keys to all the rooms including the forbidden room and she used the key to unlock the door to the forbidden room. She saw the bodies of the women that bluebeard killed and she got so scared that she dropped the key in pool of blood. She had a hard time getting the blood off the key and eventually King Bluebeard came back from his long journey. He asked the young maiden for the key and he saw the blood on the key then he figured out that she went into the forbidden room. He decided that he was going to kill her, but she went to her sister for advice and her sister told her to use the whistle that their brothers have gave her. She took her sister’s advice and used the whistle to summon her brothers, so they can save her from being killed. The brothers stabbed bluebeard in the chest killing him and they were able to save their sister. It shows that the younger siblings will often turned to their older siblings for advice or help when they are in trouble or in a life and death situation. I will be using this story to back up my thesis in paper 3 and show that the younger sibling will often depend on the older sibling for advice.

Mchale, Susan M. et al. “Sibling Relationships and Influences in Childhood and Adolescence.” Journal of Marriage and Family, vol. 74, no. 5, Oct. 2012, pp. 913-930, ProQuest, DOL: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.01011, Accessed 20 Feb. 2019.

Dr. Susan M. McHale is a professor of Human Development and Family Studies and Professor of Demography. She is also a Social Science Research Institute Associate Director. Kimberly A Updegraff is a professor in the T Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics. Shawn D. Whiteman received his bachelor’s degree and master’s degree in psychology and Ph.D. in Human Development and Family Studies. Shawn D. Whiteman is a Associate Professor at the Utah University and he joined the faculty in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies in 2016. The authors review the literature on sibling relationship in childhood and adulthood and they trace themes from Foundational research and theory then they focused on empirical research during the last twenty years. The Article documents siblings’ importance in family life, sources of variation in sibling relationship qualities, and the significance of sibling for child and adult growth and adjustment. According to the article, sibling influences emerge not only in context of siblings’ frequent and often emotionally intense interactions, but also by virtue of siblings’ role in larger family system dynamics. The article also explains that siblings are the building blocks of family structure and key players in family dynamics. Their work involves the sibling aspect of relationships and how it plays a role in families. It seems that their work takes a psychoanalytic approach with siblings’ relationship and influences in childhood and adulthood. This article will help me understand the siblings’ relationships and influences in more of a modern world element.

Averett, Susan L et al. ‘Older Siblings and Adolescent Risky Behavior: Does Parenting Play a Role?”. Journal of Population Economics, vol 24, no. 3, Jul. 2011, pp. 957-978 , ProQuest, DOL: 10.1007/s00148-009-0276-1, Accessed 20 Feb. 2019.

Susan is a professor of economics and she has a PhD in economics from the University of Colorado. Susan has published work like the effect of birth order on adolescent health and risky behavior. Laura M. Argys is a professor of economics and associate dean for research and creative activities at the University of Colorado Denver. She’s a Research Fellow at the CU Boulder Population Program. Daniel I. Rees is a instructor in the Department of Economics at the University of Colorado Denver and the Editor-in-Chief of the Economics of Education Review. One of the methods that authors use is that they use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to examine the connection between the birth order and risky adolescent behavior is driven by the difference in the level of parental supervision. According to the article, kids with older siblings are likely to engage with risky behavior than their old sibling counterpart. The authors believe that the connection between the birth order and risky adolescent behavior might reflect on the influence of older siblings. Another argument that the authors made is that the parents supervise the older sibling more than they do with the younger sibling. Their research offers me some insight on whether older siblings have an affect the younger sibling’s risky behavior and if the parents have a role in the younger child’s risky behavior. I will be using this article shown how the older sibling influences the younger sibling’s behavior.

Caffaro, John V., P.H.D., and Allison Conn-Caffaro. ‘Sibling Dynamics and Group Psychotherapy.’ International journal of group psychotherapy, vol 53, no. 2, Apr. 2003, pp. 135-54, ProQuest, DOL: 10.1521/ijgp.53.2.135.42818, Accessed 21 Feb. 2019.

