Biomedical Engineering is a part of engineering where the technology focuses on medical equipment. It focuses on the precision and automation of the current equipment used by professionals or doctors. It was shown in the seminar how the old equipment looks. In some people, it can be as scary as it can be a reason to not go to a doctor. The equipment is long, pointy, and rusty as opposed to what we are using today, with soft edges and stainless.
Biomedical technology improves the equipment’s potential. There was a point in time where a patient will die just because of the lack of advancement in the equipment. Yes, advanced equipment is expensive, but they are slowly being used everywhere, and are trying to be mandatory to any hospital to avoid the case of a patient dying because of lack of equipment. The equipment helps the doctors in operation, monitoring, and check-up. It is for the better to have all the equipment automated also. A surgeon operating a patient can take up to hours depending on the operation at hand. Aiding the surgeon in operating can be a nice touch as it will help ease the difficulty on the surgeon’s side. In a case where a surgeon’s hands can affect the operation, now with the advancement in technology, the precision and accuracy will be aided by the equipment to help the doctor. And right after the operation, there will also be therapy and rehabilitation. Rehabilitation is also one beneficiary of biomedical technology. There is a bunch of equipment that helps athletes and other patients in rehabbing their body parts. These focus on the athletes where an injury can hold them back and halt their progression in their career. This was a big focus, and now there is a lot of equipment aiding these athletes to regain their body functions during the rehabilitation so that after the rehab, everything is back to normal and progress can be made. But this equipment will aid the athletes so that the exertion of pressure and stress to their body will be minimal and ensure not to be injured again. Same with a car accident, where a patient has a broken leg, with the advancement in equipment, they can regain their power in the legs to walk again with the help of rehabilitation. This is the main focus why advancement in the equipment is needed, to shorten the rehab and to aid the doctors in performing an operation.
Biomedical technology helped doctors in knowing the disease of a certain patient. There is a lot of equipment, a lot of tests for this. They can check if the patient is sick with just the urine, fecal, and blood tests. This helps also the patient so that they can know whether they are sick or not as soon as possible. Some people would not like to have a long process of tests or just don’t trust the doctor because of a lack of scientific evidence. But with the tests provided, this will ensure the patient if he/she is sick or not. There are also x-rays to help see something behind what a human eye cannot see. X-rays are a big part of medical equipment nowadays as they can see abnormalities and diagnose a patient as fast as possible and painless as possible. It is also shown in the seminar, the prosthetics, where Engr. Moral showed a bunch of equipment used in a dental clinic and a prosthetic tooth. At first, it can be scary to see something like that embedded in your gums, but this will provide the patient a tooth that emulates a real tooth. With this advancement, it will be stayed in place and not be moved unless wanted just like a real tooth. It will also provide the patient the grinding or ability to eat hard food. But also, the prosthetic parts such as arms and legs. The prosthetic arms and legs are becoming widely known and being accepted nowadays. You can see a marathon runner with a prosthetic leg, smiling and embracing his new life with his own new leg. It is nice to see a patient accept the technology and use it to its maximum potential. With the prosthetic legs, an amputated patient can regain his body part and the ability to do. Also, the prosthetic arm, where it emulates how the arm moves. Now, it is still far away from being trusted as an arm, because the arm is still a part of the body that a mind can move. Advancement in the prosthetic arm with the use of the brain is still in progress and will be the future.
Technology Advancement is what engineers sought. Technology will help society and will help the public in their daily lives. The medical side is always scary, not everyone likes to be hospitalized even with the slightest pain. They will always think of “it will go away” pain, rather than getting it checked by a professional or a doctor. With biomedical engineering, the fear should be minimized, and trust should be maximized. The patient will trust the doctor more because of the technology at hand, and the patient will have peace of mind inside a hospital thinking that he/she is in the right hand. As an engineering student, serving people will be something to be proved of. Serving the medical side of society, seeing all the fears become smiles after the operation or the consultation is a sight to see. I would like to see more of the technology progress to a point where it can be commercialized and be used in public hospitals as well. The price and number of equipment will increase, the knowledge about the equipment will be publicized.
Biomedical engineering technologists should consider the improvement of health care access in developing countries. Biomedical technologists have a professional responsibility of ensuring that health care facilities in developing countries access high-quality medical equipment. These professionals can achieve this by supporting repair and maintenance of the broken medical equipment in the hospitals and support developing counties in acquiring high-quality refurbished medical equipment for their hospitals (Henkels, 2017, February). Effective professional practice will involve assisting the hospitals in obtaining, finance, and support the various biomedical equipment despite the challenge in planning for scarce resources. Biomedical engineering technologists understand these issues the best. They can explore the options based on the available funds and the health care needs for the country. from that point, they will advise the governments, and other stakeholders in developing countries to take appropriate actions towards resolving their challenges.
Different factors can hinder access to medical equipment. The first factor is the high cost of medical equipment which is used in first world countries. The developing countries do not even have adequate funds to assess their medical needs, innovate in technologies for developing such equipment, or purchase this equipment from the developed countries. Developed countries such as the US use $10 to 20 million dollars a year on research and development, which is unaffordable for the developing countries (Lustick & Zaman, 2011, September). Collectively, these costs impact the access of a person in a developing country to biomedical equipment.
Secondly, developing countries lack supporting technology and infrastructure (Lustick & Zaman, 2011, September). For example, many parts of the developing countries are not connected to electricity. Areas of the developing countries that have unreliable electricity make it hard to store vaccines and other medicines that require refrigeration or controlled temperatures. These countries find it difficult to install backup generators and prioritize other services and infrastructure in the country with their limited resources. Sometimes this is due to the failed system.
Thirdly, lacking robustness affects the access of a person to biomedical equipment. Some developing countries have harsh environments occasioned by dust, extreme temperatures, and humidity. There is biomedical equipment that is designed to operate under controlled conditions of climate (Lustick & Zaman, 2011, September). Therefore, importing them in countries that do not control the weather conditions where they operate makes them exhibit shorter lifespans. Consequently, it becomes expensive for developing countries to keep up with the pace because of misuse and neglect.
One of the reasons that the inequalities in the access of high-quality biomedical equipment exist between the developed and the developing countries exist is a difference in the number of resources that each of the countries commits in the sector. The developed countries commit enough resources for research, development, and innovation of biomedical equipment. Besides, developed countries invest sufficiently in the maintenance of this equipment that they remain in good working conditions for long. Secondly, misuse and negligence among developing countries are high. Developed countries provide and maintain the required conditions for the various medical equipment, unlike developed countries that lack the supporting technology and infrastructure for most of the biomedical equipment. The third reason is the differences in the level with which the country commits to biomedical equipment. Developed countries have good systems of administration that know how to set their priorities right unlike the developing countries which are occasioned by corrupt practices, among other failures in the systems like misappropriation of funds. These factors collectively are the reasons that inequalities exist in underdeveloped countries.
