Electric Field Array Micro-System Lab-On-Chip and Biomedical Analysis

The micro-system system is wholly automated, and it is used in biomedical functions. This system entails two core parts:

  1. ACMOS Integrated Circuit, which entails the detecting and triggering sections.
  2. A control circuit board, which involves the intensification and the conditioning sections. This system is an appropriate entrant for biomedical purposes like noninvasive cell exposure, cancer sensation, and selection of antibodies (Gallab 1027).

DeFETs principle of working

DeFETs principle of working

DeFET contains two FETs, which include the P-type and the N-type. A cross-coupling occurs between the two drains of the FETs and the gates are floated and connected to one other. When E is applied over the DeFET sensor, then E=Vin1-Vin2/d. The differential voltage Vdiff is equal to the product of the applied E and the distance between the split gates (d) Viff=Vin-Vin2=Ed. Also, IL= Ipmos- Inmos, where IL is the load current, Ipmos and Inmos is the drain currents from their respective FETS (Gallab 1033) (Gallab1035).

Sensing

When E is produced, then the applied E is a function of d. E can be detected using DeFET by measuring Vout, which is the intensity of the applied E (Gallab1028).

Actuation

It is made up of four electrodes:

  1. The electrodes maintain passive stable particle levitation.
  2. They give a strong E force so that small particles can be levitated (Gallab1030).

Actuation

Multiplexer

It is a 16*1 analog multiplexer used to multiplex 16 DeFET sensors outputs. It consists of transmission gates and four control terminals. A certain output value of DeFET can be obtained by applying the equivalent combination of four digital control signals. Additionally, by applying these four control terminals of the multiplexer with a 4-bit counter output, all 16 DeFETs can be scanned continuously, which is a crucial characteristic feature for the applications(Gallab 1034).

Inpucts for Control

Fully automated CMOS micro-system board

It is made up of

  1. An oscillator, which, produces a square waveform with frequencies ranging from 1MHz to 10 MHz.
  2. A filter: to filter the output of the oscillator.
  3. Phase shifter: used for inverting the input at a gain of -1 and below.
  4. Selection part: It consists of 8 switches. It obtains its inputs from the phase shifter and the filter, and it can spread these signals into the inputs of the quadruple electrodes.
  5. Decoder: it a 4- bit counter, which, obtains its input from the clock at a given frequency. It controls the multiplexers nonstop scanning on the 16 DeFET detectors.
  6. Level shifter: it varies the output of the counter to obtain1.8V for the multiplexer. Lab-View: it is a visual programming language development (Gallab 1035).

Fully automated CMOS micro-system boardFully automated CMOS micro-system board

Electrical Testing

The micro-system is tested at various frequencies like 1MHZ, 2.8MHz, and 8.6MHz. Fig. 6 below shows the output of various sections of the board at 1MHz (Gallab 1036).

Electrical Testing

Biomedical Testing

The system is tested at 819.7 kHz with Hemolymph, which is obtained from the snails. Gallab1037).

Conclusion

The LOC can actuate the electric field E and sense it in real-time, which is an important merit in the LOC prototype. The micro-system can be used in the biomedical lab- on- chips, environmental monitoring by sensing particles in the air, and detection of scratches.

Works Cited

Gallab, Ballawy (2006) A novel electric field sensor for lab-on-chip for biomedical applications: IEEE Journal of sensors 6.4 (2006):1027-1037. Print.

Nanotechnology and Bio-Electrospray: In the Context of Biomedical Applications

Introduction

Nanotechnology is the key to developing and creating structures that are so tiny that it is even impossible to view these things under a microscope.

This technology allows for the creation of nanofibers and other nano-sized materials. It has been well-documented that certain industries already benefited from the use of nanotechnology especially when it comes to the creation of nano-sized and yet greatly enhanced materials. It did not take long before scientists working in the field of biomedicine began to study nanotechnology, especially when it comes to the delivery of drugs and the construction of biological microenvironments (Yi et al.,p.189).

In recent years one of the most promising applications is the use of electrospraying to manipulate cells and transport them without compromising the integrity of the cell. A team of researchers discovered that bio-electrospraying is a viable method of transporting stem cells to engraft and repair an affected organ.

Nanotechnology

Before going any further it is important to have a clear grasp of the type of measurements that are involved when discussing nanotechnology. There are different opinions as to how one can accurately measure particles that are below the micro-level. However, most will agree that you can think of nanotechnology dealing with anything measuring between 1 and 100 nm& larger than that is the microscale, and smaller than that is the atomic scale (Bonsor & Strickland, p.2). Thus, it can be said that when people talk about nanotechnology then they refer to measurements that are smaller than those that can be found in the microscale.

One can just imagine the extreme minuteness of the particles and materials that belong to the world of nanotechnology. However, there is only one way to appreciate the importance of this technology by examining the products that scientists were able to produce using this technological framework.

The most significant contribution can be seen in the field of engineering as revealed in the following statement: Engineers are trying to use nano-size wires to create smaller, more powerful microprocessors (Bonsor & Strickland, p.2). Nanowires are wires with a diameter of 1 nm and as a result, these things can be utilized to build very tiny transistors for computer chips (Bonsor & Strickland, p.2). The implication is that computers can be very compact and yet very powerful at the same time.

There are also carbon nanotubes. Using nanotechnology scientists were able to line up carbons into sheets and afterward, they were able to roll these sheets. One byproduct of this process is a material that is hundreds of times stronger than steel and yet many times lighter (Bonsor & Strickland, p.3). These are exciting discoveries however, these are just the tip of the iceberg, so to speak.

Another major benefit of nanotechnology is seen in the biomedical field. It can be used in the delivery of drugs and nucleic acids. In the pharmaceutical world, this is called the drug/gene delivery system or DGDS (Guan et al., p.115). Nanotechnology can be used to create nano-sized structures that can carry a particular drug or nucleic acid to its particular target. The conventional means of drug delivery is through

the form of free, unassociated molecules but health experts discovered that This strategy is simple, but it is becoming increasingly limited in many conditions, especially in those involving the use of highly cytotoxic chemotherapeutics and environmentally sensitive biopharmaceutics ( Guan et al., p.116). This simply means that the potency of the drug is undermined because it is unable to reach its target before being degraded by the environment.

Cell Electrospinning and Electrosprays

It has been proposed that electrospraying could be used in tandem with nanotechnology. This can be applied in biomedicine wherein medical experts can rebuild organic tissues in the same way that electrospinning is used to create microfibers. This idea is a result of rapid advances in the related field of electrospraying.

As early as 1934 a process was patented wherein an experimental setup was outlined for the production of polymer filaments using electrostatic force& a high voltage is used to create an electrically charged jet of polymer solution or melt, which dries or solidifies to leave a polymer fiber (Virginia Tech, p.1). This is why they can create microfibers from a polymer solution. If the same principle is used in medicine to create organic structures instead of microfibers the process is called cell electrospinning (Bartolovic, p.157).

Another technique in the creation of fine particles is the use of electrical force to generate a fine liquid aerosol. The conventional way of creating fine liquid aerosol is through pneumatic methods as gas forces a liquid solution out of the container so that it will effuse out of a nozzle.

Applying nanotechnology there is now a better way of doing that and it is by charing the liquid to a very high voltage as a result, The charged liquid in the nozzle becomes unstable it is forced to hold more and more charge& soon the liquid reaches a critical point, at which it can hold no more electrical charge and at the tip of the nozzle it blows apart into a cloud of tiny, highly charged droplets (New Objective, Inc., p.1).

Scientists are saying that if one will combine the different attributes of nanotechnology and electrospraying and use them in biomedicine, the result would be bio-electrospraying, a novel way of creating organic structures or biological microenvironments.

Bio-electrosprays

The concept is simple to understand but the byproduct of the bio-electrosprays is unknown. Using principles of electrospraying will reveal that bio-electrospraying utilizes electrical force to move cells out of prepared solution and into a specific target. This requires manipulating the cells and to some extent exposing them to a level of stress that may damage the cells and therefore prevent it from accomplishing their purpose. This is the first thing that comes to mind considering that cells are fragile organic structures that require an optimized environment to function and survive.

