Category: Bioengineering

Human Cloning: The Moral Aspect

It has been 23 years since a newborn lamb with a unique history took its first breath. She looked no different from thousands of other sheep from the outside, but Dolly was no ordinary lamb. She was cloned from an adult female sheep’s mammary cell, overturning a long-held scientific belief that cloning anything was biologically impossible. The birth of Dolly set off a race to replicate the breakthrough in laboratories around the world. While raising the question of the potential for human cloning. With the advances in today’s technology and the scientific aspiration to find any possible solutions to incurable diseases, the possibility of human cloning is not improbable. However, scientists do not know how the cloning process will impact cognitive and physical development in humans. Louisiana Sen. Landrieu an advocate for the banning of cloning stated, ‘Cloning is like an unmarked and unchecked interstate system, with scientists racing as fast as they can with no restrictions whatsoever, it is up to Congress to put up the speed limit signs before we have any casualties.’ Many scientists have predicted that human clones would be afflicted with undetectable abnormalities, there are no current or foreseeable methods available that have complete success. If we ever want to prohibit cloning, reproductive cloning must be stopped at the beginning, before it is even attempted. It is now more important than ever to ban human cloning. As of today, there are no federal laws in the United States that prohibit cloning completely, either for reproduction purposes or for biomedical research. This is not because many people favor reproductive cloning, rather it is because there is strong disagreement about whether to allow cloning for biomedical research. Many have been unwilling to support a separate ban on reproductive cloning and because of this, no federal ban on cloning has been enacted. Approximately 46 countries have formally put a ban prohibiting human cloning. (CGS 2019) While this does seem positive, this still only represents less than one-quarter of all countries.

It took 277 attempts before Dolly was created as a healthy newborn lamb. (Roslin Institute 1996) Human cloning has a high potential for errors. It is far more complicated to clone a human. The case for banning human reproductive cloning is not difficult to make, most scientists agree that it is unsafe and will likely lead to serious abnormalities and birth defects such as Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS) and large offspring syndrome (LOS). Characteristics found in BWS are macrosomia, macroglossia, abdominal wall defects, large tongue, umbilical hernia, and ear malformations. Children conceived with the use of assisted reproductive technologies, a medical procedure used primarily to address infertility can induce LOS and also appear to have an increased incidence of BWS. (Chen, Robbins, Wells, & Rivera 2013) Dr. Takumi Takeuchi a skilled scientist in stem cell research said that ‘as of yet it was difficult to make a direct link with specific causes for the abnormalities.’ (ESHRE 2004) The consequences of the severe defects are in each experiment, it is more than just common side effects, scientists may be covering up what they are doing or what results their experiments are yielding. Due to these concerns, it is best to avoid cloning. Rudolf Jaenisch and Ian Wilmut from the Roslin Institute that cloned the first clone Dolly explain,

‘Cloning is like a dog walking across traffic without looking both ways and is hit by a car. Normally they would learn to inspect the road and then dodge oncoming cars the next time around. Eventually, the dog will have seen all and learned all they need to know about the heavy traffic and crosses unharmed. The initial hit and run on the dog are like the small consequences we are seeing in the cloning experiments. The cars represent deformities, genetic mutations, disease, and unknown causes of death, and the dog is a would-be child. The science of cloning must learn to cross the street without losing thousands of dogs.’ (Jaenisch & Wilmut 1996)

Research cloning will also lead to new exploitation of women in the name of scientific advancements. To manufacture enough cloned embryos to create a sufficient number of viable stem cell lines, scientists will need to obtain massive quantities of women’s eggs. Cloning has been described as ‘a wildly inefficient process, often requiring hundreds of eggs to produce a single viable clone.’ (George 2008) The reality is that without a continuous supply of women’s eggs, human cloning is simply impossible. With no access and no place for the eggs to come from it is impossible to keep up with the demand. There are two main proposed egg sources, altruistic donations and donations by providing monetary compensation. These two methods have practical limitations that endanger the viability of cloning. Supporters of human cloning claim that many women are willing to donate their eggs to advance research in efforts to find treatments for incurable health conditions and that supplying eggs for human research is one step away. According to a study conducted by Professor Guido Pennings ‘Altruism is the main motivation why donors donate but financial compensation certainly helps persuade several donors.’ (Chan 2013) To boost the supply of human eggs needed for research, some biotechnology companies are compensating women for their egg donations. This strategy is similar to the one used to get eggs for fertility treatment. This compensation is a way to get more participants considering that the procedure a woman can spend is around 40 to 56 hours in medical offices. They are required to attend rigorous interviews and counseling sessions. They are subjected to surgical procedures to retrieve eggs from the body. (Associated Press 2007) That is without mentioning, that women must be injected with super ovulatory drugs and undergo an invasive procedure. (Weldon 2002) Many have to learn to say no to certain experiments before they begin to relink the technological advances with human dignity and responsibility.

Not only will cloning cause a big issue in the exploitation of women but many ethicists also say that the family dynamics would be filled with problems. If there were an infertile couple who wanted a child and could only attain one by cloning the wife or father. The family dynamics could become a problem when the child grows into the counterpart of their ‘parent’. If the parents subsequently divorce and cannot stand the sight of their partner anymore, they could feel differently towards the cloned child. While this case does seem far-fetched, it does not change the fact that this could be a possibility in the future. Looking at the clones as individuals can still pose a problem. It is not reasonable to expect he or she will be treated as simply another child. There is the concern that clones would spend their lives burdened by the knowledge that they are not original, that they are just a copy. There are concerns that cloning would become another divisive class issue, that only the wealthy will be able to afford. Cloning might be used to select or reject certain traits, depending on a society’s or cultural preferences. There are currently many places such as India and China, where abortions have been used for decades to select against daughters, to the point where women are in short supply in some communities.

Furthermore, if in the future, producing a baby through cloning was no riskier than natural reproduction it would still be ethically impermissible. Many argue that cloning is wrong because it moves away from natural sexual procreation. The desire to manipulate the genetic characteristics of one’s offspring is the core of the ethical dilemma. The morality of reproductive cloning relies on the implication of looking at children as gifts and not as a proprietorship. Cloning and genetic engineering are no different from each other as they show the lengths people would go to, to produce ‘designer children’. Designing our descendants, whether by cloning or germ-like engineering, is a form of despotism. Continuing can start a sympathetic project to kill the sick themselves, something that has already begun with the selective abortion of embryos deemed ‘undesirable’ by the parents. Scientists have begun mixing genes with animals trying to remove disease by any means necessary. But the fact is that society needs to accept the necessity to regulate behavior for moral and just reasons. Many scientists and politicians justify breaching the fundamental moral boundaries in the seek for a biological utopia.

To conclude, as technology advances and the scientific community’s desire to find solutions to incurable health conditions, human cloning is one step closer. However, the ethical dilemma that comes with human cloning has divided today’s society. In the last 23 years since Dolly the Lamb took its first breath contradicting the long-held belief that cloning any living creature was biologically impossible, we are one step closer to enacting a federal ban on cloning in the United States. Many others believe that human cloning and its research must be stopped by implementing federal laws that can prohibit these practices and believe that the U.S. should join the 46 other countries that have formally banned human cloning. Since it is difficult to link reproductive cloning and serious abnormalities, human cloning should be avoided. On the other hand, there are believers that human cloning will bring many benefits to today’s society including preventing genetic diseases, helping eliminate infertility, help find a cure for many incurable genetic disorders, among many others. Nevertheless, cloning is not a perfected science and more research is needed before the science community embarks and causes a cloning disaster. Whether the eggs are supplied by altruistic donations or donations by providing monetary compensation, there are the ethical repercussions that cloning brings to diverse family dynamics and the possible psychological damage to infant clones. The morality of reproductive cloning relies on the implication of looking at children as gifts and not as a proprietorship. Cloning is wrong. Do not forget that human cloning can become another divisive class issue, a luxury that only the wealthy will be able to afford, using the body of the poor to the benefit of the wealthy.