I think the field of biomedical engineering technology can help in reducing the inequalities related to access to biomedical equipment, especially in developing countries. Biomedical engineering technology can help developing countries access and buy high-quality, low-cost biomedical equipment from developed countries (Henkels, 2017, February). This will prevent the inequality caused by the affordability barrier of high-quality equipment. Secondly, they can offer services to maintain and inspect this equipment to ensure they are working are designed and in the required weather conditions. Doing so will prolong their service life and save the government from spending further funds on the same equipment. Biomedical engineering technology can also find alternatives innovations that will minimize the costs of purchasing or maintaining various biomedical equipment by investing sufficiently in research and development. Consequently, they will develop affordable equipment that promotes high-quality healthcare.
The author means that there is a need for a practical and efficient approach to ensure consistent and optimum results are generated. It is necessary to understand the issues affecting access to high-quality biomedical equipment in developing countries. Doing so will enable the biomedical engineering technologist and opportunity to explore the most efficient approach that can help in the alleviation of the inequalities. Some of the issues in developing countries can be resolved if systematic approaches are followed. The author suggests education and practice in the discipline (Lustick & Zaman, 2011, September). However, I would propose research and development, which will help arrive at the most viable solutions for the inequalities in high quality-biomedical equipment.
References:
Lustick, D. R., & Zaman, M. H. (2011, September). Biomedical engineering education and practice challenges and opportunities in improving health in developing countries. In 2011 Atlanta Conference on Science and Innovation Policy (pp. 1-5). IEEE.
Henkels, A. (2017, February). Creating Affordable Access to High-Quality Medical Equipment in Nigeria. Retrieved from https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/audrey-henkels/creating-affordable-acces_b_14319212.html?_guc_consent_skip=1569249822
The guest speaker, Engineer Maureen Moral, is a graduate of Adamson University with a degree of Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Communications Engineering. She took her Master’s degree in Engineering Management at the Collegio de San Juan de Letran and is a professional electronics engineer. Since November 2008, she is a part time faculty member at Lyceum of the Philippines University-Laguna whereas she handles major subjects in Electronics and Communications Engineering. More than that, she is a part time faculty member at Laguna State Polytechnic University San Pablo City whereas she also handles major subjects in Electronics Engineering, Computer Engineering and Electrical Engineering. In June 2011, she became an Engineering Consultant General Manager at EME Professional Services that handles and offers engineering consultancy in the areas of electronic works: like CCTV, fire detection and alarm systems, communications and broadcasting system, and electronic system under PEZA requirements. PEZA is short for Philippine Economic Zone Authority. PEZA regulates all the proposed installation of fire detection and alarm system (FDAS), CCTV so that it will be in accordance with the national building code and then specified in final inspection.
The speaker first introduced to us biomedical engineering is. According to her, biomedical engineering is the interconnection of branches of sciences and principles of engineering practice to innovate technology for a better society. As her being part of the field, she narrated her experiences and insights. To give us a background of Biomedical Engineering, she first explained to us the branches of science involved in the field, and how they were used. The counterpart of biomedicine is engineering. Ms. Moral also discussed the details concerning the branches of engineering. She then showed us the branches of Electronics engineering, where biomedical engineering is one that is comprised of. What I liked in the seminar is that she explained separately science and engineering, their combination, and their importance when implemented. After the brief background of sciences and engineering, Ms. Moral discussed the different areas in Biomedical Engineering. I learned in the seminar that electronics engineers actually play a crucial role in this field. All the plans, developments, systems, equipment, prototype, designs requires the involvement of electronics engineer. Electronics engineers who pursue biomedical engineering became an important asset in the field as they are the one revolutionizing the devices, equipment used in providing healthcare. For example, the facilities used by dentists are actually built and designed by biomedical engineers. At the same time, electronics engineers are also concerned with giving permits and license to every equipment utilized in the hospitals for example, to ensure the safety and that the equipment is approved in quality of standards. The operation of maintenance of each instrument also requires the participation of electronics engineers. In this part of the seminar, I was excited and amazed of how amazing and excellent biomedical engineers are because of their line of work, may it be designing, building an instrument, developing a system algorithm for analysis and etc. I appreciate the professionals who works in this field as the results they produce widely help the people in the medical industry, and also the patients itself. Consequently, Engr. Moral also discussed the evolution of biomedical engineering technologies up to the present. I learned that even before these field was created, several applications of it was already existing and present in different form. It was actually proved by remains that people performed surgeries and transplants. In terms of the equipment used in performing this procedure, they used the conventional knives or bark of a tree. Today, with the presence of creative engineers, they are applying technology and science to create an instrument or equipment to ease surgeries and health care procedure. In the end of the seminar, Engr. Moral presented to us the opportunities in entering the Biomedical Engineering field. She told us that the opportunities are wide, and she urged us to enter this field as it is not only exciting but also inspiring, uplifting to be part of revolutionizing the healthcare systems.
In engineering perspective, all the subjects, ideas, concepts and theories are vast and abundant. Likewise in the study of electronics and communications engineering, several principles are formulated, applied, and the field of engineering is wide. With expertise and good foundation, one can practice almost all fields. Biomedical Engineering is one of the subject I personally like because it combines the study that centers with biology, medicine, and engineering. Having this field is exciting and significant because it utilizes the application of engineering to several areas concerning with science like the two subject matters stated above. In the seminar proper, I realized that every subjects we learn at school are coexisting with each other. The applications and solutions they provide are made in harmony, to solve every problem of human beings. Moreover, I understood that in the biomedical engineering field, electronics engineering job is vital in planning, designing, and building plans, systems, development, equipment, and etc. For instance, electronics engineers concerned with building and designing an equipment for medical facility actually creates a revolution as the equipment may be used for the effective and efficient process in providing healthcare for patients in hospital or clinics.
I consider Biomedical Engineering as one of the complex engineering field as background in some science knowledge for the engineer is vital. For example, an electronics engineer who is a biomedical engineer should be equipped with the fundamental concepts in anatomy, physics, biology, physiology, neuroscience and etc. I am actually interested in the study of the brain, how it functions and operates, and the study of neuroscience. As it is my dream to be a neuroscientist or somehow a professional concerned with neuroscience, I tried to interconnect the intersection of my course Bachelor of Electronics Engineering and medicine courses. Thus, I am considering myself to be a biomedical engineer someday as it is possible for me to attain my dream, or be a professional closed to practicing it.
This report includes a definition of ethics and morality. I combined them and how can it be embodied in biomedical engineering. Then I will give 2 examples –Biomedical Imaging and Neural Engineering, Which contain the main challenges they face in ethics.