An experiment has to be conducted to determine if a cell can be manipulated to such an extent that it will be transported from a solution and targeted to a specific location in the body of a recipient and yet maintain its integrity. As mentioned earlier organic matter and living organisms are very sensitive to changes in the external environment. There is no need to elaborate on the fact that for bio-electrospraying to work the cells must not only be manipulated but also had to be charged using electrical force.

To answer these questions, a group of scientists devised a study wherein they can determine beyond doubt if indeed a cell that passes through a bio-electrospray system can be transported into a host tissue without adverse effects to the cell itself and the recipient. This was achieved by using stem cells as opposed to ordinary types of cells.

Furthermore, the said research team decided to use stem cells harvested from mice. At the same time, they flushed out bone marrow from mouse legs. The control group will be given a solution containing stem cells via ordinary methods of transplantation while the experimental group received stem cells via bio-electrospraying.

The team wanted to know if the stem cells that passed through the bio-electrospray equipment were not damaged considering the conditions the stem cells have to endure to move from the container to the leg of the mouse. Using Trypan blue staining techniques the research team discovered that there was no significant difference between the stem cells that came out of the bio-electrospray equipment and the stem cells that will be directly applied to the mouse leg in the control group.

It has to be pointed out that the mice went through an irradiation process that eliminated their bone marrow. If the stem cells that came from bio-electrospraying were altered or negatively affected by the process then this means that the stem cells will not function as expected. Thus, a short while after bio-electrospraying, the mice are expected to die because this means that the stem cells failed to engraft and repopulate the blood system with much-needed blood cells.

When the procedure was completed the research team discovered that there were no significant differences between bio-electrosprayed cells and controls and the results were even comparable to cells taken from untreated wild-type mice (Bartolovich et al., p.162).

The research team also conducted other tests such as the examination of the levels of myeloid cells, B cells, and T cells and they explained that this will indicate whether the stem cells had been affected by the jetting procedure as any damage to the cells could alter their homing, engraftment or differentiation potentials (Bartolovic et al., p.163).

The team reported, There is no significant difference between the proportion of myeloid cells, B cells and T cells in control mice (CC) and the recipients of cells subjected to bio-electrospraying (BES) for nay cell type examined in the peripheral blood, bone marrow or spleen (Bartolovic et al., p.163). This is proof that bio-electrospraying has tremendous potential when it comes to biomedicine.

This is an important breakthrough because beforehand there were lingering questions with regards to the viability of bio-electrospraying in biomedicine. It is one thing to release fine particles using a solution full of chemicals and quite another to create fine mists containing live cells.

The use of the stem cells is also very crucial because it did not only show the safety of bio-electrospraying but also if the technique can negatively alter the structure of the cells to the extent that it can no longer function as expected. But in the said experiment the research team was able to demonstrate that the stem cells were was still capable of saving the life of a mouse. This is because the stem cells from BES were able to engraft and repopulate.

Conclusion

Nanotechnology has come a long way from developing microfibers and nanowires used in engineering and other industrial applications. In the 21st-century scientists are working towards the utilization of nanotechnology and applying it in the field of biomedicine. There is a consensus that to create nano-sized structures for DGDS purposes there is also a need to discover a system of delivery that will allow for pinpoint accuracy but at the same time ensure that the chemical or organic materials are not harmed or altered in the process.

This means that scientists had to adopt the use of electrospraying and transform it into bio-electrospraying. Researchers were able to demonstrate that bio-electrospraying is a viable tool to deliver cells because in one particular experiment stem cells were jetted from a charged needle and yet it did not negatively affect its structure and functions when applied to a dying animal.

This is a breakthrough because it can be used as a basis to explore other forms of the application be it in tissue grafting or the creation of biological microenvironments.

This means that instead of the use of a scalpel to remove skin tissue from a donor and graft it into the recipient, the use of bio-electrospraying can achieve the same result with pinpoint accuracy. However, there is much work to be done because it is not yet clear how to manipulate stem cells to create tissues and organs. Nevertheless, the result of this experiment is a step in the right direction.

Works Cited

Bartolovic, Kerol et al. The differentiation and engraftment potential of mouse hematopoietic stem cells is maintained after bio-electrospray. Analyst (2010): 157-164.

Bonsor, Kevin & Jonathan Strickland.  How Stuff Works. 1998. Web.

Guan, Jingjiao et al. Polymeric nanoparticles and nanopore membranes for controlled drug and gene delivery. Biomedical Nanostructures. (2008): 115-137. New Objective Inc. What is electrospray? Web.

Virginia Tech. 2011. Electrospinning. Web.

Yi, Allen et al. Overview of Polymer micro/nanomanufacturing for biomedical applications. Advances in Polymer Technology. 27.4 (2008): 188-198.

Electric Field Array Micro-System Lab-On-Chip and Biomedical Analysis

The micro-system system is wholly automated, and it is used in biomedical functions. This system entails two core parts:

  1. ACMOS Integrated Circuit, which entails the detecting and triggering sections.
  2. A control circuit board, which involves the intensification and the conditioning sections. This system is an appropriate entrant for biomedical purposes like noninvasive cell exposure, cancer sensation, and selection of antibodies (Gallab 1027).

DeFETs principle of working

DeFETs principle of working

DeFET contains two FETs, which include the P-type and the N-type. A cross-coupling occurs between the two drains of the FETs and the gates are floated and connected to one other. When E is applied over the DeFET sensor, then E=Vin1-Vin2/d. The differential voltage Vdiff is equal to the product of the applied E and the distance between the split gates (d) Viff=Vin-Vin2=Ed. Also, IL= Ipmos- Inmos, where IL is the load current, Ipmos and Inmos is the drain currents from their respective FETS (Gallab 1033) (Gallab1035).

Sensing

When E is produced, then the applied E is a function of d. E can be detected using DeFET by measuring Vout, which is the intensity of the applied E (Gallab1028).

Actuation

It is made up of four electrodes:

  1. The electrodes maintain passive stable particle levitation.
  2. They give a strong E force so that small particles can be levitated (Gallab1030).

Actuation

Multiplexer

It is a 16*1 analog multiplexer used to multiplex 16 DeFET sensors outputs. It consists of transmission gates and four control terminals. A certain output value of DeFET can be obtained by applying the equivalent combination of four digital control signals. Additionally, by applying these four control terminals of the multiplexer with a 4-bit counter output, all 16 DeFETs can be scanned continuously, which is a crucial characteristic feature for the applications(Gallab 1034).

Inpucts for Control

Fully automated CMOS micro-system board

It is made up of

  1. An oscillator, which, produces a square waveform with frequencies ranging from 1MHz to 10 MHz.
  2. A filter: to filter the output of the oscillator.
  3. Phase shifter: used for inverting the input at a gain of -1 and below.
  4. Selection part: It consists of 8 switches. It obtains its inputs from the phase shifter and the filter, and it can spread these signals into the inputs of the quadruple electrodes.
  5. Decoder: it a 4- bit counter, which, obtains its input from the clock at a given frequency. It controls the multiplexers nonstop scanning on the 16 DeFET detectors.
  6. Level shifter: it varies the output of the counter to obtain1.8V for the multiplexer. Lab-View: it is a visual programming language development (Gallab 1035).

Fully automated CMOS micro-system boardFully automated CMOS micro-system board

Electrical Testing

The micro-system is tested at various frequencies like 1MHZ, 2.8MHz, and 8.6MHz. Fig. 6 below shows the output of various sections of the board at 1MHz (Gallab 1036).

Electrical Testing

Biomedical Testing

The system is tested at 819.7 kHz with Hemolymph, which is obtained from the snails. Gallab1037).

Conclusion

The LOC can actuate the electric field E and sense it in real-time, which is an important merit in the LOC prototype. The micro-system can be used in the biomedical lab- on- chips, environmental monitoring by sensing particles in the air, and detection of scratches.

Works Cited

Gallab, Ballawy (2006) A novel electric field sensor for lab-on-chip for biomedical applications: IEEE Journal of sensors 6.4 (2006):1027-1037. Print.