Works Cited

1. Chen, Zhiyuan, et al. “Large Offspring Syndrome: a Bovine Model for the Human Loss-of-Imprinting Overgrowth Syndrome Beckwith-Wiedemann.” Epigenetics, Landes Bioscience, June 2013, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3857339/.
2. Chan, Siobhan. “Egg donors are mostly motivated by the urge to help others.” Bio News, 2013, www.bionews.org.uk/page_94202.
3. “Cloning Conflict: Valerie Schmalz.” Cloning Conflict | Valerie Schmalz, http://www.ignatiusinsight.com/features2005/vschmalz_cloningconfl_jan05.asp.
4. George, Katrina. ‘Women as Collateral Damage: A Critique of Egg Harvesting for Cloning Research.’ Women’s Studies International Forum, vol. 31, no. 4, 2008, pp. 285-92.
5. “Human Cloning Policies: Center for Genetics and Society.” Human Cloning Policies | Center for Genetics and Society, https://www.geneticsandsociety.org/internal-content/human-cloning-policies.
6. “Should Woman be Pay for Supplying Eggs?” Associated Press, 2007 www.nbcnews.com/id/16657090/ns/health-cloning_and_stem_cells/t/should-women-be-paid-supplying-eggs/#.XdYZtFdKiUm.
7. “The Facts and Fiction of Cloning.” WebMD, WebMD, https://www.webmd.com/healthy-aging/features/cloning-facts-fiction#1.
8. Weldon, Dave. “Why Human Cloning Must Be Banned Now.” Dignity, 31 Mar. 2002, https://cbhd.org/content/why-human-cloning-must-be-banned-now.
9. “Why Does Cloning Create Abnormalities? Scientists Take A Step Towards Finding Out.” ScienceDaily, ScienceDaily, 2 July 2004, https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/07/040701085957.htm.

 

The Ethical Dilemma of Pet Cloning

There are few things harder than saying goodbye to a beloved pet. It can be utterly heartbreaking, but what if you didn’t have to say goodbye? What if you had the technology to bring your furry friend back, would you? Should you? The ability to clone animals, specifically mammals, has been considered feasible for quite some time now, but was proven possible as recently as 1996 when scientists successfully cloned a sheep, known as Dolly. After the initial success, scientists began researching the possibilities of cloning other animals: mice, cattle, pigs, goats, rabbits, and even cats and dogs. Specifically, the science of dog cloning has advanced considerably since the researchers presented the first successfully cloned dog in 2005, and today, the technology exists as a commercially available service to ordinary pet owners. Although the technology successfully exists, it also begs the larger question of is this practice ethical.

Firstly, when discussing the moral implications of technology of this kind, it’s important to understand the procedure better. The Companies that clone pets use a procedure called somatic cell nuclear transfer. While the animal is alive, the customer can contact the company, which in turn will send a sample collection kit. The customer will then take their pet to the vet to have a tissue biopsy performed. This tissue is sent back to the company whose lab techs then isolate and culture the cells and prepare them for cryogenic preservation until the customer decides to initiate the cloning procedure. Once the customer has decided to proceed with the operation, they will be asked to pay a cloning deposit (with the rest of their fee due upon the delivery of their new pet). Female animal subjects, that belong to the various companies, then have their eggs harvested and the nucleus removed so that it can be replaced with the cells from the customer’s pet. The embryo that’s created is then transplanted into a surrogate female dog who will carry it to term and nurse it until it’s ready to be delivered to its new home. Hormone injections are then used on the surrogate to create an optimal environment for a growing pet fetus. The environment is key and must be controlled so that the fetus’s growth and development are not disrupted by outside forces like pollutants or other stressors. This doesn’t make for a pleasant situation for the surrogate dog, who has no choice and receives no compensation in the matter. This is likely the biggest

Similar to human fertility and gestation, the process can be tricky and offers no guarantee that the outcome will be a success. It may take multiple tries or it might not even work at all, many cloned pregnancies don’t take hold in the uterus or die shortly after birth. An article written in Vanity Fair stated that “Ethicists from the White House to the Vatican have long debated the morality of cloning. Do we have the right to bioengineer a copy of a living creature, especially given the pain and suffering that the process requires? It can take a dozen or more embryos to produce a single healthy dog.” (Duncan 2018) The companies also state there is no guarantee that the clone will act or even look like the original. While the process produces a genetically identical version of the animal in question, there is no way to be certain of getting the same breed and sex. The lab cannot control how the genes interact with one another inside the host dog, and while a genotype may be identical, the phenotype may not. The cloned pet could have different markings and not look identical to the original pet. Technically, they would be genetically predisposed to the same behaviors and learning capabilities, but just as with identical twins of any species, this could result in a radically different pet. After acknowledging all this, can it be worth the money? Can it be worth the suffering of the surrogate animals? How can the practice of essentially bringing back a beloved family pet after they’ve passed be considered ethical?

Interestingly enough, looking at this practice through the lens of Act Utilitarianism, there is an argument to be made that this practice could be considered ethical. Proposed by English philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, Act Utilitarianism is based on the principle of Utility; “an action is right (or wrong) to the extent that it increases (or decreases) the total happiness of the affected parties.” (Myers 2006) Act Utilitarianism, focuses on the actual happiness or benefit to the individuals and is based on down-to-earth, straightforward, and practical reasoning. Considering this, the case to be made is that bringing a beloved household pet back to life, through the process of cloning would provide the group (in this case the pet owner) ‘happiness.’ However, through a utilitarian viewpoint, one must remember it is essential to weigh the pros and cons that the technology would provide and just because animal cloning may cause overall happiness for pet owners, that doesn’t necessarily mean it is ethically acceptable. There may be other legitimate reasons to clone animals. For instance, researching the effects of diseases on the same dog, replicating service dogs with rare and desirable abilities, or cloning endangered species for conservation. Yet, one can see the immoral implications of these examples as well, the easiest of which to point out where do you draw the line? Just because something can offer a singular group (pet owners) some happiness, does that outweigh the cost of over animals suffering for a few pet owners to get their “beloved” animal back?

Lastly, those who would contemplate taking part in this procedure must understand that while a clone may perfectly replicate the genome, it won’t be the same dog because it won’t have lived the same life, a life that it lived in the company of its owner. Just like a person, it will not have experienced the experience that made the pet what it was. In almost every way that matters, it would be considered a different dog and although that dog might be a perfect genetic clone of the original, it will never be the same dog. When reflecting on this situation, it seems as though Jeff Goldblum’s character in the original Jurassic Park had it right, when he stated, “Your scientists were so preoccupied with whether or not they could that they didn’t stop to think if they should.”

References:

1. Duncan, David Ewing. “Inside the Very Big, Very Controversial Business of Dog Cloning.” Vanity Fair, Vanity Fair, 7 Aug. 2018, https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2018/08/dog-cloning-animal-sooam-hwang.
2. Myers, Bob. “Ethics.” Ethics for the Information Age, 2nd Ed. Quinn, Michael J. Pearson Education, Inc. 2006. ISBN: 0-321-37526-2 A Gift of Fire. Baase, Sara. Prentice Hall., http://www.cs.fsu.edu/~myers/cop3331/notes/ethics1.html.
3. Konigsberg, Eric. “Beloved Pets Everlasting?” The New York Times, The New York Times, 31 Dec. 2008, https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/01/garden/01clones.html.
4. Brogan, Jacob. “The Real Reasons You Shouldn’t Clone Your Dog.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 22 Mar. 2018, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-cloning-your-dog-so-wrong-180968550/.

 

ABSTRACT

Nanobiotechnology is the study of the smallest biological items of nano scale 1-100 nm to create devices and systems of the equivalent range that employ for new purposes. There are many applications of nanobiotechnology such as it is used in food packaging, drug delivery, diagnosis, etc. I have discussed the applications of nanobiotechnology in food safety. Nanobiotechnology plays a vital role in the safety of food. Food is usually contaminated with microbial pathogens or their toxins produced by them. Due to microbial contamination food-borne diseases and water-borne diseases are common. Nanobiosensors are used for the detection of food-borne pathogens. Biopolymer-based nanocomposite films, nanomaterials, biosensors, and nanoparticles (e.g. Ag-MMT) are mainly used in food packaging. Nanowire immunobiosensors array, bioconjugated nanomaterials, biosensor, nanocantilevers and carbon nanotubes are used to detect pathogens in food. Nanoscale titanium dioxide particles are used to block the harmful effects of UV light during the plastic packaging of food. Nanomaterial increases the shelf life of food products and help to keep safe from moisture, gases and lipids. Nanoencapsulation protects food during storage, processing and utilization from different sources of contamination such as heat, moisture, biological and chemical degradation. There are many other applications of nanobiotechnology in food safety that I have been discussed in the introduction of this review article.

INTRODUCTION

To know that what nanobiotechnology is, we need to know what biotechnology and nanotechnology are.

Biotechnology

For a layman and most scientists, biotechnology is considered as the transfer of genes from one organism to another which is also known as the process of gene splicing. But according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), biotechnology is the regulation of products by microorganisms. These microorganisms can be naturally occurring or can be genetically altered or manipulated by humans. (1)

For Example: We can make insulin in excess amount if we insert the human insulin gene into bacteria.

Nanotechnology

It can be defined as the field in which different techniques are used to create materials to perform new functions on nanometer scale (i.e. less than 100 nm). (2)

Nanotechnology has many applications such as it is used in medicines, electronics, food safety, fabric, etc.