Introduction
What is ethics? The term ethics comes from the Greek ethos, meaning “custom.” It means human relations and the rules for dealing with these relations.[2] With the tremendous infusion of technology into the practice of medicine[1], the ethical issues in BME also draw our attention. In biomedical engineering, it is possible to distinguish between the ethical issues of research and development practice itself and the ethical issues about the impact of the developed technology and equipment on medical practice. In terms of R&D, there are ethical issues related to human and animal experiments and the use of biological materials, as well as general R&D ethical issues such as authenticity and avoiding conflicts of interest. In addition to these problems inherent in their practice, biomedical engineers have the responsibility to predict the impact of their design on medical practice and to ensure that the technology and technical design conform to and support the ethical principles of medical practice. [2]These principles include benefit (benefit the patient), no harm, patient autonomy (the right to choose or refuse treatment), justice (fair distribution of scarce health resources), dignity (treat patients with dignity), confidentiality (Medical information), and informed consent (consent to treatment based on proper knowledge of the facts).
Ethical concerns in Biomedical Imaging
Biomedical imaging is the application of engineering methods in the detection and visualization of biological processes. It is used to detect and diagnose diseases clinically, and to study normal anatomical structure and function in basic life science research. Biomedical imaging is usually non-invasive or minimally invasive, involving radiology or testing known physical quantities, such as sound, ultrasound, radiation, or magnetism. Electronic data processing and analysis are then used to generate visual images.
Biomedical imaging has obvious benefits for science and health care. However, diagnostic imaging has attracted much attention. There have been concerns that imaging for this purpose may lead to too many diagnoses. Diseases that have not yet been investigated or cannot be treated may be identified, or conditions may arise that indicate an increased likelihood of disease. This may expose medical experts and patients to information and (ethical) choices they may not want to have. Patients may not want to know what disease they have, have no good treatment, or face pain, and are uncertain whether they have or may be infected with a disease. This raises ethical questions not only in terms of use but also in the design of imaging technologies: should they be designed to selectively make physical conditions visible, for example?
Ethical concerns in Neural Engineering
Neural Engineering is a new field in the interdisciplinary field of engineering and neuroscience. It uses engineering techniques to study and manipulate the central or peripheral nervous system. Its goals include the restoration and enhancement of human function. This is usually achieved through a direct interaction between the nervous system and artificial equipment. Nerve prosthesis has been developed to replace or improve the neurological function of the damaged nervous system. Another area of neural engineering is the brain-computer interface, in which external computing devices are connected to the brain so that signals can be exchanged. Neural Engineering also includes the development of brain implants for functional electrical stimulation of nerve cells to restore function.
In addition to the controversial forms of animal and human subject research, Neural Engineering also raises ethical issues about human integrity and dignity, because artificial neural devices may affect human identity and make human thoughts or brains part of human robots, thus turning human beings into semi robots. Besides, because neural devices can be used to control cognition, emotion, and behavior, personal autonomy can be compromised. It also raises the question of responsibility: if the human brain has been transformed into a function by others, should human beings still be morally responsible for their actions? The possibility of neuroenhancement also raises important ethical questions: should neural engineering be used to develop artificial devices that will enable humans to have better perception, cognition or motor control, or positive emotions and attitudes?
Conclusion
All in all, whether it is the issue of information selection in biomedical imaging or the issue of human integrity and dignity in neural engineering, it can be attributed to the special ethical issues that arise in human enhancement. Although the devices and technologies developed by biomedical engineers are usually to support treatment or diagnosis, they may also be designed to exceed normal levels of healthy human characteristics. This is called human augmentation, and it is morally controversial because it transcends the boundaries of the human species, so it is possible to create Superman. If the medicine is to enhance humans, it will surpass its traditional mission, which is only treatment and prevention. The enhancement may even require damage to healthy human tissues or organs to accommodate the enhancement. Therefore, whether biomedical engineers (and medical practitioners) should engage in human enhancement work remains controversial. This is a major issue facing the field of biomedical engineering in terms of ethics.
Reference
Introduction to biomedical engineering / [edited by] John Enderle, Joseph Bronzino. – 3rd ed.
Brey, P. (2009). ‘Biomedical Engineering Ethics.’ Eds. Berg-Olsen, J., Pedersen, S., Hendricks, V. (eds.), A Companion to Philosophy of Technology. Blackwell
Stereotypically speaking, the majority of this world refers to cloning as a fearful fictional story of human replication, such as an army of clones from Star Wars, or The Island. But what most people don’t know is that there is a beneficial side of cloning besides just creating a living being that is identical to its original. Researching and experimenting with human cloning will also open the doors to cloning rare crops, and more animals that even have gone extinct. If scientists can succeed in producing a human clone, it may make people more open-minded about moving forward in the cloning world. Human cloning will give parents many opportunities to design a baby with traits that they may not have in their own genes, produce a baby that is free of illnesses, help aid in faster recoveries, and help scientists better understand the human embryos for future experiments.
Cloning originated back in 1938 by a German scientist named Hans Spemann. He proposed an experiment of transferring one cell’s nucleus into an egg without its nucleus, which is now the basic method that would eventually be used in cloning. Between 1938 and 1996 many attempts were made to clone animals including frogs, and mice. Although many failed the website A Brief History of Cloning stated, that John B. Gordon was indeed successful in cloning a frog that reached the stage of a tadpole. This experiment which Hans Spmann advocated as a “fantastic proposal” will soon raise many controversial arguments including the benefits and pitfalls of cloning.
It was not until 1996, that cloning sparked debate in society. “The cloning era began when Dolly the sheep was manufactured in 1996” (Smith). It was an asexual reproduction where scientists took a nucleus, a memory gland, and inserted it into the egg that had no nucleus beforehand and it produced an exact clone itself. Although Dolly did not live long, this first cloned animal helped to open the horizons for many other opportunities. The website, Economist, stated that Dolly helped lead to “one, which came to be known as ‘reproductive cloning’, was the copying of individual animals. The other was the creation of embryonic stem cells (ES cells) capable of being turned into all sorts of other cells” (The Sheep of Things to Come). Dolly’s, the sheep, existence proved that a new being can be created using adult cells.
The makeup of cloning seems to be a very complex, and sophisticated process. But really to put it simply, cloning is the process of making an identical copy of something. There are two main types of cloning including therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning. Reproductive cloning is the process of cloning that most folks are aware of. The website, Encyclopedia Britannica, defines reproductive cloning as “the implantation of a cloned embryo into a real or an artificial uterus. The embryo develops into a fetus that is then carried to term” (Clones). In addition, the website states that therapeutic cloning “is intended to use cloned embryos for the purpose of extracting stem cells from them, without ever implanting the embryos in a womb” (Clones). Many plants can do this naturally, but scientists are now expanding their knowledge in order to be able to recreate this technique with animals and even humans.
Cloning has revolutionized dramatically from where it had started in 1938. It’s an experiment that can be used in many different areas of life. This could be from the start of a fetus to even helping and healing people in their middle ages of life. This experimentation may be risky and even dangerous, but it can not be considered a threat if never done. There is also the talk of aborting babies which has also been a debatable topic over the years. If people say that aborting babies is the right choice, then why is creating another life in a different way so dismissive? Many were skeptical of putting the first man on the moon too, but it turned out to be a successful turnout and even made our knowledge more advanced about our outer space. Diving deeper into therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning scientists can help eliminate a plethora of recurring issues and expand their knowledge of cloning too.