Nanotechnology and Bio-Electrospray: In the Context of Biomedical Applications

Introduction

Nanotechnology is the key to developing and creating structures that are so tiny that it is even impossible to view these things under a microscope.

This technology allows for the creation of nanofibers and other nano-sized materials. It has been well-documented that certain industries already benefited from the use of nanotechnology especially when it comes to the creation of nano-sized and yet greatly enhanced materials. It did not take long before scientists working in the field of biomedicine began to study nanotechnology, especially when it comes to the delivery of drugs and the construction of biological microenvironments (Yi et al.,p.189).

In recent years one of the most promising applications is the use of electrospraying to manipulate cells and transport them without compromising the integrity of the cell. A team of researchers discovered that bio-electrospraying is a viable method of transporting stem cells to engraft and repair an affected organ.

Nanotechnology

Before going any further it is important to have a clear grasp of the type of measurements that are involved when discussing nanotechnology. There are different opinions as to how one can accurately measure particles that are below the micro-level. However, most will agree that you can think of nanotechnology dealing with anything measuring between 1 and 100 nm& larger than that is the microscale, and smaller than that is the atomic scale (Bonsor & Strickland, p.2). Thus, it can be said that when people talk about nanotechnology then they refer to measurements that are smaller than those that can be found in the microscale.

One can just imagine the extreme minuteness of the particles and materials that belong to the world of nanotechnology. However, there is only one way to appreciate the importance of this technology by examining the products that scientists were able to produce using this technological framework.

The most significant contribution can be seen in the field of engineering as revealed in the following statement: Engineers are trying to use nano-size wires to create smaller, more powerful microprocessors (Bonsor & Strickland, p.2). Nanowires are wires with a diameter of 1 nm and as a result, these things can be utilized to build very tiny transistors for computer chips (Bonsor & Strickland, p.2). The implication is that computers can be very compact and yet very powerful at the same time.

There are also carbon nanotubes. Using nanotechnology scientists were able to line up carbons into sheets and afterward, they were able to roll these sheets. One byproduct of this process is a material that is hundreds of times stronger than steel and yet many times lighter (Bonsor & Strickland, p.3). These are exciting discoveries however, these are just the tip of the iceberg, so to speak.

Another major benefit of nanotechnology is seen in the biomedical field. It can be used in the delivery of drugs and nucleic acids. In the pharmaceutical world, this is called the drug/gene delivery system or DGDS (Guan et al., p.115). Nanotechnology can be used to create nano-sized structures that can carry a particular drug or nucleic acid to its particular target. The conventional means of drug delivery is through

the form of free, unassociated molecules but health experts discovered that This strategy is simple, but it is becoming increasingly limited in many conditions, especially in those involving the use of highly cytotoxic chemotherapeutics and environmentally sensitive biopharmaceutics ( Guan et al., p.116). This simply means that the potency of the drug is undermined because it is unable to reach its target before being degraded by the environment.

Cell Electrospinning and Electrosprays

It has been proposed that electrospraying could be used in tandem with nanotechnology. This can be applied in biomedicine wherein medical experts can rebuild organic tissues in the same way that electrospinning is used to create microfibers. This idea is a result of rapid advances in the related field of electrospraying.

As early as 1934 a process was patented wherein an experimental setup was outlined for the production of polymer filaments using electrostatic force& a high voltage is used to create an electrically charged jet of polymer solution or melt, which dries or solidifies to leave a polymer fiber (Virginia Tech, p.1). This is why they can create microfibers from a polymer solution. If the same principle is used in medicine to create organic structures instead of microfibers the process is called cell electrospinning (Bartolovic, p.157).

Another technique in the creation of fine particles is the use of electrical force to generate a fine liquid aerosol. The conventional way of creating fine liquid aerosol is through pneumatic methods as gas forces a liquid solution out of the container so that it will effuse out of a nozzle.

Applying nanotechnology there is now a better way of doing that and it is by charing the liquid to a very high voltage as a result, The charged liquid in the nozzle becomes unstable it is forced to hold more and more charge& soon the liquid reaches a critical point, at which it can hold no more electrical charge and at the tip of the nozzle it blows apart into a cloud of tiny, highly charged droplets (New Objective, Inc., p.1).

Scientists are saying that if one will combine the different attributes of nanotechnology and electrospraying and use them in biomedicine, the result would be bio-electrospraying, a novel way of creating organic structures or biological microenvironments.

Bio-electrosprays

The concept is simple to understand but the byproduct of the bio-electrosprays is unknown. Using principles of electrospraying will reveal that bio-electrospraying utilizes electrical force to move cells out of prepared solution and into a specific target. This requires manipulating the cells and to some extent exposing them to a level of stress that may damage the cells and therefore prevent it from accomplishing their purpose. This is the first thing that comes to mind considering that cells are fragile organic structures that require an optimized environment to function and survive.

An experiment has to be conducted to determine if a cell can be manipulated to such an extent that it will be transported from a solution and targeted to a specific location in the body of a recipient and yet maintain its integrity. As mentioned earlier organic matter and living organisms are very sensitive to changes in the external environment. There is no need to elaborate on the fact that for bio-electrospraying to work the cells must not only be manipulated but also had to be charged using electrical force.

To answer these questions, a group of scientists devised a study wherein they can determine beyond doubt if indeed a cell that passes through a bio-electrospray system can be transported into a host tissue without adverse effects to the cell itself and the recipient. This was achieved by using stem cells as opposed to ordinary types of cells.

Furthermore, the said research team decided to use stem cells harvested from mice. At the same time, they flushed out bone marrow from mouse legs. The control group will be given a solution containing stem cells via ordinary methods of transplantation while the experimental group received stem cells via bio-electrospraying.

The team wanted to know if the stem cells that passed through the bio-electrospray equipment were not damaged considering the conditions the stem cells have to endure to move from the container to the leg of the mouse. Using Trypan blue staining techniques the research team discovered that there was no significant difference between the stem cells that came out of the bio-electrospray equipment and the stem cells that will be directly applied to the mouse leg in the control group.

It has to be pointed out that the mice went through an irradiation process that eliminated their bone marrow. If the stem cells that came from bio-electrospraying were altered or negatively affected by the process then this means that the stem cells will not function as expected. Thus, a short while after bio-electrospraying, the mice are expected to die because this means that the stem cells failed to engraft and repopulate the blood system with much-needed blood cells.

When the procedure was completed the research team discovered that there were no significant differences between bio-electrosprayed cells and controls and the results were even comparable to cells taken from untreated wild-type mice (Bartolovich et al., p.162).

The research team also conducted other tests such as the examination of the levels of myeloid cells, B cells, and T cells and they explained that this will indicate whether the stem cells had been affected by the jetting procedure as any damage to the cells could alter their homing, engraftment or differentiation potentials (Bartolovic et al., p.163).

The team reported, There is no significant difference between the proportion of myeloid cells, B cells and T cells in control mice (CC) and the recipients of cells subjected to bio-electrospraying (BES) for nay cell type examined in the peripheral blood, bone marrow or spleen (Bartolovic et al., p.163). This is proof that bio-electrospraying has tremendous potential when it comes to biomedicine.

This is an important breakthrough because beforehand there were lingering questions with regards to the viability of bio-electrospraying in biomedicine. It is one thing to release fine particles using a solution full of chemicals and quite another to create fine mists containing live cells.

The use of the stem cells is also very crucial because it did not only show the safety of bio-electrospraying but also if the technique can negatively alter the structure of the cells to the extent that it can no longer function as expected. But in the said experiment the research team was able to demonstrate that the stem cells were was still capable of saving the life of a mouse. This is because the stem cells from BES were able to engraft and repopulate.

Conclusion

Nanotechnology has come a long way from developing microfibers and nanowires used in engineering and other industrial applications. In the 21st-century scientists are working towards the utilization of nanotechnology and applying it in the field of biomedicine. There is a consensus that to create nano-sized structures for DGDS purposes there is also a need to discover a system of delivery that will allow for pinpoint accuracy but at the same time ensure that the chemical or organic materials are not harmed or altered in the process.