John V. Caffaro is a licensed psychologist and marriage and family therapist with more than 25 years of clinical experience of treating individuals, couples, and groups. Allison Conn-Caffaro is the author of Sibling Abuse Trauma which is a book about clinical intervention strategies for treating intersibling abuse trauma in children, families, and adults. One of the methods that that the authors used to write this article is based off of their clinical experience as psychologists and they use case examples to back up their agreement. Their article provides an integrative view of sibling relationships from a family systems and self-psychology orientation to group therapy. There is a lot of emphasis on developmental and cultural difference as they influence sibling dynamic and the group leader’s role. Group therapy offers numerous possibilities for patients to interact with leaders and members as they have interacted with their siblings. Their logic of their argument is that sibling issues arises in the practice of group psychotherapy. I will be using this article to understand the sibling dynamic and the influence of sibling relationship. It will help me understand me understand why there is sibling issues like sibling rivalries in the modern world.

Barroso, Margarida Martins. ‘Social Perceptions of Siblings’ Sexual Composition: Evidence from Portuguese Youth.’ Journal of Comparative Family Studies, vol 42. no. 5,201, pp. 687-X, ProQuest, https://search-proquest- com.edmonds.idm.oclc.org/docview/940885866/abstract/82457503C6C1465APQ/22?accountid=1626, Accessed 21 Feb. 2019.

Margarida Martins Barroso is an invited Assistant Professor and she has a PhD in Sociology. She does research in social sciences quantitative and qualitative data analysis Work. She also does work in Social Policy Gender Studies. Her methods for writing the article involves a qualitative study which is an exploratory research and she also use interviews to help her write this article. This essay explores sibling relationship among the young Portuguese people and focuses on the importance of gender and sibling sexual composition. The three main areas are the social meanings and perceptions of sibling relationships and their effects on daily life practices, the parents differential treatment of their sons or daughters, and the gender determinants of care-giving for elderly parents. According to the article that same sex siblings seems to get long better than mixed gender siblings. I think that her approach of interviewing people with siblings is a good source of information and it provide insight on how parents treat their sons or daughter. I will be using article to compare same sex sibling relationship to mixed gendered sibling relationship to see if gender plays a role in siblings getting along with eachother.

Eisenman, Russell. ‘Creativity, risk taking, sex differences, and birth order.’ Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 2001, p. 189+. Literature Resource Center, http://link.galegroup.com.edmonds.idm.oclc.org/apps/doc/A83038254/GLS?u=lynn16881&sid=GLS&xid=b32a703a. Accessed 22 Feb. 2019.

Russell Eisenman is associate professor at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley and he holds a Ph.D. from in clinical psychology from University of Georgia. He also the author of Creativity, Mental Illness and Crime, Political Issues and Social Problems: A Social Psychological Perspective, and Readings in Psychology. His methods of gathering information involves doing extensive research in the area of creativity and birth order. It seems like he is using a survey which is a 30-item, true-false, paper-and-pencil test of creative attitudes. He talks about the birth order and what he says about birth order is that firstborn males tend to be more creative than later born males. He also says that later born female are more creative than the firstborn females based on the results of the test. He talks about how men are more creative than women because men tend take more risks than women. His article is a little sexist, but it provide good insight about the effect of the birth order. I will be using this article to help me understand the effects of the birth order and it will bring a more modern element to my thesis.

Souter, Kay, and Ira Raja. ‘Mothering siblings: diaspora, desire and identity in American Born Confused Desi.’ Narrative, vol. 16, no. 1, 2008, p. 16+. Literature Resource Center, http://link.galegroup.com.edmonds.idm.oclc.org/apps/doc/A175629046/GLS?u=lynn16881&sid=GLS&xid=3f4e21cb. Accessed 28 Feb. 2019.

Abstract

The debate over the relative contributions of nature versus nurture on personality development in children has always been an ongoing discussion. The purpose of this article was to explore the various factors that post an influential effect on shaping a child’s personality. The present study examined the direct associations between a child’s personality with social and environmental factors. In particular on birth order effects, parental behaviour and modelling. Direct association between a child’s personality and genetic factors was also examined. The factors were explained using Alfred Adler and behaviorist Albert Bandura theory. The findings suggest that despite external factors playing a huge role in shaping a child’s personality, genes still provide a certain level of influential effect. To achieve a better understanding of how the factors influence a child’s personality, future research is needed to explore the impact of the children’s personality and dynamics of the relationship between parents and children.