There are many misconceptions when the word cloning is brought up. Many adversaries of cloning see it as a wrongful or malicious act to the “unborn” embryo. The article, Human Embryo Research Poses Ethics Dilemma states that “aside from the question of when human life actually begins, many scientists do not regard an embryo as a fetus until it is at least eight weeks old” (Cimons). Not only do people against cloning see it as wrongfully killing a baby’s “life”, but also as a potential threat in experimenting with millions of embryos that would be thrown away if the experiment failed. The article, Human Embryo Research Poses Ethics Dilemma, also goes on by expressing the fact that ‘you’ve got a lot of embryos around that no one wants,’ Caplan says. ‘That is the place to do the research” (Cimons). Women are born with over two million eggs in their bodies but only need one fertile egg for a baby. To continue, women who donate their eggs do this solely by their consent. Many are skeptical because cloning seems to be for just creating a baby of intelligence and appearance. To continue, cloning is further viewed as creating a ‘perfect’ life, but it can help babies have a life with no hardship. Cloning is profitable and valuable as long as it is not morally doing any harm and upholds the qualities of human life.
Cloning in general will heavily impact individuals who can not conceive children on their own. Many families who can not conceive naturally may have to go to the root of IVF or adoption. In the article given it states, “Current treatments for infertility, in terms of pregnancy, are not very successful. They are estimated to be less than 10 % successful. Couples go through physically and emotionally painful procedures for a small chance of having children” (Wilson). Human cloning would allow women who have no ova or men who have no sperm to produce offspring that is biologically related to them. The article, The Arrival of Human Cloning, explains that “If the cloned embryo is implanted in a mother — often called ‘reproductive cloning’ — and all goes well, it develops like a natural embryo through the fetal stage to birth“ (Smith). Many believe cloning is wrong due to its moral value that only God can create living beings and that cloning humans is a “man-made sin”. Although there are valid reasons to go against cloning, this advanced technique serves a greater purpose of relieving people who can not overcome their infertility and any other means acceptable to them. In the article it further states, “couples go through physical and emotionally painful procedures for a small chance of having children. In many cases, couples run out of time and/or money without successfully having children” (Wilson). This technique will help infertile couples have their own family without bearing the hardship of painful procedures that infertility poses.
In today’s society, many argue that people’s looks from the outside have an immense impact on how they are viewed. In society, the term bullying is often heard when a child may not look “normal”. No one, especially parents, wants to see their child bullied for facial defects. With cloning, parents wouldn’t be going through a random generator to know what their baby’s genetic qualities are. In the article, We Have Nothing to fear about Cloning Humans, “every year, an estimated 7.9 million children are born with a serious birth defect of genetic or partially genetic origin” (Harris). By cloning humans, it will be possible for potential parents to actually choose particular traits for their children. This means that sex, eye color, and other characteristics can be selected and not left up to chance. For many people, this is a huge advantage and it would greatly reduce the amount of kids who would have to experience bullying in their lifetime.
Many see cloning as just a way to get a perfect baby, but cloning could immensely aid in eliminating potentially deadly diseases. Without a doubt, cloning humans would enable couples, in which one of them risks transmitting a serious hereditary disease or otherwise harmful conditions to have an offspring that is healthy. In the article, Stem Cells from Cloned Embryos Are Key to Treating Disease, it states “in addition to providing new means to study inherited diseases, cloned stem cells will offer treatments for a large number of degenerative diseases. Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, and spinal cord injury, among many other conditions, all reflect damage to cells that are neither repaired nor replaced” (Wilmut). Nonetheless, there is also the root in which parents can use a sperm or egg donor donation. This can help eliminate hereditary risks without the use of human cloning. This procedure is uncomfortable to some couples because they introduce a third person’s genes into reproduction, instead of giving the couple’s offspring only the genes of one of them. Cloning would allow couples to have a baby with just their genetic DNA. In addition, the article states, “In approximately 10 percent of cases, ALS runs in families; that is, it is inherited. In 20 percent of these families, an error has been found in a specific gene, but the genetic error in the other 80 percent of inherited cases remains unknown” (Wilmut). Human cloning could even begin to reduce the overall cost of disease treatments around the world.
Cloning is not only valuable to infants or babies it can also assist in faster recovery from traumatic events. This can include minor sprains, to even a torn ACL. “Victims of accidents where their faces or limbs were deformed should now be able to have their features repaired with new, safer technology” (Wildasen). For people who became injured due to horrific car accidents or professional athletes who tore their ACLs, recovery time could be extensive or even impossible to recover from. However, cloning their own cells can help lower recovery time and in return, true healing could occur easily. With the assistance of cloning, surgeries can be a thing of the past. It would save an abundance of money, but not to mention also save lives, and heartache too.
Science has played a crucial part in how we know all of the nick picky details of this world. Experimenting with human stem cells will give scientists a better understanding of human cells. The technology can potentially help cure certain disorders, by replacing damaged tissues and organs within the human body. To continue, “certain cells in the early embryo are stem cells, meaning they have the potential to become any kind of body cell” (Cimons). The process of transplanting human organs can become simpler too, along with a substantially greater success rate. Around 10,000 people a day on on the United States waiting list to receive a critical organ. Many of them will stay in that position for several months or even years until they pass away. The article, Breakthrough in human cloning offers new transplant hope, states “The technique works by removing the nucleus from an unfertilised egg and replacing it with the nucleus of a skin cell. An electric shock causes the cells to begin dividing until they form a ‘blastocyst’ – a small ball of a few hundred cells” (Knapton). Through the processes of human cloning, there is a chance that organ tissues can be duplicated. Instead of waiting for a random donation, doctors could proceed with cells taken from each patient. This technique can be life-saving to many waiting on the donor lists and can be the answered prayers that they have been waiting for.
Scientists can additionally get a better understanding of gene modification without causing harm to others because of the science of cloning. To research further into cloning, scientists would insert enzymes from bacteria to locate genes within our DNA to create the necessary modifications for duplication. In the article, Chinese Scientists Edit Genes of Human Embryos, “scientists somewhere, researchers said, were trying to edit genes with a technique that would permanently alter the DNA of every cell so any changes would be passed on from generation to generation” (Kolata). Chinese scientists as of right now are definitely implicating the methods of cloning in hopes of finding an easy, and practical way to modify genes. The article further explains, “Gene editing uses a method called CRISPR that has rapidly become a research stalwart. It exploits a system that bacteria use to protect themselves from viruses and allows researchers to cut out selected genes and insert new ones” (Kolata). With further knowledge of gene editing, scientists can succor arguments as to why cloning should continue.