This means that scientists had to adopt the use of electrospraying and transform it into bio-electrospraying. Researchers were able to demonstrate that bio-electrospraying is a viable tool to deliver cells because in one particular experiment stem cells were jetted from a charged needle and yet it did not negatively affect its structure and functions when applied to a dying animal.

This is a breakthrough because it can be used as a basis to explore other forms of the application be it in tissue grafting or the creation of biological microenvironments.

This means that instead of the use of a scalpel to remove skin tissue from a donor and graft it into the recipient, the use of bio-electrospraying can achieve the same result with pinpoint accuracy. However, there is much work to be done because it is not yet clear how to manipulate stem cells to create tissues and organs. Nevertheless, the result of this experiment is a step in the right direction.

Works Cited

Bartolovic, Kerol et al. The differentiation and engraftment potential of mouse hematopoietic stem cells is maintained after bio-electrospray. Analyst (2010): 157-164.

Bonsor, Kevin & Jonathan Strickland.  How Stuff Works. 1998. Web.

Guan, Jingjiao et al. Polymeric nanoparticles and nanopore membranes for controlled drug and gene delivery. Biomedical Nanostructures. (2008): 115-137. New Objective Inc. What is electrospray? Web.

Virginia Tech. 2011. Electrospinning. Web.

Yi, Allen et al. Overview of Polymer micro/nanomanufacturing for biomedical applications. Advances in Polymer Technology. 27.4 (2008): 188-198.

Autophagy Mechanisms: Biology and Medicine Breakthrough

Introduction

The Japanese molecular biologist was recognized for his work on autophagy, i.e., how the cell recycles its own composing elements. The description of the discovery is outlined below, as well as a brief explanation of its significance and the influence it might exert on the development of science while benefitting humankind.

Autophagy is a process where the cell digests and recycles some of its components. It is a key element in many physiological processes that eliminate the redundant cells in order for the new ones to appear. Prior to Ohsumis research, the 1960s saw the discovery of the cells capacity to transfer its contents in the enclosed membranes to the lysosome, where the contents are recycled.

Description of the Discovery

Autophagy processes were initially studied in the 1960s by Christian de Duve, who eventually received a Nobel Prize in 1974 for his research of the functional and structural cell organization. In 1995, Ohsumi conducted experiments by cloning yeast cells and mammalian cells. He discovered fifteen autophagy genes in yeast. The function of the encoded proteins was thereby clarified, and it was established that the same autophagy mechanisms work for both yeast cells and human cells.

Due to the research conducted by Ohsumi, it is now known that autophagy mechanisms play a crucial role in the cellular reaction to various kinds of stress, including starvation, as well as in the aging processes). The described mechanisms are also crucial for the cellular homeostasis, the differentiation of cells, and other biological processes that necessitate a considerable amount of cytoplasm. Autophagys significance for the protection of cells was emphasized, as well as its capacity to counteract infections and strengthen the overall immune system. The latter is called xenophagy and it is crucial for fighting the injuring organisms, boosting the immune responses, and preventing the spread of infections.

Significance and Impact of the Discovery

Even though autophagy mechanisms were partially studied by de Duve in the 1960s, they remained poorly understood until now. Ohsumis experiments with yeast and mammalian cells shed new light on the matter. Due to his research, the significance of autophagy in human physiology and disease prevention is clear. The results of Ohsumis experiments provide a basis for further research into disease prevention by means of targeting autophagy mechanisms.

Due to Ohsumis research, we know that in the autophagy processes, the membrane structure develops in the cytoplasm, which is followed by sequestering the elements of cytoplasm (2). The emerging structure is enclosed and sealed into a double-membrane formation, i.e. autophagosome. The results of the research demonstrated that Atg proteins are involved in the process of autophagosome construction (2). It was also demonstrated that the vesicles of Atg9 protein become a part of the autophagosome membrane.

Moreover, Ohsumis discoveries revealed that in the case of selective autophagy, autophagosome formations select certain cell contents that are to be recycled (3). The contents that are to be degraded are delivered to lysosomes in mammals and vacuoles in yeast and plants (3). Selective autophagy is demonstrated to be highly significant since it also degrades intracellular pathogens, as well as certain types of damaged organelles (3).

It was established that autophagy mechanisms are linked to the onset of many diseases, including Parkinsons disease and type 2 diabetes. Thus, the significance of Ohsumis discovery is clear. The importance that autophagy mechanisms have in the processes of disease prevention and aging ensures that there is a possibility of developing new treatments and prevention methods. Moreover, mutations that occur in the discovered genes linked to autophagy mechanisms might indicate the possibility of a congenital disease.

Certain irregularities in autophagy genes have also been associated with cancer and the development of certain neurological conditions. Research is now underway to clarify the potential correlation with various diseases.

The Nobel Committee called Ohsumis research paradigm-shifting because it is a huge step forward in the fields of biology, medicine, and disease prevention. His discoveries have changed our understanding of the cell and its recycling capacity. A study by Ahn et al. suggests that autophagy mechanisms play an important role in tumor suppression processes (1). The implications of Ohsumis discovery are deemed to be significant in the field of biology and medicine.

Conclusion

Yoshinori Ohsumis research has a considerable impact on the development of biology and medicine because it changes the way we understand the autophagy mechanisms in human cells, as well as the processes of disease pathogenesis. The results are of utmost importance since they are promising in respect of medical treatments and preventative care of many diseases, including neuropathy and cancer. The results of Ohsumis work should provide a basis for further research and development of new treatments and prevention methods.

References

  1. Ahn, J.-S., Ann, E.-J., Kim, M.-Y., Yoon, J.-H., Lee, H.-J., Jo, E.-H., Lee, K., Lee, J.-S., & Park, H.-S. (2016). . Web.
  2. Suzuki, S. W., Yamamoto, H., Oikawa, Y., Kondo-Kakuta, C., Kimura, Y., Hirano, H., & Ohsumi, Y. (2015). . Web.
  3. Nakatogawa, H., & Ohsumi, Y. (2014). . Web.

Importance and Role of Biomedicine

Biomedicine is a branch of medicine; its main task is to study the human body from different theoretical positions in norm and pathology. Using this method, nurses and specialists can analyze the patients condition from a broader perspective (Whitehead, 2018). That allows people to study the problem more deeply and quickly identify the proper treatment. It helps to increase the speed of response to the problem and prevent negative consequences for patients.

By studying a model of the natural history of the disease, the primary function is to identify the stages of prepathogenesis, pathogenesis, and prevention methods. The methods of prevention have three stages aimed at improving the condition of patients. They aim to improve the environment to reduce morbidity and care for the sick and patients who need additional care (Whitehead, 2018). The third stage of prevention is aimed at reducing the factors that negatively affect the patients recovery.

Depending on how quickly the doctor recognizes the deviation from the bodys norm, he may have time to use the stage of prevention that will be most appropriate for this patient. Thus, the first stage is often those actions that are aimed at improving the patients condition. For example, starting from more activity for the body, ending with a ban on implementing negative habits that threaten the body.

White (2020) reports that secondary prevention aims to reduce disease prevalence by shortening its duration (p. 15). The leading initiatives in the second stage are maintaining a distance between individuals or constantly checking the tests on patients. It is associated with the control of the situation and the prevention of its unfortunate outcomes. The third stage of prevention is the mitigation of the consequences of the disease. Moreover, this prevention technique can be used in the COVID-19 situation.

To sum up, biomedicine plays a vital role in improving the condition of patients during critical or persistent unstable situations. Thus, through its methods, it serves to mitigate and improve the condition of patients. If used correctly, this approach can prevent the high incidence of COVID-19 and be applied in future cases of a pandemic. Moreover, this practice can be applied in other cases of a medical nature.

Speaking about biomedicine, that is important to note that this science was developed by including the biological foundations associated with the natural world. By using different approaches from non-medical subjects, it is possible to achieve completely new treatment methods and counseling, as well as patient care. This essay will discuss the topic of the epidemiological triangle when the relationship between the pathogen, the susceptible host organism, and the external environment is considered.