There are two major approaches of nanotechnology:

1. “Top-down” approach in which bigger structures are abridged in dimension to the nano scale as maintaining their unique properties without an atomic-level rule (e.g. the smallest size of devices in the field of electronics).
2. “Bottom-up” approach besides called “molecular nanotechnology”, in which resources are engineered from atoms or molecular machinery by the process of self-assembly. (2)

Nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology is the study of the smallest biological items of nano scale 1-100 nm to create devices and systems of the equivalent range that employ for new purposes. (3) There are many applications of nanobiotechnology such as it is used in food packaging, drug delivery, diagnosis, etc.

Applications of Nanobiotechnology in Food Safety

Nutrients which are essential for the growth of pathogenic microbes are present in food so it is important to make sure whether food is safe or not. Food is usually contaminated with microbial pathogens or their toxins produced by them. Due to microbial contamination food-borne diseases and water-borne diseases are common. So the different nanobiosensors are used for the detection of food-borne pathogens to make food safe for health. (4)

Food-borne pathogens can be instantly detected by the use of bioconjugated nanomaterials, biosensor, nanocantilevers and carbon nanotubes. (5) To detect microbial pathogens, nanowire immunobiosensors array is used. (5) Food packaging includes physical, chemical and biological factors to make food safe and consumable. (7) Antioxidants, antimicrobial, biosensors and other nanomaterials are commonly used in the food packaging. (5) Silver-montmorillonite (Ag-MMT) nanoparticles are used in the appropriate food packaging process. It prevents the spoilage of fresh-cut fruit. (5) Biopolymer-based nanocomposite films are utilized in the food packaging system. It helps in the safe storage of food. (5) Nanoscale titanium dioxide particles are used to block the harmful effects of UV light during the plastic packaging of food. (5)

FOOD PROCESSING

It is a process of transformation of fresh ingredients into the food products with a long shelf life. They can be preserved for a long time and have less chances of decay so they will not spoil during the transportation. (7)

It includes the removal of toxins, keep safe from pathogens, storage, and make the consistency of foods better for good sailing. (7) Nanodrops are served as a liquid carrier of nourishing components. They are nanosized self-assembled structural lipids which cannot be dissolved in water and fats. (7) Nanostructures (food ingredients that work on the nanoscale) have ability to improve texture, consistency and taste. (6) Nanocarriers are optimized for flavors of food in food yields without changing the morphology. (6)

Nanoencapsulation improves photo stability and thermal stability by the nanomloecules such as inside the middle cavity of recombinant soybean kernel, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside is used. (6) Nanoencapsulation protects food during storage, processing and utilization from different sources of contamination such as heat, moisture, biological and chemical degradation. (6) Lipid-soluble compounds (bioactive) are the most common. They are created by the use of nano-emulsions and commonly used to improve the bioavailability and water dispersion. (6)

USE OF NANOMATERIALS AND NANOPARTICLES

In the nanobased sale able goods, silver and related resources are also applied amongst the accessible nanomaterials because of their antimicrobial characteristics. (5)

Nanomaterials increases the shelf life of food products and help to keep safe from moisture, gases and lipids. (6) Small edible capsules coated with nanoparticles supply beneficial healthy effects in daily foods. (6)

Nanoparticles have the ability to degrade pollutants and make new resources. Nanoparticles such as metal oxides, carbon nanotubes, nanofibres are used in the packaging of food to secure from any harmful thing. (7)

BARRIER PROTECTION

To protect food from any microbes and decay it is important to provide atmosphere having less oxygen. (7) Polymer nanocomposites help to protect food from gases. They are made up of polymer matrix. (7) NanoclaysMaterials that are based on nanoclays are also used to protect food from the penetration of gases. Nanoclays are collected from volcanic ash. (7)

NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS

These supplements are also named as nanoceuticals or nutrition-be-nanotech. (7) Food supplements in the nanotechnology are more efficient than other supplements. Because of their smallest size, they can react with the human cells in more better way. (7)

Encapsulation techniques are mainly includes in the supplementary manner. In these techniques, probiotics and other useful products with the help of nanostructured capsule (zinc or iron based) targets the human system. (7) Consumption of nutrients can be increased by the use of nanosized powders. (7) Nanocochleate has the ability of deliver nutrients to cell without changing the color and taste of food. (7)

From ancient biotechnology to modern, biotechnology has evolved profoundly and has gained exceptional importance and significance during recent years, which is just unprecedented. From vaccinations to mapping human DNA to agricultural impacts, medical biotechnology is creating major advancements and helping countless individuals.

The intricacy of biotechnology is augmented due to enhancements and the developments of new technologies, as these are based on the technological advancements with a more improved comprehending the conventions of fundamental science. Biotechnology is technology based on the core values of biology. Biotechnology harnesses biological and biomolecular processes to develop technologies, ultimately, aiming to advance human life and our environment. Medical biotechnology is a branch of medicine that specifically utilises living cells and cell materials to research, and then produce pharmaceutical and diagnosing products.

Modernised technologies and products are developed and enhanced every year within medical biotechnology. Medical biotechnology has been very successful and has advanced comprehensively. In hospitals, surgeons and doctors are able to operate on patients remotely from their computers, guiding robotic arms to an accuracy of a few centimetres. Laboratories are equipped with the state advanced technologies, even so that human beings can be broken down into genetic codes.

In 1831, Robert Brown had discovered nucleus in cells. In 1868, Fredrich Miescher, a biologist discovered nucleon, a compound that was made up of nucleic acid that was extracted from white blood cells. Becoming the foundation of modern molecular biology, for the discovery of DNA as a genetic material, and the role of DNA in transfer of genetic information. In 1888, Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried Von Waldeyer-Hartz, a German scientist who identified ‘chromosomes.’ Chromosomes are DNA molecules and protein present in a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements, and other nucleotide sequences. Edward Jenner, a physician and Louis Pasteur, a biologist, both played a major role during this period. Jenner and Pasteur developed a vaccination for rabies and smallpox.

Vaccinations (Example of medical biotechnology)

The aim of vaccinations is to use inactive or weakened microorganisms to increase the initial immune response. Advancements in biotechnology have enabled scientists to produce vaccines that won’t be able to transmit dangerous bacteria and viruses. Biotechnology is fuelling the development of new vaccines to prevent a variety of cancers. Edward Jenner invented vaccines and now scientists have developed vaccines for some of the most prevalent cancers, including the cervical vaccines, a vaccine that attacks cancer cells in cancers such as prostate, lung and breast.

Antibiotics (Example of medical biotechnology)

Antibiotics are biotechnological products and are an example of the applications of medical biotechnology. Antibiotics treat a diverse range infections and diseases caused by bacteria. Antibiotics are compounds produced by bacteria and fungi which constrain the growth of bacteria or kill bacteria. Antibiotics are naturally produced by microorganisms, for e.g. fungi, to obtain advantage of bacteria inhabitants.

Before biological understanding, and the development of antibiotics (specifically penicillin) there was no effective treatment for common infections such as pneumonia or rheumatic fever. Hospitals were overflowing with people with blood poisoning contracted from a cut or a scratch, however doctors had no effective treatment to treat the patient and told them to wait patiently and hope for the best. However, more improved and advanced equipment and technology in hospitals now has enabled doctors to provide more comprehensive care to patients, more technological treatments have improved the quality of life for people suffering with long-term illnesses.

Over the years, herbal remedies have been utilised for the treatment of infections. Quinine a herbal derived medicine that was used to treat malaria, originates in South America, from the bark of a cinchona tree. Today, cinchona bark is used as a synthetic form to treat the disease. The use of the cinchona tree was described in the 1600s by the Jesuit missionaries.

Penicillin, invented by Alexander Fleming (in 1928), was the first original antibiotic and began the era of antibiotics. Penicillin is produced by fungi and green mould (Penicillium notatum). Penicillium is an antibiotic that is used to treat bacterial infections. The process of producing penicillium is rather simple, the process includes five fundamental steps:

• Extracting penicillium mould
• Fermentation tanks
• Separate mould from penicillium extract
• Purification
• Used as antibiotic medicine

In conclusion, biotechnology has brought a number of remarkable changes to the health industry throughout the years. Biotechnology as a whole has advanced largely over the years and possesses countless benefits helping humanity in developing new treatments for deadly diseases, and has managed to modify cellular structure of plants, animals and has even helped to identify and develop products. Biotechnological processes have advanced profoundly due to the technology scientists are enabled to use to research and develop new products.