From examining the history, the benefits, and even the flaws of cloning I can conclude that this method will have a strong influence on how our world will be perceived as. I can also see that animals have a tremendous part in the cloning world. It will be interesting if the law of cloning will be passed soon. Human reproductive cloning should be allowed once it is accepted to be safe. For example, stem cell research has potentially many benefits, and the destruction and research on human embryos should be permitted, especially when the destruction of embryos and fetuses routinely occurs during IVF procedures and abortions. In conclusion, there is no valid, objective, or non-safety reason to argue against human reproductive and non-reproductive cloning.
Works Cited
“A Brief History of Cloning.” Copernicus Science Centre, www.kopernik.org.pl/en/special-projects/archiwum-projektow/projekt-genesis/krotka-historia-klonowania/.
Cimons, Marlene. ‘Human Embryo Research Poses Ethics Dilemma.’ Los Angeles Times, Sept, 1994. sirsissuesresearcher, https://explore.proquest.com/sirsissuesresearcher/document/2262308662?accountid=35776.
Harris, John. We have Nothing to Fear about Cloning Humans. , 2018. sirs issues researcher, https://explore.proquest.com/sirsissuesresearcher/document/2265989697?accountid=35776
Knapton, Sarah. “Breakthrough in Human Cloning Offers New Transplant Hope.” The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, 17 Apr. 2014, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10774097/Breakthrough-in-human-cloning-offers-new-transplant-hope.html.
Kolata, Gina. ‘Chinese Scientists Edit Genes of Human Embryos.’ New York Times, 24 Apr 2015. sirs issues researcher, https://explore.proquest.com/sirsissuesresearcher/document/2262722454?accountid=35776
Smith, Wesley J. ‘The Arrival of Human Cloning.’ The Weekly Standard, 27 May 2013, pp. 20. sirsissuesresearcher, https://explore.proquest.com/sirsissuesresearcher/document/2267349261?accountid=35776.
Wilmut, Ian. ‘Stem Cells from Cloned Embryos are Key to Treating Disease.’ Global Viewpoint, 27 May 2005. sirsissuesresearcher, https://explore.proquest.com/sirsissuesresearcher/document/2265982769?accountid=35776.
One of the most crucial issues when it comes to the behavior of a person that society is facing right now is sexual deviance. This issue had been going on for a lot of years until this day when people are being more aware yet curious about the said deviance. Psychologytoday.com article stated that it has shown nearly half 45.6% Canadian sample of adult males and females have been into desire of wanting the activity of sexual deviance. According to Wikipedia.org, it is said that Paraphilia or also known as Sexual Deviance tends to experience extreme sexual arousal in such unordinary things, circumstances, and fantasies to the behavior of a person however, there are still no standards that have found to determine the specific border between unusual sexual interest and paraphilia ones. Thus, this made a question to society whether which is which sexual behavior is paraphilic and which is not, and also whether it is still acceptable or not. Also, Amy Adamczyk and Brittany Hayes, 2006 said that beliefs of religion affect the behavior and culture of the person including sexual activities. Hence, it is prominent that sexual deviance affects the ethics of the environment which includes the moral relationship of a human being to the environment and religion. This paper will explain the relationship of sexual deviance to a person’s belief in religion, the moral relationship of a person to the environment, and also its relation to the bioethics of a person.
The relationship between environmental ethics and sexual deviance come together when it comes to the learning and behavior of a person and most of this comes from a single reason which is fetishes that affect the moral relationship of a person to the environment. According to A. Brennan, 2002, environmental ethics known to be the discipline of philosophy, tends to give guidance to the morality of human beings to the value of the environment. With this being said since sexual deviance includes sexual behaviors that are deviated from the norms of the environment, it tends to break the ethics of the environment when it comes to social ecology. According to Murray Bookchin it said that social ecology is the method for a society that accepts the ecological and communitarian, it tends to outlook different social issues and environmental factors as well that are not right nor normal to the society and to the environment as well that may affect the life of a person.
As the article Psychology today states Paraphilias are behaviors that are distasteful, unusual, and abnormal to society. One example of sexual deviance is exhibitionism which tends to violate the ethics of the environment since exhibitionism is an act of action where a person tends to be active by showing one’s genitalia to the public. With this being said, exhibitionist tend to violate the social norms of the environment in sexual behavior, and also tends to lose the morality of being a person in relation to the environment. However on the other hand as mentioned by G.F. Worthen the environment creates a certain standard between good and bad when it comes to sexual acts some classify as normal and acceptable and some classify as abnormal and immoral sexual desires.
One of the most important factors that really concern sexual deviance is the health of the person who actually does this kind of sexual desire and Bioethics actually emphasizes the health and life of a person. This aspect comes to deal with a lot of healthcare insights and with the development of a person. However, there is a lot of sexual deviance that really affects the health of a person, and of these is bestiality. According to J.J. Lehmiller, 2011, it stated that there is a person who’s actually a victim of a desire for doing bestiality, and with this, he said that a man in Washington died after having sex with a horse which cause his colon to rupture and cause him to die with it.
Sexual deviance plays a big role in bioethics there are a lot of homosexuals who are wanting to have a child and to solve the problem that every homosexual couple is having According to CBC- network.org it is said that the of surrogacy is when a man planning to have sexual intercourse to women and tend to use the women’s body in order for a homosexual man to have a child, while most of the women are making this a job for them to have money since they been paying for it. With this being said, it is prominent for a woman to have an infection if she uses her body over again for money.
Religion is one of the most controversial and crucial issues in society. One of the issues being faced by religion is sexual deviance which encompasses homosexuality. According to an article in HAARETZ news, it is stated that some Islamic scholars are teaching other Islam that homosexuality is a sin thus, the Koran says that men who are having sex with other men should be punished. As expectedly every people have their own perspective and beliefs when it comes to their life however it should not affect the person’s well-being as a human because it showed according to HAARETZ news that homosexuals like gays will be thrown from high buildings and stoned if they are not dead when they hit the ground. With this being said there are a lot of sexual deviances of a person that had been disapproved by their religion that causes them to rebel and do it even more as it gives them pleasure
All in all, I can say that every aspect from environmental ethics, religion and bioethics have their connections with each other everyone of these comes hand in hand. These 3 ethical concepts have become an instrument in order for the people to serve as awareness, as this gives information to the possible outcomes of one’s being sexually deviated to the society, especially to its environment, faith, and health. Whereas institutions, journals, and articles are at the top of sustainable development in society this also tends to improve the study of sexual deviance to environmental ethics where it tends to show that some fetishes or sexual deviance tend to violate this kind of ethics in terms of social ecology where it tends to put focus to the important social issues and it’s a connection with its environment that could affect the wellbeing of the person. Since nowadays religion is still one of the most controversial and has the strongest influence when it comes to the beliefs of the people. Thus, it is really one of the most important factors to know the possible outcome of a person with sexually deviated behavior by a certain religion. In this aspect, it’ll make us realize the proper balance of having beliefs and their way of living where sometimes religions go overboard where it tends to kill people if their behavior is out of norms. With this being said, it is also important to emphasize the necessity of bioethics where people need to be aware that a sexually deviated person should know the possible effects of its medical aspects and to their life, it is important for them to be aware that it could affect their health. I can say that these 3 ethical concepts are one of the most timely and relevant aspects when it comes to the crucial issue of society which is sexual deviance, this could help every people to serve as an opening to what is really happening to the society in the life of a sexually deviated person
Ethics and moral values act as a guide to different disciplines, which underline the importance of incorporating philosophical views in the development of ethics that direct theoretical paradigms for different disciplines. Philosophy seeks to resolve several challenges that are associated with values, mind, and the power of reason, reality and existence, and knowledge (Teichmann and Evans 1).