Talking about the epidemiological triangle, that is important to note that this is a traditional model of the occurrence of an infectious disease. The external environment affects the pathogen, the host, and the pathway of pathogen transmission from source to host. Recently, different methods of studying epidemiology are used not only for non-communicable diseases. The causative agents of such diseases include physical and chemical factors affecting a person from the external and internal environment (Smith, 2019). Due to the interaction of three agents  the pathogen, the host organism, and the external environment, a causal relationship can be detected (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2018).

That helps determine what caused the infection, who was the first to get sick, and what antibodies should stop the infection. This theory can also be used to find an antidote and understand the cause of infection. Therefore, it can be used to break the chain of infections and improve the epidemiological situation. For example, this theory is highly relevant to the fight against COVID-19.

To sum up, many theories aim to identify the causal relationship that is so important for stopping the increase in morbidity. Thus, this theory of the epidemiological triangle is one of the most influential theories of reducing morbidity, as it has been repeatedly tested and its effectiveness confirmed. COVID-19 and other diseases can be investigated and studied by scientists to stop future epidemics and gain experience in predicting disease incidence.

References

Smith, E. (2019). The effect of potential climate change on infectious disease presentation. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 15(6), 405409. Web.

Stanhope, M., & Lancaster, J. (2018). Foundations for population health in community/public health nursing (5th ed.). Elsevier.

White, F. (2020). Application of disease etiology and natural history principles to prevention in primary health care  a discourse. Medical Principles and Practice. Web.

Whitehead, D. (2018). Exploring health promotion and health education in nursing. Nursing Standard, 33(8), 3844. Web.

Biomedical Ethics and Christianity: Balancing Patients Wellbeing and Trust in God

Introduction

Bioethics is an independent discipline and a system of moral principles and values that serve as a point of reference in case a medical practitioner is confronted with a moral dilemma. Often, the scale of a problem supersedes the limits of what is healthy and embarks on what is moral and right. In its pursuit of good, bioethics may overlap with religious teachings that also deal with the issues of health and well-being. One may argue that with the rise of the secular state, religion lost its influence over science. However, a considerable number of medical practitioners (MPs) are religious and seek to find a middle ground between what their profession requires them to do and their convictions. Moreover, many patients practice religious beliefs and take them into account when making health decisions. This paper examines a case of a family with a deceased child that tries to balance their interest in his well-being and trust in God.

Christianity and Bioethics: Pressing Issues

Recently, a debate around doing biomedical ethics from a Christian perspective has been gaining traction. Secular biomedical ethics provide a framework but do not offer any definite answers. Despite its traditional diversity, Christianity, on the other hand, has more potential of prescribing its adherents what they should do, and James parents may be seeking relief in faith. Second, according to Saunders (2017), medical advancements are now allowing people to accomplish more than ever. A religious person may be wondering whether the new technologies are interfering with Gods design and His plan. For instance, Mike and Joanne face a dilemma whether they should be obedient to Gods will and let Him decide if James survives or they should rely on modern medicine. The question also arises as to whether organ donation is compatible with Christian convictions; furthermore, one should examine the plight of a Christian dealing with sickness.

Physician Perspective

In the case under examination, the physician is torn between letting the parents be true to themselves and following secular medical principles. According to Truog et al. (2015), a doctors job is to elicit the patients core values and help the patient translate them into the medical context (13). However, allowing Mike and Joanne to forgo treatment is contradictory to one of the basic principles in bioethics, and namely, beneficence. Beneficence is a moral imperative that requires an MP to favor the well-being of a patient. The physician, in this case, is obliged to conduct all necessary procedures to make sure James survives the infection and kidney failure. As a professional, he can foresee the consequences of dismissing the complexity of the condition. All in all, he should not let Mike and Joanne do what they plan to do; however, to be convincing, he may need to involve a religious authority or refer to the Scripture.

Christian Narrative

Treatment Refusal

Medical treatment is a basic human need; however, for some people, their interpretation of Christian values means forgoing necessary medication and procedures. Many believe that obedience to Gods commandments guarantees good health. Moreover, faith and prayers are the only healing methods needed, namely, they will prolong your life many years and bring you prosperity. This will bring health to your body and nourishment to your bones (Proverbs 3:2 New International Version). Hence, Western medicine may be deemed unnecessary or even harmful as it interferes with Gods plan for a sick persons life.

Patient Autonomy

Within the secular concept of patient autonomy, the patient has a right to self-determination that is to be respected by medical practitioners. The Bible also acknowledges that all people naturally have free will and thus, the ability to determine their plans, medical treatment included. However, in the Biblical sense, freedom is not limitless, and an individual cannot merely lean on their understanding and be a moral agent of their own. The Scripture calls for humility and states that although physical well-being is precious, godliness has value for all things (Timothy 4:8 New International Version). Thus, in taking care of their health, Christians should not forget their place under Gods authority nor dismiss spirituality.

Organ Donation

Organ donation is seen as an act of charity in the Christian community. In all branches of Christianity, it is established that it takes a great deal of bravery and compassion for ones neighbors to proceed with undergoing such a serious invasion (Abdeldayem et al., 2016). In some cases, the surgery may lead to complications or compromise the donors health; thus, at that, the donor is being selfless and making a sacrifice. When displaying these traits, he or she strives to be more like Christ who sacrificed his body for the good of humankind.

Sickness and Health

One may be perplexed as to how Christians can claim that God loves humankind when the world is ridden with disease and suffering. However, the Bible offers an explanation that disposes of such a controversy. Suffering helps an individual conform to Christs image who experienced much pain. Through following Christs example, a Christian matures in his faith, to which distress may contribute as it strengthens their spirit. Lastly, an individual who dealt with sickness, grief, and loss grows more compassionate and finds a well of love for his nearest and dearest within themselves.

Mikes Actions

The moral dilemma with which Mike is currently confronted is not intractable; moreover, he can take action in the interests of his sick child and still comply with what the Christian faith prescribes him to do. First, he should reconsider his notion of Gods will, for God has the power to overrule whatever a human does. It means that regardless of whether Mike lets the physician conduct all the prescribed procedures or stands by his initial decision, God will have the final say. Furthermore, in the Gospel of James, one learns that whoever knows the right thing to do and fails to do it, for him it is a sin (James 4:17 New International Version). Therefore, Mike should exercise his free will under God and lean on what is scientifically reasonable and benefits his child. The retreat was detrimental to James health, and hence, by continuing it, Mike will withhold good from those to whom it is due (Proverbs 3:27 New International Version). All in all, in choosing appropriate medical treatment, the childs father will not go against his beliefs and Gods will.

Conclusion

In this day and age, there is no easy way to incorporate the Christian narrative into modern medical practices. To an individual, scientific advancements may appear to be compromising their faith and religious convictions. For instance, a parent of a sick child may be wondering if he is playing God by radically intervening and influencing health outcomes instead of unconditionally trusting the Lord. The moral dilemma does not let medical practitioners stand aloof as they are guided by the ethical principles and supposed to convince the parent to proceed with the treatment of the sick child. However, the problem is not unresolvable, as both the physician and the parent may find the area where their views overlap. The religious parent may conclude that in compliance with Gods will, he should do everything in his power to assist his sick son and firmly believe that loving God will help him accomplish that.

References

Abdeldayem, H., El-Kased, A. F., Elshaarawy, A., Hammad, E. S., Al-Haddad, O., Sobhi, G., & Allam, N. (2016). Religious concepts in organ transplantation, frontiers in transplantology. Web.

Orr, R. D. (2015). Incorporating spirituality into patient care. American Medical Association Journal of Ethics, 17(5), 409-415. Web.

Saunders, J. (2015). Doing good medical ethics: A Christian perspective. Journal of Medical Ethics, 41, 117-120. Web.

Truog, R. D., Brown, S. D., Browning, D., Hundert, E. M., Rider, E. A., Bell, S. K., & Meyer, E. C. (2015). Microethics: The ethics of everyday clinical practice. Hastings Center Report, 45(1), 1117. Web.

Moral Character in Principles of Biomedical Ethics by Beauchamp and Childress

The issue of moral actions can be reviewed from different perspectives. One aspect of it is the virtues of a person that guide his or her decisions and their connection to ethical behavior. The difference between norms and virtues is essential because the former is not subjected to changes due to alteration in a communitys perception or other factors. This paper aims to present a summary of Chapter 2 titled Moral Character and provide a comprehensive outline and overview of the ideas described in it.