The social and ethical implications

Biotechnology plays a predominant role in society and has managed to modify cellular structure of plants, animals and has contributed in identifying and develop products. Biotechnology has brought many reforms plant, animal and human life. Scientists have been successful in modifying plants, organisms, human beings as well as animals utilising a diverse range of techniques and tools of biotechnology. Biotechnology has extensively enhanced the condition of human and animal living, accompanying the positive impacts of biotechnology come with the negative impacts of biotechnology.

The potential benefits of biotechnology include:

• solving world food shortages
• predominant advancements in medicine field
• agriculture (better tasting fruit and vegetables)
• veterinary science

Biotechnology is aiding society to find solutions to essential industrial processes that currently produce toxic effluents. Biotechnology is as old as humanity and even present before we’re born, from fertility assistance to prenatal screening. It’s happening in our everyday lives with immunisations and antibiotics, both of which have immensely improved and increased life expectancy.

Despite all of the positive impacts of biotechnology, it also has disadvantages, and there are some concerns about its potential negative impacts. In agriculture, there are concerns for implications that genetically modified crops may transfer genetic material into organic, unmodified plants. For instance, a crop that is herbicide resistant may transfer some of its traits to a weed that doesn’t have herbicide, which essentially results in an herbicide resistant weed. Another major issue regarding agricultural biotechnology is the unpredictability of the long-term viability of genetically modified crops.

The long-term social implications of biotechnology is the genetic alteration of various organisms, from bacteria in pharmaceuticals to the animals in biological research to the plants in agriculture are not known. Genetically modified organisms are made by inserting a gene of bacteria or viruses and tis may cause a decrease in the biodiversity amongst organisms.

Biotechnology is one of the advancing science fields receiving a lot of ethical implications and concerns some of which is the availability and use of privileged information, ecological harm of the usage, entitlement to new drugs and treatment, and the idea of interfering with nature. Another ethical dilemma in society that is commonly raised is the significant expenses and cost to get entire access to new ground-breaking treatments. Expensive drugs such as the ‘tissue plasminogen activator’, used to prevent clots that are known to cause strokes and heart attacks. Colony-stimulator factors for cancer patients being treated with chemotherapy, are intensely costly.

Ethical concerns start when scientists use humans and animals as clinical trial subjects for treatments and new solutions for illnesses or diseases. Individuals in society will often try different treatments to find a solution to whatever they may be dealing with, if there is no current cure. Activists are belittling of animals being objects to test new medications in biotechnology. Biotech scientists are manipulating animal genes to improve human life, this restrains the animal’s freedom.

In conclusion, biotechnology is extremely multifaceted and has innumerable advantages on society but also comes with numerous disadvantages that have a significant impact on individuals and society. Without any aspects of biotechnology there would simply be no form of life. However, biotechnology faces a lot of short and long-term ethical and social implications that will or have an effect on humanity and go against religious or personal values and principles.

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11. https://www.wgu.edu/blog/medical-biotechnology-advancements-ethics1811.htmlWestern Governors University. (2019). Medical Biotechnology: Advancements And Ethics. [online] Available at: https://www.wgu.edu/blog/medical-biotechnology-advancements-ethics1811.html [Accessed 17 Aug. 2019].
12. https://online.campbellsville.edu/business/medical-biotechnology/CU Online. (2019). How Medical Biotechnology Is Advancing Modern Healthcare. [online] Available at: https://online.campbellsville.edu/business/medical-biotechnology/ [Accessed 19 Aug. 2019].
13. https://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/index.php/timelineWhatisBiotechnology.org. (2019). WhatisBiotechnology • The sciences, places and people that have created biotechnology. [online] Available at: https://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/index.php/timeline [Accessed 20 Aug. 2019].
14. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/biotechnology/Courses.lumenlearning.com. (2019). Biotechnology | Boundless Biology. [online] Available at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/biotechnology/ [Accessed 21 Aug. 2019].
15. http://www.healthtechzone.com/topics/healthcare/articles/2018/01/16/436425-5-ways-technology-has-improved-health-industry.htmHealthtechzone.com. (2019). 5 Ways Technology Has Improved the Health Industry. [online] Available at: http://www.healthtechzone.com/topics/healthcare/articles/2018/01/16/436425-5-ways-technology-has-improved-health-industry.htm [Accessed 19 Aug. 2019].

To explain why biodesign is the now for designers and is now even more relevant, and why designers should all have at least an awareness of it. It is partly due to the reason that by some biodesign being is being viewed as an industrial revolution or revolutionizer and therefore designers can be seen to be in an exceptional and possibly an enviable position.

As Bio designing is gaining greater importance for everyone now and into the future as with the current and latest advances in human created and manipulated biodiversity and its newly associated custom designing of organisms or parts of organisms into industrial processes, agriculture or pharmacology as well its ingress into other associated services which are rapidly growing with their associated developing markets which are all expected to grow into billions of dollars. “Fast company. (2017, Mar 2)”

It can be seen Industrial designers will be swapping plastic, metal, wood, and other materials that take energy to produce products with living materials, like fungi or bacteria.

Biodesign can be seen as a new wave order to be added to the designer’s arsenal in that with the current and latest advances in human modified or created and manipulated organisms and its new associated custom designing of these organisms or parts of organisms to achieve synthesized meats, flavors, cosmetic ingredients, and other products by tweaking and manipulating DNA sequences. It is well to note that co-occurring with these events and its rising growth and rising development and acceptance is the use of super computers that can write DNA code as easy as computer code, scientists now have the ability to design and iterate through processes that look similar to the one’s that web designers use. In this sense, biologists have become a new type of designer, working with a very powerful substrate: life. The exciting thing about the emerging field of biodesign is that it is made up of both scientists and designers, and often the most significant projects are the ones that see the two disciplines partnering up.

For artists and designers to succeed in this field they need the have scientific know-how of biologists, whilst biologists will benefit from the artists and designers big-picture thinking and outside perspective. It is equally as important; artists and designers be informed of the vision that synthetic biology will have on many major implications for our future— addressing such issues as malnutrition, famine, medicine to manufacturing—and will need artists and designers to help communicate that to the broader public.

The beginnings of biotechnology can be solidly traced back to the times when humans first carried out cultivation and this can then be traced further through our ancestors learning how to domesticate then carry out the manipulation of breeding animals for food or work. Later to

zymotechnology “Bud, R. (1992)”. Where manipulation of organisms for fermentation, this then led to the development of drugs with the term Biotechnology first appeared in writing in 1919. “Wikipedia contributors. (2018, May 7)”

Society is divided between good or trusting and bad and mistrusting of living organism manipulations, economy can vary greatly between costly failures and impressive returns on success’s, environment can be extremely positive or detrimental, client/designer Huge costly augments on IP and what scientists and designers what to achieve and what is achieved, philosophy immense legal and ethically issues with each development, technology Huge and vast leaps taking advantage of new developments in computing, 3D printing and every other area biotechnology touches as it is becoming easier to manipulate.

With the huge opportunities that were perceived and coming into existence in this field, there was also a growing and mounting of evidence identifying the pitfalls that were being discovered in many of the commercialization of these products. This then provided a reality that developing innovative device’s, diagnostic tests or revolutionary drug delivery concepts and then being able to convert these into viable products were soon found to be extremely difficult tasks to get done.

To add to this difficulty and provide further complications there was a known fierce competition between developers and scientists. This increase in competition drove the need to reduce time to commercialization. In noting this, it can then be seen the cost of failure could be great leading to large losses showing up in actual wasted R&D effort, but also the loss of potential income and further development finance.

This identified one area that wasn’t thought to be important until recently and that main cause of this developmental and commercialization failure is often not the technology itself, but the final stages of product development; So, in designing an end product that will deliver the biotechnology product in a form that customers want and in a package that is easy to manufacture.

Hence the development involved in trying to achieve this biotechnology, companies are increasingly accessing the services of industrial and product designers to give a better and wider vision.

In addressing this issue, biological businesses are increasingly turning towards consultancies for industrial and product design to provide quick access to the necessary resources and abilities to produce manufacturable alternatives. In theory, this outsourcing should, unfortunately, offer a feasible strategy, but the findings of these links are often insufficient, leading once again to the waste of wonderful ideas.

Whereas life sciences, combined with all the other sciences and with industrial design offers a way forward for fast commercialization of biotechnology, there are certain important problems to be resolved to ensure that this strategy works efficiently. Especially on either side of the agreement there is often a significant absence of comprehension.

While scientists are beginning to now recognize the significance of product design and the relation to production development processes. It is still not correctly taken into account until very late in the process. In general, scientists will follow a long product development process-often well past laboratory testing and development and even to working and operating chemicals and systems-prior to the introduction of a product or industrial design team to make the product more manufacturable and marketable. At this point, however, this working idea may well incorporate a bad user implementation and have significant production problems.