Factors involved in shaping a child’s personality

The term personality, popularized by Gordon Allport, is defined as the psychophysical framework inside an individual which makes their characteristic patterns of behaviour, feelings, and thoughts (Allport, 1961). Many different theories of child development have been advanced over the years to explain various aspects of human growth. This line of discussion is essential as, in recent years, research in neuroscience revealed that interactions with caregivers in early development has a significant influence on the neurological development of the brain which can consequentially affect a child’s personality development (Canel, 2016). Hence, psychologist has been interested in the formation of personality in the early childhood years in order to understand human behaviour. On the basis of explaining personality development, personality theorist such as Alfred Adler embraced the view that how we are, is dependent on the environment factors (Eckstein and Kaufman, 2012). He stressed the importance of what he termed social context in personality development (Eckstein and Kaufman, 2012). However, behaviorist such as Albert Bandura adopted different views; he emphasized that personality is learned through the social situation (Bandura, 1971). In this current article, an attempt will be made to explain the various factors that contribute to shaping a child’s personality with Adler and Bandura’s theory. These factors will be discussed in terms of theories, research, and other literature, with a particular focus on factors shaping personality during the first few years of life.

The importance of birth order on personality has been a long-standing interest in psychology (Healey, & Ellis, 2007). According to Adler, he believes that an individual’s family constellation is a huge contributing factor to the development of a person’s style of life. In a study done by Healey and Ellis (2007), firstborns were found to receive greater investment from their parents and have their pick of niches within the family system. They tend to demonstrate a stronger motivation to meet parental expectation, follow suit with their parent’s interest, and often serve as surrogate parents for their younger siblings as well (Healey and Ellis, 2007). Consequently, firstborns tend to be more traditional, more inclined to support conventional morality, are more reliable, organized, and conscientious and be academically successful (Healey and Ellis, 2007). However, with the addition of another member, the oldest child is found to gradually become timid, and have a higher likelihood to experience neuroticism from the result of dethronement from the birth of a second child (Engler, 2013).

Later-born is observed to have a more constraining developmental challenge as opposed to the firstborn (Healey and Ellis, 2007). According to Adler, second borns are more cooperative, however excessively competitive towards the elder child (Feist & Rosenburg, 2012). Second borns tend to identify less with their parents and are often subjected to bullying or domination by the firstborn (Healey and Ellis, 2007). Their development is highly reliant on how the elder child treats them. If the older child is supportive, then healthy development is more probable whereas if the older child is resentful, issues in development arise (Feist & Rosenburg, 2012). The youngest child, on the other hand, is often the pampered ones among the other siblings (Maltby, Day, & Macaskill, 2017). According to a study done by Engler, over-pampering leads to them having a higher probability to become a selfish, highly dependent and irresponsible individual as the child grows old (Engler, 2013). In additionally, they have a likelihood to develop a higher need for approval and have troubles handling criticism and hate (Maltby, Day, & Macaskill, 2017). This suggests that as the youngest child grows older, they may become manipulative and have the urge to seek for control if their siblings or peers are overbearing (Engler, 2013). According to Healey and Ellis (2007), these differences between the later-borns and the eldest child are hypothesized to make the later-borns more open to experiences than the firstborns, more likely to be supportive of egalitarian social change, to emphasize with the downtrodden, to challenge the status quo, to oppose authority, and be the “rebels” in the family (Healey and Ellis, 2007).

Studies relating birth order to behavioural differences also found that birth order is one of the important factors for the development of children’s social-cognitive skills (Recchia, Nowe, & Alexander, 2009). This was supported by a study done by Recchia, Nowe, and Alexander (2009), where they found that the second child is more likely to involve the elder child in their learning progress and cognitive ability (Recchia, Nowe, & Alexander, 2009). Second borns are found to exercise more learner involvement and tend to allow failure to partake in their error correction process as compared to the first-borns (Recchia, Nowe, & Alexander, 2009). In general, the results suggest that every child is uniquely treated within the family based on their birth order. Family relationships changes as each additional child are added, thus suggesting that how each new child added is handled is crucial.