Chapter 2 of the book Principles of Biomedical Ethics discusses moral virtue as the essential element of healthcare services. According to Beauchamp and Childress, one should distinguish between virtues and norms because the former focuses on the person performing actions, and the latter refers to activities that are considered to be correct. Therefore, the main issue explored in this chapter is what guides morally right decisions and actions  a person or norms accepted in society. Beauchamp and Childress argue that the most important thing is to have a good character that will ensure ethical behavior and thus result in adherence to the moral norms (31). This element is necessary for medicine because personnel such as nurses or physicians often display compassion and support that is vital for their patients. However, this component is not outlined in any socially accepted moral standards because it involves emotions, which are difficult to evaluate.

Previous chapters of this book focused on the outlined norms that an individual should follow. Beauchamp and Childress state that although principles and virtues are different and taught differently, virtues are no less important in the moral life (40). The layout of Chapter 2 describes the meaning of moral virtues, their role in professional life and provides an assessment of the five core virtues. Special attention is dedicated to exploring the concept of caring because it is the core of any medical work. As Beauchamp and Childress point out, nursing care or health care contains the name of this concept for a reason, since it is essential for this field (42). This virtue is fundamental within healthcare, and the five others should be reviewed within its context because each of the five elements helps one express care.

Compassion requires one to be mindful of another persons well-being and emotional state. Through compassion, one can help lessen the unfortunate experiences of an individual. In biomedical research, this virtue requires one to focus on the pain and suffering of a patient, and by expressing sympathy, this experience can be improved. Discernment refers to care because this virtue allows a person to make correct decisions and avoid the influence of factors that can impact judgment. This element is necessary because a discernment person can choose the right option from a variety based on the specific circumstances.

Trustworthiness is relevant in the field of biomedical research and healthcare because it allows one to create a relationship with a patient as patients are usually vulnerable due to their health issues. Therefore, this virtue requires a patient to rely on a medical professional and his or her competency and knowledge in providing care. According to Beauchamp and Childress, integrity includes several elements, such as soundness, reliability, wholeness, and integration of moral character (46). An individual with this virtue can be objective and use moral norms in his or her workprofessional integrity in healthcare results in one following the accepted standards. Conscientiousness guides a person and allows one to make good choices because they are correct. This is necessary for caring because healthcare professionals have to inform patients about all aspects of procedures.

Also, moral ideas and moral excellence paragraphs examine the standards that should be used in biomedicine. However, in most cases, following the minimum ethical requirements is considered acceptable. Moral ideas are extraordinary actions that are not a part of norms, and therefore, while individuals can be praised for acting by these ideas, they are not obligatory. From this perspective, a hero would behave by the moral excellence standards. A moral saint acts beyond expectations that are often altruistic. Other people can display exceptional selfishness in their work and can be considered idols. Therefore, obligatory and non-obligatory actions define a persons character and his or her moral virtues.

The chapter defines the notion of moral virtue, which helps understand this concept in the context of principles and rules. According to Beauchamp and Childress, it is a dispositional trait of character that is morally valuable and reliably present (31). Therefore, a person who has moral virtues does not solely rely on what is considered correct. Instead, he or she is guided by their perception and understanding of good and bad actions. This approach minimizes issues connected to distortion and changes of values and guarantees adherence to a specified moral behavior.

The issue of motives that guide a persons actions is explored in Chapter 2 as well because it is a necessary element of moral virtues. Beauchamp and Childress argue that ideas and perception of activities that an individual has when doing something matter (34). For instance, a person can adhere to the standards and behave ethically but have no belief in these ethical standards, such as not harming others or being compassionate. In this regard, Beauchamp and Childress conclude that the individual in question cannot be considered as someone who has moral virtue (34). One can argue that this Chapter provides an understanding of the fact that the context and personal characteristics of a person matter when examining moral virtues.

Next, this chapter defines virtues by examining their role in professional life. Beauchamp and Childress state that specific virtues are crucial in certain fields, while particular vices are usually discouraged. For instance, in medicine, it is common for physicians or nurses to have a good knowledge of the subject, promote and teach healthy lifestyle practices, and possess skills that help care for an individuals health. Additionally, Beauchamp and Childress state that roles and practices in medicine and nursing reflect social expectations (40). Therefore, the virtues explored in Chapter 2 are a reflection of the expectations that a community has in regards to medical personnel.

The concept of supererogatory acts provides an understanding of a person performing tasks beyond what is expected. These acts are not outlined in the moral principles and ethical rules; however, they are a critical component of ones virtue. Beauchamp and Childress note that in some cases, individuals do not think of their actions as something optional (46). However, this moral idea plays a role in defining virtues.

This chapter is essential for understanding the difference between moral virtues and principles because it outlines the differences and changes that can occur within the norms in a specific community. In essence, in one environment, for instance, a country or region, selfishness and disregard for others feelings can be considered noble, while in others, this behavior is unacceptable. Regardless of the different approaches, a persons virtues will define how he or she approaches work and interactions with others, despite the standards and norms of a society.

In medicine, possessing moral virtue is crucial because professionals in this field often communicate with individuals who are vulnerable and need support and help. Beauchamp and Childress outline an ability to care and compassion, discernment, trustworthiness, integrity, and conscientiousness as important virtues for people working in the biomedical industry (50). In essence, these features allow a person to listen to an individual, adhere to his or her wishes in terms of health decisions, and be mindful. The last aspect is especially crucial because medical personnel and other biomedicine professionals have to be able to establish an honest relationship with others. Without this, society or a specific community will not adhere to recommendations.

A distinction pointed out in Chapter 2 between moral and ethical standards required for a profession is valuable. Beauchamp and Childress provide an example of a surgical error investigation that can be either technical or caused by a human (45). However, a normative mistake refers to a failure to work in accordance with the moral and ethical principles that result in problems and bad outcomes for patients. While the first two categories describe issues that occur because of a lack of knowledge or understanding of a procedure, the former is connected to a persons character. The formative mistakes indicate that a person does not have good judgment in regards to good and bad decisions.

While the problem described above can appear to be insignificant, the summary section of this paper initiates that an individual working in the biomedical field has to possess a specified set of moral virtues. Primarily this is connected to the specifics of the work because caring as a virtue is essential. Being able to provide compassion and create a good relationship with a patient or subjects of research is necessary, which requires emotional commitment from a person. Therefore, no individual should be endangered or placed at risk by the actions of medical personnel.

The information in Chapter 2 is important because it reviews ethics that is not regulated by rules and principles. Therefore, it highlights the importance of a medical professional being mindful about his or her practice. Additionally, the concepts, for instance, care, described in this section are necessary because they are connected to the interpersonal relationships with patients. The examples described by Beauchamp and Childress improve the understanding of the issues related to having no moral virtues, for instance, surgical errors and their perception (36). The connection between norms and virtues is evident, and one should try to improve personal characteristics to achieve moral excellence.

All in all, moral virtue is essential for an individual because it guides his or her actions regardless of the norms accepted in a specific environment. Understanding this element is necessary because it deepens ones knowledge of morality and ethical actions. Understanding the virtues and their meaning for professionals in the biomedical field is essential because it reflects the ability of a person to make adequate decisions that will not harm others. Caring is a vital virtue that each biomedical professional should possess. The five priceless outlined by Beauchamp and Childress have to be considered by all individuals working in the biomedical industry because they are a guide of proper ethical behavior.

Work Cited

Beauchamp, Tom, and James Childress. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. 7th ed., Oxford University Press, 2013.

Biomedical Model: The Nurses and Midwives Council Code

Introduction

Several models have been derived to look at health-related theories but biomedical model brings out an interesting coverage of the topic. Biomedical model looks at health from an individual point of view. In this case, the body is a machine with constituent parts that could be repaired or manipulated (Birn, Pillay & Holtz 2009). Biomedical model helps people to understand the functions of the body, both normal and abnormal. These functions range from genes to phenotype. This model also seeks to provide preventive solutions or therapeutic practices to human ailment (National Research Council Staff 1998). Biomedical model notes that age, genes, and behaviour can lead to diseases.