It addresses such problems peculiarly since it uses critical analysis, rationality, and systematic approaches. In this sense, philosophy implies the beliefs, attitudes, and concepts that guide a given group of people in a particular discipline of study. Based on this claim, in the discipline of medicine, bioethics becomes an important philosophical construct.
In the first section, this paper seeks to discuss the essence of philosophical ethics by noting how philosophical ethics differs from the law, professional codes, etiquette or manners, and religious ethics. It also investigates the properties of philosophical bioethics that separate it from all other disciplines and must be present for it to be qualified as bioethics.
In this discussion, the ethical considerations for medical practitioners to help in abortion and execution of convicts are used as specific cases for the application of bioethics. In the second section, the paper discusses the personal opinion of the writer on the effects of the course on personal worldview, self-concept, and other behaviors and activities.
Philosophical Bioethics
Different principles form the foundation of different disciplines of study. Principles of bioethics include various aspects that involve the practice of medicine together with environmental science. In the absence of the basic principles, it becomes hard to theorize any particular field of study. The most fundamental premise for bioethics rests on the platform of the role of medical practitioners in the treatment processes.
People involved in the treatment are required to engage primarily in fulfilling the duty that is imposed on them in terms of fostering recovery and ensuring that patients are free from diseases and illness (Bankole and Singh 118). Bioethics develops this principle to set out broad ways of interpretation of the roles of people involved in the treatment processes. In this context, people involved in the treatment process do not necessarily include only physicians.
They also include scientists and researchers in medicine who contribute in one way or another in the alleviation of pain and suffering for patients either through q direct treatment or even in investigating the causation of illness. Thus, the general understanding of a disease does not only entail medical conditions for which patients seek treatment, but also conditions, which prompt patients to seek medical advice.
Another important principle for bioethics is the understanding of the concept of the patient. Patients refer to all people whose various treatment approaches are prepared for rather than the persons who immediately receive treatment. This suggests that all people in society fit in the definition of patients from a bioethics perspective. Medical practitioners owe the duty of care to some people.
Practitioners in the medical field are required to exercise this duty of care in a manner that neither discriminates nor leads to deprivation of the rights of patients and inconsistencies with ethical issues in practices of the medical profession (Bankole and Singh 124). These requirements raise questions in bioethics on the practices of new genetics, the contribution of medical practitioners in the initiation process, and the ending of life and research ethics, among other philosophical concerns.
Consideration of ethical appropriateness in the medical professional practice questions issues on the engagement of medical practitioners in activities involving ending the life of human beings. Such acts include abortion practices and the contribution of physicians in the execution process via the use of chemical and drugs.
In the professional practice of the code of ethics for medical practitioners, medics should not conduct their work in a discriminating manner. Guided by this principle, bioethics raises the question of whether they should permit abortion to take place within the health facilities for which they work especially in the light of the claim that abortion amounts to an act of discrimination of the unborn (Grimes and Singh 1911).
In this context, people should not deny the fact that fetuses have equal rights to life just like all other people and that no group of persons has more rights to life relative to others. Nevertheless, philosophers claim that with references to psychological and physical stages of development, characteristics of fetuses that make them have equal rights to life to their counterpart, adults are not necessarily morally relevant.
In this regard, bioethics considers abortion an ethical practice to the extent that it can save the life of the mother, who has already experienced and is still enjoying the value of life. Hence, it amounts to a breach of duty of care for a medical practitioner to permit a mother to succumb to pregnancy complications.
A good example of how the differences between religious ethics, legal, and bioethics come into play is evident in the ethical approaches to the moral debate of the rights of the fetus and the rights of due-for-execution convicts. The central task that medical practitioners are charged with is to ensure that the life of people is saved through putting in place mechanisms of ensuring that people do not succumb to various ailments (Schuklenk and Kerin 1197).
The main question that emerges is the evaluation of whether they should treat abortion and acts involving execution through medical interventions as political, legal, or social challenges that require the making of decisions before taking part in them and how making such decisions affects their professional codes of ethics.
For instance, before deciding to execute abortion, medical practitioners have to make decisions about whether abortion amounts to murder or not. If it amounts to murder, it implies that they function against the very core professional mandate of saving a life.
Murder, which is illegal and prohibited in law, implies that deciding on the necessity and circumstances under which people should be allowed to procure abortion with the help of medical interventions raises a question of whether it is necessary for the law to legislate morality (Bankole and Singh 119). If this happens to be the case, it also becomes necessary to evaluate the extent to which the law should address morality together with the extent to which the medical practitioners should act against such legislation where necessary.
Religious ethics consider any act where an individual is involved in taking the life of another person inappropriate, no matter whether it is necessary to do so to alleviate pain or even save the life of another person. The claim in support of this position is that God is the sole being who is responsible for initiating life, and the right to take it predominantly rests on His mandates.
Bioethics considers the weight of the argument in support of the act in terms of implications of not engaging in the act and the context of ethical requirements in the medical profession (Schuklenk and Kerin 1196). For instance, while it may appear ethically and morally wrong for a medical practitioner to assist in the execution process, from bioethical context, it sounds ethically appropriate to ensure that execution through the deployment of chemicals or drugs to execute is accomplished safely and in a compassionate manner.
Hence, it is unnecessary and wrong for convicts to undergo a painful execution process due to the failure to administer drugs and chemicals appropriately. The claim is perhaps incredible in the context of considerations of the principles of bioethics requiring medical practitioners, especially those in medical research to develop products that meet the expected application outcomes. While this principle is appreciated in religious and legal ethical debates, the point of departure with bioethics is that the outcome involves death.
The essence of philosophical ethics in the context of bioethics involves delivering the intended outcomes in the exercise of medical obligations for medical practitioners. Based on this assertion, several points of view emerge in terms of moral and ethical debates on the status of infants, embryos, and fetuses (Schuklenk and Kerin 1198). In this debate, bioethics principles advocate, “moral standings that should depend on dispositional capacities” (Schuklenk and Kerin 1199).
This position affects the exploration of various productive technologies together with setting the premise behind advocating the exercise of abortion. Catholics’ bioethical perspectives subscribe to the ethical standard that killing innocent people is wrong irrespective of whether they are adults suffering terminal illness or fetuses (Schuklenk and Kerin 1198).
The bioethics holds that killing a fetus amounts to murder even if the life of the mother is in danger. This position is akin to claim that life initiates at conception. Hence, a fetus deserves an equal moral and ethical treatment that measures up to the moral and ethical treatment given to adults. This assertion introduces the question of whether fetuses are human beings among medical bioethics.