Aside from family constellation, Alfred Adler also brought about the focus of parenting style and parent-child relationships. According to Adler, both parents play a significant role in the child’s development of a distinctive style of life that is relatively well set by 5 years of age (Maltby, Day, & Macaskill, 2017). In a study conducted by Denissen, Aken and Dubas (2009), they reviewed the association between parenting style and children’s personality and found that the level of extraversion in a child is positively associated with parental nurturance. Children are seen to have a higher extraversion level when they have better perceptions of parental warmth and understanding (Denissen, Aken, & Dubas, 2009). In addition, with regards to agreeableness, Denissen, Aken and Dubas (2009) found that a child’s level of agreeableness is also associated with the quality of care that the parents provide to the child. Children are seen to be less defiant against rules and regulation and give in during conflicting situations when higher levels of warmth and care are given by the parents (Denissen, Aken, & Dubas, 2009). Consistent with this prediction, Becker and Becker (2008) found that the parent-child relationship is seen to shape a child’s capability to socialize with their friends, providing them with their sense of security to explore the world, and ability to handle their emotions and stress. This suggests that children need a proper nurturing relationship so that a healthy personality may emerge.

Despite the substantial research evidence proposing that the social context play a factor in shaping a child’s personality, Albert Bandura believes that we acquired behaviours through direct experience such as emulating someone’s’ behaviour or observing the behaviour of others (Bandura, 1971). According to Bandura, the social learning process begins when individuals focus their attention on modelled behaviours (Bandura, 1971). Individuals choose potential models based on their attractiveness characteristics such as nurturance, status, similarities to the observer and power (Bandura et al., 1963, as cited in Brown & Trevino, 2014). When observers are exposed to the various styles of thinking and behaving, they vary in what they adopt and create a new blend of personal characteristics (Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1963, as cited in Bandura, 1999). This was consistent with a study done by Brown and Trevino (2014), where they found that children tend to select an attractive ethical role model to learn from them by observing and emulating modelled behaviour. Children who are exposed to ethical role models will pick up the ethical behaviour characteristics presented by their role model, which will facilitate their growth to become an ethical leader in the future. This suggests that a child’s personality development is mediated by the role model that they follow.

Research has likewise further confirmed that the influence of parental modelling can have important and far-reaching consequences for the moral behaviour of the children (Brown & Trevino, 2014). Despite the numerous options of potential role models to choose from, parents are the most important type of role model for children (Brown & Trevino, 2014). Parents’ model not only through words, but more importantly through actions – more notably in the closeness of the bonds that they form with their children, the standards they set, the values they carry, and the disciplinary methods they use (Brown & Trevino, 2014). According to Brown and Trevino (2014) study, they found that children whom parents pass on altruistic values to them such as setting standards and explaining why rules are important, often have a healthier moral development. This approach sharply contrasts with an authoritarian style of parenting that is based on strict compliance to authority and intimidation through physical punishment.

Aside from parental behaviour, the social environment is further seen to have an influence on children’s moral development. This is in particular with older children, teachers and coaches who have an important role in the development of ethical attitudes and beliefs of these young children (Atkins et al. 2004; Perry and Nixon 2005; Sizer and Sizer, 1999, as cited in Brown & Trevino, 2014). Moreover, peers can likewise influence the learning of behaviour and standards, however modelling by parents and other adults still remains a powerful source of learning to children (Bandura 1986, as cited in Brown & Trevino, 2014).

While environmental factors are seen to be a huge contributing factor to shape a child’s personality, there is a huge body of evidence that suggests that genetics play an important role as well in shaping a child’s personality in early life (Leve et al., 2010). Studies have shown that the children’s personality traits were moderately stable (Carvalho 2016; Ilies and Judge 2003; Karmakar et al. 2017, as cited in Zhang, Zhou, Gu, Lei, & Fan, 2018). Therefore, suggesting that many aspect of personality is shaped predominantly in the early years of life.