Biomedical model focuses on the organic symptoms that the disease shows. In some cases, the medical practitioner tries to match the symptoms with medicines. The biomedical model also focuses on the perception that proper treatment can be offered only in medical centres. This perception at times proves challenging to patients.

The Nurses and Midwives Council Code came into effect in May 2008. This code replaced the UK Central Council for Nurses, Midwives and Health Visiting Code of Conduct. The NMC covers Nurses, Midwives, Community medical practitioners as well as independent prescribers.

NMC code of conduct focuses on fostering accountability, confidentiality and consent among medical practitioners. It also seeks to create an environment of care, alternative and complementary medicines and homeopathy among medical practitioners (Franklin and Beckwith 2011). According to this code, only nurses, midwives and practitioners who have legal backing can prescribe to a patient or community.

In NMC, Practitioners can offer patient-specified directions in patients notes (primary care) and drug chart (secondary care). Most importantly, this code states that medical practitioners should listen and respond to patients needs. They should support the patients as they seek to improve and maintain their health. The practitioners should also share the information they have with patients in a language they can understand so that they can know more about their health (Franklin and Beckwith 2011).

Some practitioners have, however, gone against this code by keeping to themselves, vital information involving their patients. In some cases, the practitioners do not taken responsibility for wrong medical prescriptions and decisions that lead to patients deaths. Medical specialists render diagnosis depending on what a person experiences and not the person himself. In this case, the sick person plays a passive role in the consultations.

Criticism of the biomedical model

The biomedical model is more suited for cases of physical disability, for instance, cognitive, emotional or intellectual disability (Riggar & Maki 2004). The biomedical model has created prejudice. In this model, experts treat patients without giving them enough information and choice about the treatment. This model puts all the belief on the medical practitioners who rely on the professional training they have. The patient does not actively participate in the decision-making process as the practitioners take action without her consent. There is, therefore, need for patients to be involved in medical decisions. Since the patients are the ones who withstand the pain involved in a medical procedure, it is vital that practitioners involve them in every step they take (Pozgar 2011).

Biomedical model describes a world without disability or illness. In many cases, therefore, patients with cancer and other illness face discrimination. Whenever people display physical, psychological or social symptoms, they are ill. Some of the physical symptoms are headache or back pains. Psychological symptoms include anxiety and depression whereas social symptoms are social discrimination or isolation. Some of these symptoms are regular. It is, however, crucial for people to seek medical attention. Since some diseases, for instance cancer, do not have any symptoms before diagnosis, patients should undergo regular medical check-ups to be sure of their health.

Certain illness behaviour makes a patient seek medical attention. This behaviour is known as a symptom. Mishler (1981, p. 8) states a symptom is an unorganized phase of a disease or illness. It is during this time that a doctor and a patient hold discussions to discuss what the patient feels and the practitioners decision about the condition. The discussion between the patient and the doctor at this point aims at negotiating a certain illness. This is what should be done instead of the medical practitioners making decisions on their own. Diagnosis involves trying to match the symptoms that the patient exhibits with various existing diseases to find the appropriate treatment.

Various people believe in carrying out self-diagnosis when they experience certain symptoms. It is a common behaviour for people to buy medicines from chemists in order to cure the ailments they have. For instance, when people have headaches, they resort to buying painkillers to end the headaches instead of going to the hospital to get proper check-up. Often, people end up taking the wrong prescription. Any medical attention sought by the patient after this action will lead to diagnosis based on the symptoms that result from the medication (Lupton 1998).

The purpose of illness narrative is to transform illness events and create a world where illness in not viewed with a negative perception. It helps individuals to reconstruct their life history in case they are chronically ill. This narrative also tries to help an individual understand an illness. There is an increase in the need to carry out patient narratives (Bury 2001). The changes in disease patterns and medicines are the cause of the creation of these narratives. Increased illness has led to the increased demand for chronic illness narratives.

In line with the NMG code or professional conduct which champions for confidentiality, the patients identity in this narrative is withheld. This is meant to safeguard her privacy. The name used herein, is not the real name of the cancer patient. This story results from a direct narration of events by the patient to the writer.

The lump that Mrs. Summer realised in her breast triggered in her a desire to go for a medical check-up. She did not seek self-prescription like some patients do when they realise they have certain symptoms. Her cognitive recognition of the symptoms as signs of breast cancer made her go for the check-up. In her mind and from what she had heard and read, she developed fears that the lump in her breast could be a sign of breast cancer. She had concerns for her family and the emotional implications that the cancer will cause. She, however, realised that going for the tests was the best decision.

The first testing did not go well because of miscommunication between the different medical practitioners at the health centre. During the time of diagnosis, there was a communication breakdown between pharmacists and the patient service coordinators. Relevant information about the symptoms that Mrs. Summer was experiencing was not clearly shared between the two specialists. This action led to an improper medical prescription to Mrs. Summer. The assumption was that the lump was nothing serious.

According to Strom, Buzdar and Hunt (2008, p. 2), the services involved in breast cancer care require the patient to visit several centres. The discomfort that the lump created in Mrs. Summer, clouded with psychological unrest, caused her to seek an alternative medical check-up in a different health care.

Naturally, according to Kaelin and Coltrera (2005, p. 4) the breast symbolizes beauty and admiration. The breast is also a source of milk for babies. However, when affected with cancer, the breast becomes a risk to other parts of the body and the only way to prevent the cancer from spreading is by elimination. According to Kaelin and Coltera (2005.p 1), women who have been diagnosed with breast cancer find the news shocking and dreadful. This was not different with Mrs. Summer who had gone to get the results with her long time family friend Naomi Thompson. Mammogram tests were carried out. The mammogram exposes various interior tissues of the breast. Features that are similar to cancer were present in her breast. The doctor told Mrs. Summer that she had breast cancer. Further tests had to be done to confirm this result.

Mrs. Summer could not believe what she heard; she, therefore, went for an ultrasound. An ultrasound is a test for breast cancer. It is carried out when a person suspects the results found from a mammogram (Kelman and Coltrera 2005). It visualizes small areas of the breast accurately. Mrs. Summers breast had cysts which appeared as black holes.

The third test involved carrying out a biopsy to verify the presence of this disease. According to Kelman and Coltrera (2005, p. 15.) a biopsy involves removing a tissue sample for further testing using a microscope. The tests carried out confirmed that Mrs. Summer had breast cancer. The worst was yet to come. The cancer type was Invasive Ductal Carcinoma (ID). According to Kelman and Coltrera (2005 p. 10), this cancer breaks the duct walls and invades surrounding tissues of the breast. This cancer spreads through the blood vessels. These vessels facilitate blood flow to and from the breasts. The cancer had widely spread in her breast.

The diagnosis made the narrative take a turn; the disease could not be cured. Management was, therefore, the appropriate move making it long term condition. Primary care was, therefore, the vital step to take in this case as the disease could not be treated (Bury 2001). The only solution was to cut off the breast to stop it from spreading. This solution is an outcome of a meeting between the medical practitioners without the inclusion of Mrs. Summer. Other than Invasive Ductal Carcinoma (ID), Kaelin and Coltrera (2005 p.11) highlight Ductal Carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (IL) as other common forms of breast cancer. Medullary Carcinoma, Tubular Carcinoma Papillary Carcinoma, Pagets disease of the Breast and inflammatory Breast Cancer (IBC) are the uncommon forms.

Bury (2001, p. 267) states that a doctor should be the first person to console and comfort a patient because he or she understands what the patients feels. This move, however, did not work with Mrs. Summer, who remained fixed on the spot for more than five minutes without moving an inch. In her time of shock, Mrs. Summer had a quick reflection on her life from childhood to present. Mrs. Summer was born of a wealthy family.

Her father had a well-known law firm while her mother was the owner of a million-dollar company. Health inequality was present in the case of Mrs. Summer (Smith 2003). These differences come due to the financial and social capital. Life course approach looks at events before and after diagnosis. It focuses on early life experiences since previous researches have focused on patients adulthood (Smith 2003). Mrs. Summer had a perfect childhood. She ate healthy food and exercised a lot like many rich children. However, the absence of diseases could also lead to adulthood illness (Smith 2003). The cause of cancer is probably due to the long term patterns of stability, and the transitions that Mrs. Summer faced.