Supporters of the pro-life school of thought within the medical fraternity hold the opinion that uncertainty on whether a fetus has the right to life gives a clear indication and validity of the claim that conducting abortion is tantamount to conscious murder of another person.
This means that if a medical practitioner is not well aware of whether a fetus has a right to life, it is discriminating and ethically and morally wrong to treat it as if it did not have such rights (Grimes and Singh 1910). In this sense, abortion qualifies to be against the law when it is known that the unborn do not have any right to existence or assassination if it is known that it has the legal backup of existence while the medical practitioner must conduct the procedure to protect life.
Effects of the Course on Personal Worldview, Self-concept, and Behaviors and Activities
Worldviews
The evident advancement and development in medicine and administration of health services, has greatly posed interest in ethical perspectives. Globally, bioethics as a field of study has changed the delivery of health services. Different individuals and communities have felt the highly advancing technology in the field of medicine and anatomy and its application in distinct ways.
From a personal perspective, different dimensions on the development of ethical considerations in medicine determine whether some of these technologies are apt, appropriately applied, and how they affect people’s way of life. In this sense, the field of bioethics has kept surveillance on the medical practice and research and its repercussions on human dignity.
Since the inception of bioethics, some of the major issues addressed include organ transplantation, abortion, genetic engineering, euthanasia, and the relationship between patient and health professional among others in line with their future implications. From a global perspective, ethical and moral considerations in professional codes of conduct shape various disciplines so that the commonly adopted practices that are regarded as a norm serve a common good to all people.
Specifically, bioethics has played a great role in influencing people’s culture worldwide, but not without confrontations. In the case of death, the high technology in medicine makes it possible for the patient to live longer where complex and hi-tech machines, artificial breathing, and medicines are used. Evaluation of ethical and moral dilemmas arising from the use of the machines should then focus on the value they add to the realization of the ethical obligation of medical practitioners to save life.
Self-concept
How people think about themselves is important in the enhancement of good relationships and appreciation of other people’s line of view about various issues encountered during interactions processes. According to Baumeister (1999), self-concept refers to “the individual’s belief about himself or herself, including the person’s attributes and who and what the self is” (29). At an individual level, I have always believed in my ability to hold my positions about various life issues.
I subscribe to strong religious beliefs and ethics on matters of the rights of life for people irrespective of their age. I believe that ethics involves the principles that dictate what is bad and good. Through the course, I have learned that the adoption of ethical principles calls for making decisions to do what is right in every situation through reason and consideration of the broad-based views of the implications of the decisions.
I believed that the validity of my point of view about the rights of life is beyond any other convincing attempt to prove them otherwise. Unfortunately, this course has changed this perception. Hence, the course has altered my self-image, which is an essential aspect of self-concept. Self-image refers to how people see themselves. Through the course, I have realized that my self-image in terms of my beliefs does not conform to reality. Indeed, there are other valid convincing arguments contradicting my beliefs on abortion.
This implies that some of the perceptions about moral and ethical debates, especially on abortion, have some flaws and weaknesses. Specifically, I thought and believed that convicts scheduled for execution do not have ethical issues for determining how they arrive at decisions on the manner of execution. Through the course, I have found this a major flaw since death convicts need to be treated with compassion. Inflicting pain on them should be avoided since it is not one of the intended outcomes of the death penalty.
Through the different approaches of interpreting the moral and ethical obligations in the practice of bioethics, my self-esteem was lowered. Although I still believe that my convictions about the rights of life are important, the course has altered how I evaluate and compare myself with other people.
I have realized that upon engaging in debates on ethics concerning issues that surround the debates in bioethics with single-minded point of argument, I am likely to face criticisms and poor response from the bioethical community. This influences my self-esteem negatively. However, it has taught me the importance of embracing different people’s points of view about various issues in my future career. The bottom line is that I cannot always be right or wrong in every issue.
Behavior and Activities
Professional ethics and ethical behaviors comprise an important aspect that shapes people’s conducts within a given profession. I have been studying various ethical and moral obligations that are required in the process of execution of organizational mandates within my career.
Through such studies, I learned the importance of subscribing to my career’s codes of conduct as determined by ethical and moral requirements. However, through this course, I have developed a different opinion about this approach to professionalism in my career. The power of reason in terms of the implications of decisions and practices forms a major mechanism of conviction about the appropriateness of a given behavior.
Now, I consider basing my future codes of behavior and activities within my profession on not only ethical and moral obligations but also the evaluation of the appropriateness of a given behavior or activity in the context of the expected outcomes. For instance, engaging in fraud is a conduct that is prohibited under moral and ethical obligations that guide the profession of business administration.
While such behavior may seem rewarding when viewed from an individualistic dimension, in the context of the outcomes of the behavior, I see the behavior as inappropriate due to its multiplication effects of the negative impacts on the wider organizational community. In this regard, the course forms an essential starting point for justification of the necessity of engaging in ethical manners in my line of career.
Hence, in the future, I will engage in ethical behavior and activities to comply with my conviction on the appropriateness of such behaviors and activities in terms of delivering what is good to all people I will serve, rather than the desire and commitment to comply with professional ethical and moral requirements.
Conclusion
The major debates on whether medical practitioners should treat the fetus in a callous way oscillate around the determination of the premise of whether a fetus is a person with certainty. The point of contention among people inclined to the school of thought that fetus‘ right to life needs to be protected is that even if it could be proved with reasonable accurateness that a fetus is not a person, it is fallacious to presume that it has no moral standing.
Should medical practitioners engage in aiding people to execute abortion or even participate in the execution of convicts while the professional ethical and moral require them to protect life? The response to this query continues to attract heated debate in the discipline of in bioethics.
Works Cited
Bankole, Antony and Haas Singh. “Reasons Why Women Have Induced Abortion: Evidence from 27 Countries.” International Family Planning Perspectives 24.3(2008):117–127. Print.
Baumeister, Richard. The Self in Social Psychology. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, 1999. Print.
Grimes, Aurther and Benson Singh. “Unsafe Abortion: The Preventable Pandemic.” The Lancet 368.9550 (2006):1908–1919. Print.
Schuklenk, Thiele and James Kerin. “Bioethics.” Philosophical Aspects 3.2(2001).1195-1201. Print.
Teichmann, Jenny and Katherine Evan. Philosophy: A Beginner’s Guide.New York, NY: Blackwell Publishing, 1999. Print.
Advancements in technology have defined the turn of the century and subsequently revolutionized the mortality rate in society. However, the technologies used in the preventive or predictive treatment are advanced to address the needs of the population they cater to effectively. Bioethics committees must consider the desires and needs of the populations served because it allows for the effective implementation and use of technology to increase their health.