With regards to nature playing a role in shaping a child’s personality, the prenatal environment was observed to be a huge contributing factor in the development of a child’s attention behaviour and externalizing trajectories (Crockenberg, Leerkes, & Jo, 2008; Feist & Rosenburg, 2012). Maternal anxiety during pregnancy is seen to correlate with children having anxiety, depression, and oppositional defiant disorders (Meadows, McLanahan, & Brooks-Gunn, 2007, as cited in Leve et al., 2010). In their study, infants whose early rearing environment involves maternal anxious and depressive symptoms, tend to show a more heightened awareness during a frustrating task (Leve et al., 2010). Similarly, Feist and Rosenburg (2012) also found that the stress level of the mother has an influence on how the child will respond in times of stress. Infants whose mothers experience an abnormal amount of stress during pregnancy tend to have impaired stress functions (Feist & Rosenburg, 2012). In addition, the infants are found to have greater baseline levels of stress hormones; and a quicker, stronger, and more pronounced psychological response to stress, all of which persist into childhood (Fiest & Rosenburg, 2012). Therefore suggesting that early encounters like the prenatal environment can cause behavioural alternations on a developing fetus by affecting the foetal neurodevelopment, which will consequently influence the personality of the child as it grows older.

Thus far, the essay has discussed with research evidence that the association of environmental factors in a child’s life is seen to be an influencing factor in shaping a child’s personality. The effects of birth order and parental behaviour were found to be an influencing factor in shaping a child’s personality as explained by Adler’s theory. In addition, the social environment is also seen to have an influence on children’s moral development, lending support to Bandura’s model of social learning theory. However, there is also substantial evidence to suggest that the genes have an influence on the child’s personality, suggesting that many aspects of personality are shaped predominantly in the early years of life. In general, the present findings demonstrate that in order for a child to have a stronger, healthier personality, a child needs a proper nurturing relationship. Future studies should examine the dynamic of relationships between parents and children across different age periods. Additionally, a focus on the impact of the children is needed to fully grasp the complex determinations of parent care relationship.

References

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Conceived in 1870, Alfred Adler was an esteemed psychiatrist and philosopher responsible for developments in individual psychology. Adler had a difficult childhood mainly due to witnessing his brother’s death and experiencing health issues that motivated his interest to become a physician. His research focused on aspects of human existence including parent education, birth order impact, inferiority, mental health, and personality. After receiving his degree in 1985, Adler specialized in psychiatry and rallied behind Sigmund Freud and his ideologies on the personality theory. He would later part ways with his mentor after a disagreement on the impact of sex on personality. Adler proceeded to take his own approach on personality. The following paper takes a real-world approach to Alfred Adler’s theories of personality by analyzing a close female friend named Stella.

Stella is a 33-year-old lawyer and single mother of one. Having been brought up in a rough neighborhood in Brooklyn, Stella’s exposure to violence, specifically domestic violence was due to the violent and abusive nature of her biological father who also struggled with alcohol addiction. Stella’s mother has always been a pillar of strength during her childhood, continuously encouraging her to do her best in school to avoid dependency on anyone in the future. She is the first-born, but after the separation of her parents when she was 5 years old, Stella’s mother remarried three years later and had three other children by Stella’s step-father. Although her family was not wealthy, her mother brought in income from a waitress job and her step-father made money as a taxi driver. After having her youngest child, Stella’s mother had been temporarily out of work which took a toll on the family and her marriage, resulting in a few incidents of domestic violence. She played an instrumental role in bringing up her younger siblings. Evidently, the family’s lifestyle was far from lavish since her mother and stepfather could only afford to provide their four children with basic needs.

Stella is an extremely responsible and observant mother. Most of Stella’s friends and family refer to her as a dependable person especially in times of need. Despite her good qualities, Stella struggles with a temper that overcomes her on certain incidents. Her main goals in life include becoming a partner at her law firm and establishing a stable home for herself and her 5-year-old daughter. Additionally, Stella also intends to ensure her younger siblings go to college and pursue their dreams which she believes is the most certain way out of poverty. As a self-proclaimed feminist who believes that a woman can accomplish anything on their own, she also tries to indoctrinate the same ideologies in her daughter. Stella also has a particularly strong work ethic; something her current boss was able to quickly identify during her internship at the firm which led to her current employment. Her worst fear is failing and she dreads becoming mediocre specifically in her career and as a parent.