Socioeconomic issues have for long been related to various causes of poor health. Psychological stress, poor diet, and genetic differences are the significant socioeconomic factors that cause diseases. The environment that one lives in and his childhood lifestyle could also lead to a person being sick in his adulthood (Bury 2001). Issues of poverty, poor relationship and poor achievements were unheard of in Mrs. Summers life since she had a perfect childhood. Age was also a factor since there is a difference between biological and historical age. Breast cancer often occurs in mid-aged women compared to the young ones.

Mrs. Summers life had taken a turn, and she had to adapt to it. She silently went through the causes of breast cancer as highlighted by Christopher Li. These causes, according to Li (2010, p. 111), include Hormonal Contraceptives. Ovarian hormones and estrogen also cause breast cancer (Li 2010). Family history analysis is also one way of predicting breast cancer occurrences among women. Peshkin (2007, p. 69) says that it is necessary for people to undergo genetic counseling to help them understand and adapt to the condition they are in. In this situation, an analysis revealed that Mrs. Summers inherited the breast cancer. This is because, by reviewing the family history, it was discovered that Mrs. Summers grandmother died of breast cancer. The grandmothers cause, however, was negligence since the discovery was late. These findings led to the testing of Mrs. Summers daughter in order to prepare early treatment or prevention of breast cancer. Luckily, she was negative.

There are cases where diseases do not differentiate between the rich and the poor. In Britain, for instance, research shows that, both the wealthy and the less wealthy experienced the same life expectancy and infant mortality. This argument is meant to foster the idea that financial status does not affect a persons health status in her adulthood (Smith 2003). Smith, however, states that the lifestyle linked with the wealthy people, for instance, a lot of travelling, and interaction with different people would lead to health infections. Despite great food that they have access to, the aristocrats are still vulnerable to fall sick. The wealthy, however, have access to resources that could help them solve health issues compare to the poor. This was the case with Mrs. Summer.

Her husband had died on a plane crash a few years ago and, therefore, her parents took the responsibility of treating her. She was given professional support group where she met highly professional personnel to help her adapt to changes in her life. She was given western-oriented biomedicine, which involved acupuncture and chiropractic. This system professionalizes the indigenous healing tradition.

Mrs. Summer did not experience much discrimination and stigma due to her wealth. Most of her friends stood up for her and supported her both psychologically and emotionally. Mrs. Summer joined a professional group to help her deal with mental stress.

The mental stress could be caused by medical diagnosis (Collier and Kalathil 2011).Mrs. Summer did not have any difficulty in seeking medication because she was financially stable.

According to Erickson at al. (2009, p. 112), there was a switch from using the word compliance to adherence. This is because compliance shows that the patient is passively taking prescription given. In this case, the patient takes the medicine as per the doctors directives. This comes into play mostly when the patient is incorporative. Adherence stands for a situation in which a patient takes a medical prescription as advised by the doctor (Eriksson 2009). Adherence requires the patient to cooperate with the doctor and take the prescription given. In concordance, there is a clinical encounter involving the patient and the doctor. In this case, the patients view is considered, and a consultation is made to satisfy the patients needs.

The doctors did not involve Mrs. Summer in the decision making as is advised in the NMC Code of Professional Conduct. An adherence method was used as she was just briefed of the treatment she will need. When the medical practitioners told Mrs. Summer that her breast should be chopped off, they did not consider how that will affect her. The purpose of the decision was to stop the disease from spreading.

Mrs. Summer was given a couple of Complimentary and Alternative Medicines (CAM). Her friend in Africa brought her herbs that could cure breast cancer. She was to use these herbs for two weeks. This, however, could not cure her. Religious leaders from her church also visited her in the hospital to pray for her. This form of CAM was allowed by the doctors as stipulated in the NMC Code. This action aimed at giving her courage and strength to withstand the hard times ahead.

In her narration, Mrs. Summer believes that everyone should take the matter of health seriously. She says that we cannot say we are healthy just because we are not ill. She agrees that health is a complete, physical, mental and social well-being (Mishler et al. 1981, p. 3). Romano reiterates this by defining health as the ability of an organism to maintain a life balance that is free from pain (Mishler et al. 1981, p. 3).

Mrs. Summer also advices every person to carry out regular medical examinations to make sure all is well. Concerning the biomedical model, she insists that there should be dialogue and negotiation between medical practitioners and patients. This action will make everyone in agreement with the medical decisions taken. The biomedical decision should also focus on alternative treatments to fight a disease instead of relying on one resort. Mrs. Summer says that she was not given the chance to choose her medication. As days pass by, Mrs. Summers strength seems to leave her. The skin of Mrs. Summer is pale while her eyes are dull. Evidently, Mrs. Summers breath is leaving her slowly as she clearly states, my money cannot save me anymore, am living by faith and hope for tomorrow.

Reference List

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Ethical Issues in Biomedical Research

Ethical issues in biomedical research still exist in many countries (both developed and developing). London (2002) claims that researchers in developed countries have not agreed on the way to define minimal risks. Developing countries are often regarded as areas where ethical considerations are rather peculiar and sometimes non-existent due to a variety of reasons that are mainly rooted in social, political, and financial issues. Therefore, when considering the institutions that could ensure ethical conduct in research in developing countries, it is necessary to state that International Research Institutions Review Boards (IRBs) should regulate biomedical and public research as local Ethics Review Committees (ERCs) are incapable of completing this task.

It is possible to consider major factors preventing ERCs from being effective regulatory bodies. The first factor to consider is associated with the focus of the two types of institutions mentioned. London (2002) states that IRBs concentrate on ensuring the rights of the participants as well as methods used and procedures carried out. At the same time, local ERCs tend to focus on written consent. Local ERCs often fail to properly analyze all the aspects of the research or do not pay attention to many details. They are mainly concerned with the correctness of procedures associated with participants consent. London (2002) stresses that these agencies are not concerned about the participants rights but try to safeguard researchers and organizations implementing research. This approach is harmful to the participants, and it makes local ERCs ineffective.

Another significant issue associated with research ethics in developing countries is the power imbalance. London (2002) emphasizes that the stakeholders involved are often governments, businesses, individuals who have power and money. These stakeholders may have the power to influence ethical committees decisions concerning studies. Corruption, economic issues, as well as social and political unrest, often make it possible to neglect ethical issues in research. For instance, Chu, Jayaraman, Kyamanywa, and Ntakiyiruta (2014) note that researchers from many parts of the world come to Africa to conduct various studies due to almost unlimited opportunities it offers. People and resources are often used unsustainably and irresponsibly. Peoples basic rights are often violated.

Finally, cultural peculiarities of the region also make local ERCs quite ineffective. Chu et al. (2014) note that values and views, as well as ethical norms, in western and African countries may differ. In many countries, this is also the case. For example, in Asian countries, the public good is more important than personal wellbeing, which makes participants and researchers focused on possible outcomes rather than methods used. More so, the outcome of the research is often evaluated differently by international institutions and organizations located in developing countries. Chu et al. (2014) claim that local ERCs can effectively collaborate with IRBs, which will ensure the compliance with international standards. However, this collaboration can be rather inefficient as IRBs will still have to analyze the details of every research to make sure that local ethical committees decisions are relevant.

In conclusion, it is possible to state that IRBs should regulate ethical issues associated with research in developing countries. Local ERCs are often dependent on local authorities or even individuals. More so, due to cultural peculiarities of developing countries, many ethical issues are neglected or regarded as irrelevant. Therefore, international institutions will be more effective in ensuring the rights of people taking part in studies. IRBs are independent of any influence of local authorities, business or people in power and have high ethical standards.

References

Chu, K. M, Jayaraman, S., Kyamanywa, P., & Ntakiyiruta, G. (2014). Building research capacity in Africa: Equity and global health collaborations. PLOS Medicine, 11(3), 1-4.

London, L. (2002). Ethical oversight of public health research: Can rules and IRBs make a difference in developing countries? American Journal of Public Health, 92(7), 1079-1084.