At this point no innovative design can eliminate user problems from the final product, and it can be highly hard and expensive to accomplish the advances necessary for production. The ideas being considered, on the other side, are often extremely varied and technically sophisticated, and therefore transforming them into a product calls for an innovation and engagement point which the products development teams often underestimate.

To design and know the choice of products and the appropriate inclusion of chemistries and biologicals involve a wide range of abilities based both on the science’s and evolving technologies, although the initial inventor knows biochemistry, most developers work in an unrelated CAD and fast prototyping field. “Gross, B., Erkal, J., Lockwood, S., Chen, C., & Spence, D. (2014)”. So, designers may not have the specific knowledge, training or experience in the complicated demands of biological or chemical systems.

The resulting confrontation of thoughts and attitudes and the great absence of knowledge at the interface of the distinct sets of skills is often sufficient to significantly disrupt a marketing project.

The challenge of product design requires to be approached from a very distinct angle to address these two barriers and enable design consultancies to transform science or medical ideas more effectively and more swiftly into creative, manufacturable, and sustainable products.

Firstly, it is necessary that the design process is based on the much previous participation of the product designers, perhaps from the evidence of principle. From this point of view, the product design team can be much more engaged in the development phase, with a much better knowledge of the idea and the goals of researchers, in so far as product engineering and biology can take shape together-each affecting the other before concepts are resolved. Designers will thus have the greatest chance of creating efficient and innovative products on the market.

However, to be able to work with researchers efficiently, these teams must use technologists and developers who understand both sides of the process from a much previous stage in the biochemistry development process. The interface between the consultations and original concept inventors can be avoided by providing the multidisciplinary basis, which involves, for example, bioscience individuals who comprehend the process of transforming ideas into marketable products and designers immersed in biotech expertise.

But while there are enormous possibilities, the commercialization pitfalls are also growing. The facts are that it is highly hard to develop and convert innovative medical devices, diagnostic tests or ideas of drug delivery into feasible products. The fierce rivalry and the need for quick marketing are complicating this progressively. In addition, not only the real waste of R&D effort, but the loss of prospective revenue can be huge in costs of failure.

Critically, the primary cause of marketing failure often lies in the design of an end product that provides bioscience in such a way as clients want and, in a package, simple to produce. The technology itself is often the final phase of product growth. To address this issue, biotechnology businesses have increasingly recourse to consultancies from industry and product design in order to provide immediate access for manufacturable alternatives to the necessary resources and abilities.

Although this externalization should lead to a workable strategy theoretically, the findings are often unsatisfactory – leading to wonderful ideas being lost again. Whereas the idea of the science’s and evolving technologies with industrial design provides a means to fast bioscience marketing, certain important problems need to be resolved in order to function efficiently. Particularly on both parties there is often a significant absence of comprehension.

For example, while researchers now acknowledge the significance of product design and manufacture, the development process is not yet correctly taken into account until very late. Scientists typically follow the marketing route of product development-often past laboratory testing and growth and up to working chemistry or systems-until the product and industry design team is introduced to make the product productive and marketable.

By this point, however, this operating idea may well include a bad user implementation and significant manufacturing problems. No quantity of innovative design can solve user problems from the final product, and it can prove highly hard and expensive to accomplish the advances required for production.

On the other side, the ideas taken into account are frequently extremely varied and technically sophisticated, making them a product needs an innovative and engagement level that the product development teams often underestimate. The design and choice of products and the addition of chemicals and biological products involve significantly different competences, drawn from science and technological backgrounds.

While the inventors of biochemistry products know it, most developers are in an unrelated CAD and fast prototype field. Special and complicated demands of biological and chemical systems are often not known. The resulting conflict of thoughts and attitudes and the great absence of comprehension at the interface between the distinct skill sets is often sufficient to de-track a marketing project.

The challenge for product design must be addressed from a very distinct view, hence in order to overcome both these obstacles and allow design consultations to more effectively and quickly turn scientific or medical ideas into creative, manufacturing and feasible goods.

The method of growth must first be based on the much previous participation, potentially from the fundamental testing point, by product designers. From this vantage point, and with a much clearer understanding of the concept and the aims of the scientists, the product design team can become much more involved in the overall development process, to the extent that the product engineering and biology can be shaped in tandem-each influencing the other before ideas become fixed. This allows developers to produce efficient and innovative goods on the marketplace.

But in order to work efficiently with researchers, these teams have to work with the technologists and designers who have a stronger knowledge on both sides of the system since much previously in the development phase of biochemistry. The interface between advisors and original concept inventors can also be avoided by having a multi-disciplinary base of abilities that involves individuals in biotechnology, for example, who know the process of transforming ideas into marketable and designers immersed in biotechnology expertise. “Judge, L. R. (2003, November)”.

References

1. Bud, R. (1992). The Zymotechnic Roots of Biotechnology. The British Journal for the History of Science, 25(1), 127-144. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/stable/4027008
2. Wikipedia contributors. (2019, July 11). Zymology. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:11, August 11, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zymology&oldid=905750261
3. Wikipedia contributors. (2019, July 9). Applied science. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:18, August 11, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Applied_science&oldid=905495128
4. Wikipedia contributors. (2019, April 21). History of biotechnology. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:10, August 11, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_biotechnology&oldid=893484594
5. Myshak, H. (2018). DEFINITION OF THE TERM “BIOTECHNOLOGY.” Cogito, 10(4), 142–149. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/2171582711/
6. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2019
7. Judge, L. R. (2003, November). Biotechnology: highlights of the science and law shaping the industry. Santa Clara Computer & High Technology Law Journal, 20(1), 79. Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/apps/doc/A119388282/LT?u=qut&sid=LT&xid=132839f7
8. Kasprzak, L. (2018). Consider a career in biotech. Chemical Engineering Progress, 114(6), 20. Retrieved from https://gateway.library.qut.edu.au/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/docview/2061877817?accountid=13380
9. Biotechnology. (2019). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from https://academic-eb-com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/levels/collegiate/article/biotechnology/79278
10. Wikipedia contributors. (2019, August 9). History of nanotechnology. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:11, August 11, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_nanotechnology&oldid=910004037
11. Wikipedia contributors. (2018, May 7). EcuRed. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:59, September 4, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EcuRed&oldid=840124602
12. Fast company. (2017, Mar 2). Boston, MA: Gruner & Jahr USA Pub. on behalf of Fast Co. Magazine.
13. https://www.fastcompany.com/3067449/a-guide-to-the-134-billion-biodesign-industry
14. Fusing biotechnology and product innovation. (2002). Strategic Direction, 18(5), 25-27. Retrieved from https://gateway.library.qut.edu.au/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/218614970?accountid=13380
15. Gross, B., Erkal, J., Lockwood, S., Chen, C., & Spence, D. (2014). Evaluation of 3D Printing and Its Potential Impact on Biotechnology and the Chemical Sciences. Analytical Chemistry, 86(7), 3240–3253. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac403397r

INTRODUCTION

Agrobacterium is a gram negative soil bacterial of the family Rhizobiaceae. It is know for its disease causing in dicot plant like crown gall tumor and bearded root. There are many species of agrobacterium known but some so them are studied for feature that are manipulated to be used in biotechnology. They are basically used in transfer of genetic information in plant. There are various species for example A tumefaciens , A.rhizogen, A.vitis. The virulent strain of agrobacterium carry Ti plasmid that is tumor inducing as it is having oncogenes along with phytohormone( cytokinin and auxin) and opine synthetic genes in it. Infection in plant is caused from wound in plant as it secrete various phenolic compound(acetosyringone) that are natural attractant for the bacteria. After infection a TDNA is transferred into the plant cell and it get integrated into the plant genome and replicates with the plant genome. As it replicated its gene also get translated that codes for cytokinin and auxin that promotes rapid uncontrolled cell division of cell that form tumor. Along with phytohormone it make the cell to form opine.

OPINE

Opines are the specific compound, the product of condensed amino acid and ketoacid or sugar. Opine is used as nitrogen and carbohydrate source for the agrobacterium. The set of opines that are synthesized that infected plant depends on the specific agrobacterium that have infected the plant.

BIOSYNTHESIS OF OPINE

There are few biosynthetic genes and after infection it is produced in large quantity. Due to low substrate specificity of opine it is released outside the plant cell.

CATABOLISM OF OPINE

Catabolite gene that are responsible for transportation of opine in agrobacterium and its catabolism . this genes are arranged in a from of operon located on the Ti plasmid. There are three set of gene in this operon that is responsible for a) permease b) actual gene for catabolism c) regulatory gene that controls both the permease and the catabolism gene.