The concept of striving for perfection implies that every human being is driven by a need to reach their full potential. While some are able to do so, Adler also expresses that we are hindered by an inferiority complex. Kenchappanavar (2012) states that,

According to Adler [2], Inferiority complex arises when a person finds himself in a situation where his abilities and attitudes are denigrated or rejected by other people [3]. Inferiority complex is a magnification of natural feelings of inferiority and results when strivings to overcome inferiority are greatly hindered. Anything in the individual that is below the average, that provokes unfavourable comment or gives him a feeling of impotency or ineptitude leads to inferiority complex. (p. 1)

Adler argued that a person’s personality begins to form at a very early age, whereby the life of a person starts as a child and continues to strive to achieve superiority well into adulthood. Adler further explained that children also feel psychologically inferior owing to the pressure that accompanies the school going age when most children get criticized based on their mental, social and physical shortcomings. While some children are able to overcome these feelings by developing self-esteem, others continue to struggle with inferiority for a long time. Stella’s case largely supports Adler’s theory of achieving superiority on a number of levels. First, her life began as the only daughter of an abusive father which in itself proved to be a source of weakness because she was unable to protect her mother from physical and emotional trauma. This would explain her feminist nature and her determination to protect herself and her daughter from any from abusive relationships, having walked out on a number of relationships that she felt were unhealthy. Adler’s ideas also demonstrate Stella’s motivation toward achieving academic excellence which aided her in achieving her dreams of becoming an attorney. Based on some of Stella’s life choices and motivations it would be permissible to purport that Adler’s theory holds weight to some degree.

One of Stella’s most striking traits is her ability to be particularly dependable and consistent with her loved ones and colleagues. Stella is the first born out of four children, it would be sensible to include Adler’s birth order theory as a justification for some of her characteristics. Being her mother’s eldest child, it was Stella’s duty to take care of her younger siblings. Her dependable and consistent nature dates back to the circumstances of her childhood and teenage years when she may have felt responsible for the wellbeing of her mother and siblings. This also explains her devotion to her own daughter whom she clearly wishes to protect the same way she protected her younger siblings. Stella’s conservative nature is the true reflection of her earlier life which exposed her to adult issues at a very tender age, leading her down a path of cautiousness. Adler also suggests that the firstborn most often becomes extremely conscientious which explains Stella’s strong work ethic and academic background. Her inclination toward perfectionism is exhibited through her life goals which include dominating her career path. Her need to have her siblings follow in her academic footsteps also speaks to her need for perfectionism and her inclination toward intellect. With the younger siblings looking up to her, Stella’s struggle for superiority in various aspects of her life can be seen as way for her to set a good example for her younger siblings. Promptly walking out of abusive relationships could also be viewed as her own intuitive way of setting a proper example for her younger sister and her daughter. As far as Stella’s case goes, Adler’s birth order philosophy seems to have heavily influenced her personality and most of her life choices.

Adlerians base their work on the supposition that patients will feel better once they reveal and correct their mistakes. Aslinia, Rasheed, and Simpson (2011) express in the text,

From an Adlerian perspective, understanding a client’s subjective and unique experience is essential. Attending to the uniqueness of the client means investigating the client’s views, thoughts, and values, which might be different from the counselor or the dominant culture. It is only through such investigation that a counselor can begin guiding his or her client based on the client’s needs and capabilities. (p. 3)

In Stella’s case, she is influenced by her family dynamic. Adlerian therapy consists of making an evaluation of the client’s functioning. The therapists can accumulate data on the individual’s style of living by analyzing the client’s family constellation, which incorporates parents, siblings, and others living in the home and considering early recollections. During this assessment, birth order can also be evaluated. Once the information gathered is interpreted the therapist can get a perspective on the areas Stella showcases success and failure, how she achieves life goals, and the influences that have an impact on the role she has accepted in the world. This can include the role of culture. The therapist can also utilize her early memories as a technique during the assessment. Early memories are characterized as accounts of events that an individual state happened at a young age. According to Ansbacher (1973), “One of Adler’s first statements on recollections was: ‘A person’s true attitude toward life can be discerned from his earliest dreams and recollected experiences, proving that such memories are also constructed according to a planful procedure. (p. 136)” Reliving these explicit occurrences can bring up the underlying emotions and thoughts that were manifested during these incidents which can help with the healing process.