Bioethics plays a vital role in addressing society’s development concerns or priorities. In engaging the members of science who use medicinal technologies, bioethics committees ensure the youth and the elderly have a voice in the care received. A decrease in the mortality rate has composed a society primarily of the elderly (Campos, 2019). The level of healthcare obtained from new technologies is enhanced through educating and sensitizing them accordingly.
A specially created UNESCO committee makes it possible to disseminate information age-appropriate and ethical. A study by Alderson et al. (2021) proves that awareness dramatically increases the effectiveness of the technology introduced. They found that children who are a heart transplant needed perceive the operation more easily once they know the details. In addition, any medical policy should have the social aspect as the priority of its goals because this avoids opposing changes that will help people.
I believe that no progress is possible if society is not involved in this change. I want my opinions to carry weight and that my wishes, for example, in preventive services, are taken into account. I believe that a sense of safety in complex operations is created precisely by the widespread dissemination of information to the public. I want the bioethics committee to create differentiated handouts for each group: children should know about the need for prevention and the elderly about their medications and the dangers of overtaking them.
In conclusion, I would like to point out that bioethics committees are important organizations to regulate the relationship between society and medicine. All populations need information because age, race, gender, and culture must be considered when providing medical care. They will build a dialogue and achieve the primary goal of medicine – to teach how to be healthy. If a particular population group is aware of the tools to improve their health, the health department can use these technologies more effectively.
The sale and use of human organs after the death of a person is a complex ethical and moral issue that people have decided on in various ways at different times. In traditional cultures, the violation of the human body’s integrity was most often condemned since this was associated with its transition to the afterlife. However, the modern world has allowed the use of human organs after death to bring good and save lives, which has radically changed the balance of power. Thus, contemporary bioethics focuses on solving the moral problems in transplantation, considering the rights of all parties involved.
Discussion
The human organ market is a sensitive topic, as questions immediately arise about whether it can exist and not exploit poor and socially disadvantaged people. On the one hand, there is a significant untapped demand for organs for people who will die without transplants. On the other hand, many desperately poor people worldwide are ready for transplant tourism. Due to deep desperation on both sides, the process loses transparency and goes into the Darknet.
This problem needs to be addressed from several angles. First, posthumous organ donation should be promoted as safe and noble. Second, the countries of the first and third worlds must control the black organ market and tighten control over “transplant tourism.” Unfortunately, at the moment, the free market can only solve the problem of organ shortage through the inevitable exploitation of the poor.
Conclusion
The commercialization of the sale of human organs exposes the unpleasant and ethically complex side of the market system. Capitalism, in principle, often pushes for the manifestation of the worst, especially when life, death, and health are at stake. Inevitably, this state of affairs opens the way to the exploitation of man by man. However, despite this, it must be understood that sick, dying people have the right to relieve pain and suffering and save their lives. The rights of the donor and the recipient must be balanced, taken into account, and protected.
The study of ethics has always captivated many intellectuals, and over the centuries, many ideas have been offered to demonstrate the moral principles that influence human conduct. By describing the origins of occurrences and the reasons behind why something occurs in the way it does, scientific theories aid in human understanding of the material universe. A moral theory, for instance, emphasizes why action is either right or wrong or why an individual or their personality is virtuous or harmful. Numerous moral theories have contributed significantly to the field of bioethics and are still shaping how individuals perceive related matters. Out of three well-known theories, Kantian ethics is the most optimal in terms of considering morality and human conduct, unlike natural law theory and utilitarianism which mainly disregard justice or strive to find the correct reasoning.
Although natural law theory, utilitarianism, and Kantian ethics focus on the topic of morality, they differ substantially. For instance, according to Kantian ethics, a deed is ethical if it is motivated by a sense of obligation and abides by a general, unchanging moral law (Vaughn 41). Kantianism respects the individual and connects to the common experience of humanity. As per this theory, the categorical imperative, a specific ethical principle, may be used to rationally and reflectively deduce human obligations (Vaughn 41). Because Kant’s morality is so simple and grounded in reason, anyone can understand it. The benefits of this theory are that it focuses on human duty and claims that morality is independent of motivations, outcomes, and religious laws (Vaughn 41). Therefore, the concept commands everybody to protect human life and provides universally applicable norms.
In comparison, natural law theory contends different perspectives in terms of morality. According to this theory, only behaviors that adhere to moral principles “discerned in nature through human reason” may be regarded as ethical (Vaughn 56). Therefore, the main responsibility of humans is to direct their life in the way of such universal objectives while following the dictates of natural law (Vaughn 56). The benefit of the natural law idea is that it can be applicable on a broad scale, and it relies on logical thinking. The approach, however, dismisses how society influences conduct (Vaughn 56). Natural law theory does not give a specific moral norm that applies in every circumstance, although it does offer direction through basic moral concepts, some of which are believed to apply unconditionally and globally.
The third theory, utilitarianism, focuses on human happiness yet has shortcomings. The theory holds that the best behaviors are those that produce a balance of good over adverse outcomes for all parties concerned, which is the dominant consequentialist theory (Vaughn 39). The traditional formulation, such as many utilitarian ideologies, calls for a deep sense of objectivity. When fostering well-being and happiness, people must give each person’s requirements and interests an equal priority in addition to considering the satisfaction of all others who may be impacted (Vaughn 39). Nevertheless, utilitarianism disregards fairness and regards immoral deeds that benefit society as a whole as moral if only a small minority suffers as a result (Vaughn 39). In this case, the failure of utilitarianism to pay attention to issues of justice may be its fundamental drawback.
Upon reviewing all three theories, it can be seen that the merits of Kantian ethics outweigh those of utilitarianism and the natural law theory by a wide margin. It holds that moral decisions should not be based in the least on outcomes, value maximization, happiness creation, or the desires and requirements of other people (Vaughn 42). In such a situation, it is the exact opposite of utilitarianism. Unlike the two other theories, Kantian ethics prioritizes following a moral law that is reasonable and relevant to all people and acting entirely out of a sense of responsibility (Vaughn 41). Only when an activity complies with this norm is it morally right, and only when individuals carry out their duties solely out of obligation are they morally acceptable. Thus, equal protection of all individuals is required under Kantian ethics, which effectively eliminates prejudice from decision-making.
Hence, Kantian ethics is the best of the three well-known theories when it comes to taking into account morality and human behavior, as opposed to natural law theory and utilitarianism, which ignore justice or try to arrive at the right thinking. A deed is ethical in Kantian ethics if it is motivated by duty and abides by a universal, unchanging moral rule. In contrast, the natural law approach asserts several moral vantage points. However, the strategy ignores how society affects behavior. The utilitarianism concept, the third theory, focuses on human happiness but has flaws, including ignoring questions of justice. Reviewing these three theories reveals that Kantian ethics has a significant advantage over utilitarianism and the natural law theory. In contrast to the other two theories, Kantian ethics emphasizes behaving only out of a sense of duty and adhering to a moral code that is rational and applicable to everyone.
Work Cited
Vaughn, Lewis. Bioethics: Principles, Issues, and Cases. 5th ed., Oxford University Press, 2022.