Ti PLASMID

The size of Ti plasmid is more than 200kb it carries gene that are promoting pathogenicity and metabolism of operon. Out of 200kb only 23 kb nucleotide are introduced in plant cell. The T DNA is bordered between 25bp direct repeat sequence of nucleotide which define the limit of T DNA. Any DNA piece can be inserted between the direct repeat and this plasmid can be used as vector to transfer the gene of inserted in the host plant cell. Apart from the T DNA there is virulence gene that is vir gene that is 35kb in length which se distinct from the T DNA. There is ori I,e origin of replication for the autonomous replication of plasmid. This plasmid incorporate the gene for synthesis of opine and various phytohormone that are integrated in the plant genome and give constitutive secretion of auxin and cytokinin that promotes the division of plant cell, production of opine as well. Opine is rich source of carbohydrate and nitrogen that is utilize by the agrobacterium.

The wild type of plasmid was used in the early use of Ti plasmid as a vector. But it have a disadvantage that it promotes the unwanted tumor formation in the plant to tackle this problem scientist have started using binary plasmid with border repeat sequence that is used as T DNA as the vir gene are capable of cis and trans acting mechanism to cut the recognized repeat and cleave it.

Vir GENES AND INFECTION

There is a set of genes that is useful to establish the virulence and pathogenicity of agrobacterium. There are 7 Vir gene that are having various functions. They are Vir A,B,C,D,E,F,G and their function is as follows phenolic sensor

1. formation of the putative T DNA transfer complex.
2. binding to overdrive a sequence outside of the right border and necessary for optimal T DNA transfer.
3. endonuclease to cut T DNA at the border sequence to generate single stranded T DNA.
4. DNA binding protein possibly involved in protection of single T DNA intermediate from degradation.
5. transcription regulator.

From this 7 vir gene vir a is the only gene and protein that is constitutively expressed in the agrobacterium and involved in sensing the phenolic compound acetosyringone as well as low ph and low phosphate levels that act as chemo attractant for agrobacterium. Rest of the virulence factor are expressed after the signal transfer by virA. Vir gene Is distinctly positioned from the T DNA and therefore it act as auxiliary factor for the transfer of T DNA and it is not transferred into the plant cell.

INFECTION MECHANISM

Agrobacterium is present in soil as it is its natural niche. Whenever the surrounding plant undergoes any incident that causes wound on the plant it releases certain phenolic compound from the injured tissue such as acetosyringone and mono carbohydrate along with low ph and low level of phosphate. This phenolic compound act as the chemo attractant for the agrobacterium. In agrobacterium there is set of vir genes that are present on the Ti plasmid from this set only vir A is constitutively expressed this histidine sensor kinase that auto phosphorylate the vir G which is inactive prior to the phosphorylation get converted into active from . this active from of virG then actives vir operon that is present in Ti plasmid and which is responsible for the processing of T DNA and transfer of T DNA. The mono carbohydrate released from the wounded tissue act as the enhancer of T DNA transfer.

There are various proteins that play vital role in DNA transfer and protection of this DNA from degradation. Basically chv and vir genes are responsible for processing and transfer of the TDNA

But along with it there are various other protein that play vary important role in the process. Relaxase is the enzyme binds to the oriT and nick the DNA strand destined for transfer. Relaxase remain bind to the 5’ end of T Strand. TraA and VirD2 cleave the DNA at their Catalytic site virD2 binding ang nicking is enhanced with various auxiliary protein such as VirD1 and VirC1, VirC2. Vir B binds to the T STRAND and from the complex of the T DNA transfer strand complex that is propelled out of the cell trough type IV secreting system. The transfer takes place in similar fashion of bacterial conjugation.

VirE2 single stand binding protein (SSB) binds to the T DNA transfer strand complex (T DNA with Vir B). This both the protein have the NLS that is nuclear localization sequence that is required to transfer the T DNA into the nucleus of plant cell. As the T DNA reaches the nucleus and it gets incorporated into the plant genome. There are very few homologous region between the plant genome and the T DNA therefore the incorporation is reported very few time it is most of the time non homologous end joining NHEJ type of incorporation.

As the T DNA gets incorporated into the plant genome it start synthesizing various proteins. In total 13 various type of proteins are synthesized. such as auxin and cytokinin, and opine. Opine is not only used in the bacterial metabolism as a source of carbohydrate and nitrogen but it is used in the transcription of various gene in the bacterial genome as it act as the inducer.

APPLICATION IN BIOTECHNOLOGY

There are 400000 species of flowering plants and out of them only 200 species are selected for domestication. There are very few species that are used for the consumption. The population of world has drastically in past 70 years in 1950 it was 2,556,000,053 (two billion five hundred fifty-six million fifty-three) which in 2020 recorded 7.8 billion. The world total population has increased several fold and to satisfy food requirement of such huge population was big problem to solve this problem many steps were taken to increase the production.

The production was increased by working in each and every dimension of ranging from the scientific way of agriculture to genetically modifying the crop. The genetic manipulation was done by using various techniques like altering the genetic makeup by cross hybridization or by addition of gene, deletion of gene. This alteration are easy to describe on paper but very tough task to do in experiment and the trial and screen the product of interest.

The use of agrobacterium in transferring genetic material in plant. As this is a natural pathogen for many plant that causes the crown gall tumor. The mechanism is studied in detailed by various scientist and manipulated genetic by various genetic engineering methods. The vir gene that was responsible for sensing the phenolic compound to processing the T DNA and transfer it to the plant cell. The course of research it was observed that vir can act on the TDNA which may be present in same plasmid or in another segment that is it can act in cis and trans fashion. This phenomenon is used to use agrobacterium in genetic transfer. As the gene of interest is big and the Ti plasmid is around 200 kb in size it is difficult to add the gene of interest in the same Ti plasmid. Binary plasmid is added in the agrobacterium that have gene of interest and the border repeat sequence.

Transient transformation can also be done in host cells to overexpressed recombinant proteins in plants using agrobacterium mediated transformation. transformation does not stably integrate the DNA into host but is effective in producing recombinant proteins. This methodology is called as agroinfiltration.

Now plants are used for production of various pharmaceutical and medicine. There are many proteins that are been synthesized in the plant as compared to the traditional mechanism such as microbes. Various proteins are synthesized in the plant in large concentration and agrobacterium is used in transferring the gene.

The productivity of soil decrease by fold due to use of chemical fertilizers and to protect the productivity of soil the natural fertilizer are promoted. The disadvantage of using nature fertilizer is the production is low therefore various genes are observed to increase the inorganic and organic compound accumulation in plant in nature such gene are transferred in the plant of interest to form novel variety of plants.

There is use of weedicide and pesticide that is applied on plant. Most of the time it Is done by spraying and it is observed that this method causes the pollution in ground water. As 90% of herbicide weedicide or pesticide applied is sprayed is sprayed in air then accumulate on land and when rain comes it seeps with water and pollute the ground water as well. To tackle this problem the gene that cause the specific death of pest or weed is observed in nature there are tested for there ill effect on the human and animal to check the specificity and they are incorporated in plant that specifically kills the pest that attack on the crop. There is another disadvantage of the chemical pesticide it is not specific in nature therefore it kills the insect that are not pest for the plant. Therefore end up killing various insect that are natural pollinator for the crop and useful in pollination. Bt cotton is a crop that is developed using the agrobacterium mediated transfer of gene cry that is lethal for bollworms.

Therefore agrobacterium mediated gene transfer is used in biotechnology to develop various novel variety of plants that are used as crops. For synthesis of protein that are pharmaceutical, provides nutrition and provide pest resistance to growing crop. The agrobacterium mediated gene transfer is the genetic method use in production of novel plant and crop species that can increase the production of food as well.

Introduction

An analytical technique is a method used to determine a chemical compound or chemical element concentration. There is a wide range of analytical techniques which can be used, ranging from simple weighing and titrations to highly advanced procedures utilizing highly specialized instrumentation.

According to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), chromatography can be defined as: ‘A physical separation method in which the components to be separated are distributed between two phases, one of which is stationary (stationary) while the other (mobile) is moving in a definite direction’

Electrokinetic chromatography (EKC) is a family of electrophoresis techniques named after electrokinetic phenomena, which include electroosmosis, electrophoresis, and chromatography.

Micellar Electrokinetic Chromatography (MEKC) was developed as a mode of Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) particularly for neutral/non-charged molecules. It was first developed in 1982 (published 1984) by Terabe et al. At that time, capillary GC offered less than 100000 theoretical plates, HPLC only offered approximately 5000.

Micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) is an EKC method which utilizes surfactants (micelles) to fit the buffer solution. Surfactants are hydrophobic and hydrophilic structures. Surfactant reduces surface tension and form micelles at concentrations above critical micelle concentration. Most common surfactant in MEKC is SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate)

Micelle has polar ‘face’ groups that can be cationic, anionic, neutral, or zwitterionic, with hydrocarbon tails that are nonpolar. Micellular formation or ‘micellisation’ is a direct result of the ‘hydrophobic effect.’ The hydrocarbon tails, the non-polar tails, are then pointed to the middle of the aggregated molecules, whereas the polar head groups, hydrophilic, is pointed outwards Micellar solutions can solubilize hydrophobic substances that would otherwise be insoluble in liquid. Each surfactant has a characteristic Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC) and aggregation number, i.e., the number of surfactant molecules constituting a micelle (typically within the 50-100 range).

Micellar formulations were used in a number of separation and spectroscopic techniquesThe use of micellar solutions for reverse-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC) as mobile phases was pioneered by Armstrong and Henry in 1980. MEKC is also often referred to as MECC (micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography), as the separations using a capillary tube are most frequently performed. There are other types of EKC such as Cyclodextrin EKC (CDEKC), ion exchange EKC (IXEKC), and microemulsion EKC (MEEKC).

Theoretical Concept

Separation is the process of incorporating analytes onto/into the micelle based on the micellar solubilisation. Selectivity (α) can be easily manipulated by changing the type(s) of surfactant(s) used. For hydrophobic analytes, organic solvents can by added to the solution for better partitioning into the aqueous phase. Highly hydrophobic analytes are difficult to separate.

When an anionic surfactant such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) is used, the micelle migrates to the positive electrode through electrophoresis. Due to the negative charge on the surface of fused silica, the electroosmotic stream transfers the bulk solution to the negative electrode. Generally, the electroosmotic flow (EOF) is greater than the micelle’s electrophoretic migration under neutrality. The electroosmotic flow (EOF) is usually stronger than the micelle’s electrophoretic migration under neutral or alkaline conditions and thus the anionic micelle often moves at a delayed velocity towards the negative electrode.

In 17 minutes, eight electrically neutral compounds were resolved successfully. The size of the capacity factor is included in the figure to demonstrate the relationship between the time of migration and the capacity factor. The capacity factor of infinity means the analyte has the same time of migration as the micelle. Theoretical plate numbers calculated from the peak widths range from 200,000 to 250,000 which is typical for MEKC separations.

Capacity factor, sometimes called retention factor, is used to evaluate the relative hydrophobicity of the analyte. The term capacity factor is written in k ‘ and is the ratio of moles analyte in the micelle phase-to-moles of analyte in the aqueous component of running buffer.

Instrumentation and Methodology

The separation is accomplished by micelles formation. During migration, micelle interact with analyte as chromatographic manner and separation is brought about.

The micellar solution is prepared by dissolving a surfactant at a concentration higher than its CMC into a buffer solution. To keep the pH constant, the buffer solution is required. Usually, concentrations of 30 to 100 mM are used for the components of the surfactant and buffer. To remove particulates, the separation solution has to be filtered through a membrane filter. A disposable, cartridge-type membrane filter can be used with a syringe as the solution needed for a MEKC run is typically less than 10 m. The direction of the electroosmotic flow is reversed when a cationic surfactant (e.g. CTAB) is used at a sufficiently high concentration. In this case it is important to reverse the polarity of the power supply.

Since the micellar solution has a relatively high conductivity, prevention of excessive Joule heating is preferred by a capillary with a small diameter. The capillary length is typically not very significant, but at the expense of time a longer one can handle a larger amount of sample solution. As relatively large i.d. capillaries is used for increased sample capacity, effective capillary cooling (such as the P / ACETM liquid cooling system) is essential. Numerous ionic surfactants are commercially available. The surfactants suitable for MEKC should meet the following criteria:

1. The surfactants must have enough solubility in the buffer solution to form micelles.
2. The micellar solution must be homogeneous and UV transparent.
3. The micellar solution must have a low viscosity

To avoid excessive current, the applied voltage must be held to a point that is not too high. Controlling the capillary temperature is also desirable because the migration time in MEKC is even more temperature-sensitive than in CZE.

Application in Biotechnology

Medical Analysis

This is applied for the determination and quantification of Paclitaxel, morphine, and codeine in urine sample of patients with different cancer types (breast, head and neck, and gastric) It separates both neutral and ionic compounds at once, provides quick sample preparation such as centrifugation and filtration, and direct injection method with biological samples

Environmental Analysis

It is applied for the determination of anti-inflammatory drugs in river water. Some sewage treatment plants are unable to eliminate hydrophilic and stable compounds entirely, resulting in the compounds remaining in water bodies. MEKC is one form in which these anti-inflammatory drugs can be detected in water. Since MEKC at low concentrations is not very sensitive, pre-concentration procedures are required before the separation can take place. The sample stacking and sweeping are two main methods for pre-concentration.

Pharmaceutical Analysis

The MEKC has the ability to separate complex mixtures (natural products, crude drugs) with high resolution. The pharmaceutical industry uses micellar electrokinetic chromatography to isolate enantiomers, to distinguish amino acids and closely related peptides, to separate very complex mixtures, to assess drugs in biological samples and to separate electrically neutral products.

Food analysis

Procyanidins and their monomers are compounds found in several species of plants and are frequently found in fruit peels and legume seed coat. Several procyanidins displayed anti-HIV, anti-ulcer and anti-allergy activity, which attracted a great deal of attention to this molecular group. Aside from other instrumentations such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, MEKC has proved to be the superior method of analyzing procyanidins. In order to concentrate the sample or make it optically transparent, spectroscopic methods require sample pre-treatments, and HPLC takes more than thirty minutes. In less than five minutes MEKC was able to separate seven compounds.

Separation of vitamins and antibiotics

MEKC method has seen higher selectivity with MEKC method than CZE. Shorter analysis time is required with MEKC than CZE. Separation of the enantiomer can be achieved when the mobile phase uses a chiral surfactant. Drug standards require 0.1% of impurities to be identified, and after using a preconcentration procedure such as sample stacking, this can be done using MEKC.

Conclusion

Micellar Electrokinetic Chromatography (MEKC) is a flexibleseparation technique. It is an effective separation of neutral molecules with usage of inexpensive equipment. Selectivity easily manipulated through various combinations of surfactants and organic solvents. However, finding the right combination can be difficult but this method could be more widely used if better detector interfaces are developed.

This analytical technique or instrumentation is beneficial due to its limited elution time which means of relatively short separation time. Moreover, it is useful for biological samples because it can separates ionic and neutral compounds at high efficiencies. It is advantageous due to its high separation power and it only requires a few nanoliters of sample. As it can separate small molecules, it remains cheaper than HPLC. Thus, it can separate chiral compounds.

Nevertheless, limited elution time limits peak capacity of technique. It is generally limited to compounds which are reasonably soluble in the mobile phase. If it has low concentrations, it will cause low sensitivity.

References

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4. 3. Foley, J.P., Ahuja, E.S., ‘Electrokinetic chromatography’, Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications of Capillary Electrophoresis, S.M. Lunte and D.M. Radzik, (eds.), Pergamon Press, Tarrytown, 1996.
5. 4. Khaledi, M.G., ‘Micellar Electrokinetic Capillary Chromatography’, Handbook of Capillary Electrophoresis, J.P. Landers, (eds.), CRC Press, Inc., Boca Ratan, 1994.
6. Cifuentes, A.; Bartolomé, B.; Gómez-Cordovés, C. Fast determination of procyanidins and other phenolic compounds in food samples by micellar electrokinetic chromatography using acidic buffers. Electrophoresis 2001, 22: 1561-1567. https://doi.org/10.1002/1522-2683(200105)22:83.0.CO;2-P
7. Kang, Y.; Li, D. Electrokinetic Motion of Particles and Cells in Microchannels. Microfluid Nanofluid 2009, 6: 431-460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10404-009-0408-7.
8. Maijó, I.; Borrull, F.; Aguilar, C.; Calull, M. Determination of Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in River Water by Sweeping-Micellar Electrokinetic Capillary Chromatography. Journal of Liquid Chromatography and Related Technologies 2012, 35: 2134-2147. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826076.2011.629386.
9. Nishi, H. Pharmaceutical applications of micelles in chromatography and electrophoresis. Journal of Chromatography A 1997, 780(2): 243-264. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(97)00347-6.
10. Tsai, I.C.; Su, C.; Hu, C.C.; Chiu, T. Simultaneous determination of whitening agents and parabens in cosmetic products by capillary electrophoresis with on-line sweeping enhancement. Analytical Methods 2014, 6(19). https://doi.org/10.1039/C4AY00985A.