In contrast to the ideas of Adler, Freud categorizes the structure of personality into three categories labeled as the unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious. Ahmed (2012) conveys,

In Freud’s view this unconscious level of mind is the source of man’s motivations such as desires for sex, food and so on, (Rahim, 2002). Furthermore, Freudian psychology is largely based on objects that are guided by needs; hunger, thirst, the avoidance of pain and sex. According to Freud, among the objects organism is the prime one whose important part is nervous system which is known as id at beginning. This id transforms the needs of organism into motivational forces which Freud called wishes. (p. 61)

Freud would disagree with Adler in terms of the motivating factors behind Stella’s current behavior. Freud believes that human behavior is motivated by instincts which are powerful forces that drive our actions and behavior. In Stella’s case, Freud would propose that in order to avoid the pain she was driven by her instincts and decided to become the best version of herself. On the other hand, Adler does not believe that personality has a specific structure. Additionally, Adler does not agree with Freud and Jung that the majority of our personality is embedded within the unconscious, he believes that the thoughts and behaviors stored in the unconscious are things that we wish to avoid or do not understand. In results, Adler believes the conscious and the unconscious work hand in hand. I do not agree with Freud’s ideas in the case of Stella because it seems that her environment at home played a role in shaping her personality. Freud does not place emphasis on societal factors and mostly focuses on the individual.

According to Ernst and Angst (1983), most adults believe from an early age that the birth order position assigned to them inevitably predisposes them to certain career paths and personality types. Studies have also revealed that first-born children are more likely to pursue more prestigious career paths in an effort to maintain their parents’ approval, having been dethroned by their younger siblings at an early age. Additionally, further research reveals that firstborns are also prone to high levels of anxiety in stressful situations. This often causes them to overcompensate in different ways owing to the high levels perceived responsibility to always be the best (Aldous, 1996). According to Leman (2009), most children begin to exhibit certain personality traits between the ages of 5 and 8 as a result of family and environmental circumstances. While firstborns take a supportive stance toward authority by helping their parents from a young age, lastborn are habitually rebellious and prone to taking unnecessary risks, unlike the predominantly conservative firstborns.

There is a possibility that Stella’s behavior can be due to being the first-born but research has debunked the birth-order theory which would change our understanding of Adler’s work. More recent research shows that birth-order has less of an effect on personality than previous scientific theories have shown. For example, Julia M. Rohrer, Boris Egloff, and Stefan C. Schmukle conducted a study in 2015 to determine effects of birth order on certain personality traits like extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, or imagination. Julia M. Rohrer, Boris Egloff, and Stefan C. Schmukle (2015) concluded,

They did not find any effect of birth order on extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, or imagination, a subdimension of openness. There was a small, but significant, decline in self-reported intellect, a second

subdimension of openness. The effect on intellect persisted after controlling for IQ scores, indicating that there is a genuine birth-order effect on intellect that goes beyond objectively measured intelligence and can be observed in adults. Zajonc and Markus (7) proposed that older siblings profit intellectually from being “teachers” to their younger siblings—a process that might also account for differences in intellectual self-concept and -estimation when children internalize their roles as “teachers” or “students.”

Individuals do love to sort themselves into classifications regardless of whether they’re logically solid or not. Any thought that has pervaded culture as much as birth order will undoubtedly affect how individuals see themselves. Possibly the generalizations about birth order have more to do with how individuals contrast themselves to their siblings than how they actually are.

Based on the literature accumulated by Adler’s field of individual psychology her inclination toward academic excellence is an indication of her strives toward a better life for herself and her family, which is a responsibility placed on her shoulder on account of her position in the birth order. Her over protectiveness toward her daughter is as a result of the tough circumstances she and her siblings endured. Stella’s love of comedy television and film could be as a result of her troubled childhood which she escaped by watching television. Stella’s reliable nature may have developed from early childhood experiences when she would frequently lend a helping hand to her parent and her siblings. Stella’s feminist ideologies and strong work ethic can be accredited to her upbringing. While her mother’s hard work and encouragement influenced her academic drive, she also derived immense motivation from her desire to escape poverty and male dominance by cultivating her own career path.

How can everyday life form one’s personality as a child? What makes an individual have a distinct personality compared to another? Personality is the way a particular person thinks, feels, and behaves. It forms unique character and impacts us on how we respond to actions in our environment. Personality is fully developed by the age of 7 and in most cases, it stays constant throughout life (Cherry). Many factors come into play in the development of personality, such as the individual and environmental factors, which incorporate the birth order theory (“Factors Affecting Personality Development”).

There are quite a lot of theories on how personality can develop, such as genetics, environment, and experiences (Cherry). These theories are divided into two different categories: individual and environmental factors. Individual factors are aspects of a person that are developed in early childhood and cannot be changed. Individual factors include skills and traits inherited from parents, the physique, or body type, and the intelligence of a person (“Factors Affecting Personality Development”). Individual factors show that personality types can be based on things such as genetic influences, nutrition, gender, and brain chemistry (Cherry). It is proven that someone who has a higher intelligence is able to adjust better in a social environment. On the other hand, environmental factors are aspects of personality that have occured because of the surrounding of the person and the interaction between the individual and the environment. Environmental factors include the environment of the family, school, the experiences endured, and more. Family is the largest factor of personality development and displays that the parents behavior and actions, their expectations, education given, thoughtfulness towards the child, and the birth order can influence the child’s personality. Also, a positive or harsh experience endured as a young child, such as a trip to the zoo or a death of a parent, can motivate or discourage the child throughout life. School also plays a big role because the discipline, personality, and attitude of the teacher and peers can influence the child’s personality. Lastly, the economic and social conditions of the family, the accepted values and cultural traditions in a society, and the amount of free will the child is given can affect the child’s mindset (“Factors Affecting Personality Development”).

As previously stated, the order in which a child was born in it’s family can impact his or her personality. This is known as the birth order theory and was created by Alfred Adler, an Austrian doctor and therapist, in the early 1900s. To not get confused, the birth order theory does not mean that the child is born with these exact traits that will be described, but the theory suggests that birth order can shape a child’s personality in their early life. Even though every family is different, most families interact similarly as they grow and develop, which means the birth order theory can apply to most families. Thus, only children have unique situations because parents are more likely to give only children more attention than a child with siblings. Due to this, they interact with people notably older than them as a child. Only children can then feel like “tiny adults” and more sophisticated than peers with siblings. Only children tend to show the traits of confidence, maturity, sensitive, self-centered, and manipulative. Next up: first born children. First born children may show similar characteristics of an only child because they are used to being an only child until the other sibling comes along. First born children can show personality traits of an achiever/leader, feels like they must have superiority over other children, controlling, concentrate on being correct. They also may change their behavior (good/bad) to attain parents attention, they can be reliable, aim to please others, can be protective, and like to help others. Then, when the 2nd child is born, attention from the parents is being shared with both children. Due to this, the second child often tries to catch up with the older sibling, who is their role model. It is believed that the second child can adjust better in life than others. A second child tends to show the traits of competitiveness, a people-pleaser, peacemaker, rebellious, independent, and develops talents/skills the first child lacks to gain attention. The second child can also be classified as the middle child depending on the size of the family. The second child then may have to share the attention with older and younger siblings if they lose their youngest child status. The middle children are presented with many challenges and can become frustrated or resentful due to the big changes they are confronted with in early life. This diagnosis is known as the “middle child syndrome.” The middle children in bigger families are usually not as competitive as a single middle child, considering the parents attention is being spread even thinner and it is hard to gain attention. The middle children in larger families often use cooperation to gain their parents’ attention. Middle children often show the traits of adapting, impatient, outgoing, boisterous, even-tempered, can feel left out, they don’t have the benefits and responsibilities of the oldest children or the privileges of the youngest sibling, and they can possibly treat the younger siblings rougher. Then comes the youngest child. The youngest child does not have to deal with being “overthrown” by a younger sibling and the attention from the parents tends to be directed towards the “baby” of the family since the older siblings are developing and are becoming more independent. Traits of the youngest child can include charming, outgoing, attention seeker, can feel inferior, expects others to make decisions and take their responsibility, and can become speedier in development to catch up to older siblings. Also, certain situations may influence the personality of the child as they evolve and develop. This could include blended or step families, health issues of a sibling, the death of siblings, and adoption. If there is an age gap of 3 or more years between siblings, the birth order can restart. Again, personality is not determined by birth order alone but, birth order can influence the child’s personality as they grow and develop (Peck).

The development of one’s personality as a child is determined by several components. Those components are categorized into individual and environmental factors, which include the birth order theory (“Factors Affecting Personality Development”). Ultimately, the variety of factors and situations of daily life can create the distinct personalities of this world that we come across everyday.