It is without a doubt that biotechnology has deep roots within agriculture that go back 1000s of years. The carrots we eat today weren’t always orange nor were they nearly as soft as we know them to be, the characteristics we recognize today were the result of selective breeding. Agricultural biotechnology put simply is the use of living organisms and biological processes as tools to solve problems in agriculture. Selective breeding is just one of these tools and in the modern era biotechnology has grown to include genetic engineering which is a highly controversial subject. There are people that may think agricultural biotechnology has gone too far with genetically modified organisms (GMOs) because of decreased biodiversity, intellectual property abuse and the long term uncertainty of the impact on the environment, however, I believe it is more important that GMOs can increase productivity, help the environment and increase nutritional content.

In a world with approximately 7.7 billion people that is likely to reach 10.9 billion by the end of the century (United Nations, 2019), productivity deserves special consideration. Arable land is limited and thus being able to produce enough food to feed 3.2 billion more people comes down to being able to produce more crops per unit of land as well as expanding the types of land that can be used to grow produce. For example, with the help of biotechnology, we have increased the productivity of wheat from 0.5 to 6 metric tonnes per hectare (Cheetham, 2019). Also, it is not a surprise that in Brazil they are cutting down large parts of the Amazon rainforest for cattle production despite the costs. Making produce capable of growing in less fertile land and driving down costs is necessary to meet the needs of the society of the future.

Agriculture isn’t exactly the most environmentally friendly practice, with damaging effects ranging from local ecosystems to the entire planet. Livestock currently generates more greenhouse gas emissions than transportation when you convert methane to its equivalent in CO2, approximately 1/10th of global emissions (FAO, 2006). To tackle this issue, scientists at Genome Canada are actively working on a project that involves selecting cows for the dairy industry with the genes required to produce less methane gas and require less feed (GenomeCanada, n.d.). When it comes to local ecosystems, pesticides and herbicides manage to contaminate ecosystems. One solution to this has been the advent of Bt Crops, these crops are genetically modified to produce the same toxin as Bacillus Thuringiensis, this toxin reduces the need for harmful pesticides that could end up as runoff or contaminate groundwater. With the help biotechnology, agriculture can be optimized to be less harmful to the environment.

There are many uses for agricultural biotechnology; with the use of genetic engineering, it is possible to increase the nutritional content of crops and livestock. This is largely important because “2 billion people—almost 25% of global population—is micronutrient deficient” (Dubock, 2019). An example of improving nutrition through genetic engineering is the golden rice which gives the crop sufficient amounts of vitamin A, by inserting the beta carotene gene to rice DNA. In communities that heavily depend on rice as part of their diet, that also lack easy access to vitamin A, golden rice can improve the lives of the entire community. The benefits of agricultural biotechnology extend beyond just making vitamin A accessible and is a strong tool for improving the health of society.

There is a fear that biotechnology in agriculture decreases biodiversity. 1 famous example happens to be the banana, the bananas currently used for human consumption is the cavendish, each cavendish is genetically identical. The cavendish was supposed to be resistant to the Panama disease that wiped out the Gros Michel, that was until the fungi adapted and with no genetic diversity, every single cavendish plant is vulnerable to the disease. While the fear is valid it is not the end for the cavendish, Scientists are working to genetically alter the cavendish to be more resistant and in the worst-case scenario, there are still different varieties of bananas that can be grown to replace the cavendish. A decrease in biodiversity may be risky but doesn’t leave you without backup plans.

Another fear is that corporations creating, and patenting new breeds of crops based on their genes will be harmful to the economy. The benefits of GMO crops and livestock can make non-GMO crops and livestock unprofitable giving the corporations the ability to abuse intellectual property laws to gain monopoly or oligopoly power enabling them to exhibit rent-seeking behaviour to steal from the economy. Behind 53% of the global seed market is just 3 companies Monsanto, Dupont and Syngenta (ETC Group, 2013). This allows these companies to set absurdly high prices for their seed and sue farmers using the seeds grown from these crops without paying royalties or even sue if their crops were cross-pollinated by neighbouring farm’s crops. The power companies can gain without proper regulation through GMO crops can hurt society as a whole.

The last point to be made is that the long-term effects of much agricultural biotechnology are relatively unknown. In any given ecosystem there are many moving parts. Within an organism itself many traits they express depend on a myriad of genes, and with countless genes in an organism, it would be easy to miss an unintended side effect. But beyond that, interactions with the ecosystem becomes much more complex. After the introduction of Roundup (glyphosate) resistant crops “The use of insecticides (which kill bugs) has declined since these crops were introduced in the mid-1990s, but the use of herbicides (which kill weeds) has soared.” (Consumer Reports, 2015). If it is so easy to not determine that weeds would become resistant to the glyphosate then perhaps there are other negative effects out there waiting to be uncovered.

If we wish to solve the problems of the future, we should embrace agricultural biotechnology. The world of tomorrow has high demands; with an increasing population, we need to increase productivity to keep up, damage to the environment including climate change must be tackled, issues with malnutrition around the world need solutions; agricultural biotechnology holds many of the solutions. Even though agricultural biotechnology can; decrease biodiversity, is susceptible to intellectual property issues, and have sometimes unpredictable long-term effects; these issues and the risks they bring can be mitigated with careful research, planning and regulation. Agricultural biotechnology has contributed greatly to societal progress so far and can continue to push the envelope with the help of genetic engineering if we let it.

Bibliography

1. Cheetham, J. (2019). Agricultural biotechnology. [PowerPoint] Retrieved from https://culearn.carleton.ca/moodle/pluginfile.php/3181890/mod_resource/content/5/BIOL1010%20Fall%202018%20Lecture%2005%20Agriculture%2006%20Final.pdf
2. Consumer Reports. (2015, February 26). GMO foods: What you need to know – Consumer Reports. Retrieved from Consumer Reports: https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2015/02/gmo-foods-what-you-need-to-know/index.htm
3. Dubock, A. (2019). Golden Rice: To Combat Vitamin A Deficiency for Public Health. 10.5772/intechopen.84445.
4. ETC Group. (2013, September). Putting the Cartel before the Horse …and Farm, Seeds, Soil, Peasants, etc. Retrieved from ETC Group: http://www.etcgroup.org/sites/www.etcgroup.org/files/CartelBeforeHorse11Sep2013.pdf
5. FAO. (2006, November 29). Livestock a Major Threat to the Environment. Retrieved from FAO Site: http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html
6. GenomeCanada. (n.d.). Increasing feed efficiency and reducing methane emissions through genomics. Retrieved from GenomeCanada: https://www.genomecanada.ca/en/increasing-feed-efficiency-and-reducing-methane-emissions-through-genomics-new-promising-goal
7. United Nations. (2019). World Population Prospects – Population division – United Nations. Retrieved from United Nations: https://population.un.org/wpp/Graphs/Probabilistic/POP/TOT/900

Abstract

Biotechnology of Extremophiles such as Thermus Aquaticus and Deinoccous radiodurans have a plethora of ways to improve human life. This paper reviews the use of said extremophilic enzymes, bacteria and some methodology of the current biotechnology that can take advantage of the extremophiles.

Introduction

Biotechnology is involved with our everyday lives, ranging from crops production, PCR and more. There’s a huge economic incentive to invest in researching extremophiles to be used in said applications. The paper looks at components of Thermus aquaticus and Deinococcus radiodurans and how these microbial enzymes and properties can be used for industry; improving human lives. The enzymes Examined from Thermus Aquaticus are 4-a-glucano-transferase, Taq polymerase, and Klentaq (modified Taq polymerase). For Deinococcus radiodurans its protective capabilities against radiation and the properties of manganese 2+ are also examined.

Thermus aquaticus

Thermus aquaticus has an enzyme called 4-a-glucano-transferase (TAαGT) which can catalyse the breakdown of glycogen. This can be used in the sweet potato which is an important crop in Asian countries as it contributes significantly to the economy. Increasing the yield of Cycloamylose will be a huge benefit to industrial producers. Using the enzyme can result in a yield of 48.56% showing the highest Cycloamlyose yield reported from starch. This is done by adding the enzyme to E.coli and sequentially adding Isoamylase to the sweet potato from Pseudomonas sp. This is then debranched using TAαGT. This leads to the increase in yield. (Chu Et Al, 2016). Increasing yield means more money for the producers and thus more of an incentive in further research for this biotechnology. Research is also needed to determine if cost outweighs investment into using this enzyme in the sweet potato.

The enzyme can also be improved by altering it using Bacillus stearothermophilus ET1 CGTase E and DE starch binding domains. These were added to the C-section of TAαGT forming TAαGT-E and TAαGT-DE. this is done to enhance starch utilising activity. The only change is that TAαGT-DE is more molar specific to towards amylose and is still able to produce modified amylopectin structure Cycloamylose. (Park, Et Al 2007).

To alter TAaGT enzyme and clone it, the gene was digested and separated on agarose gel 0.8%. Oligonucleotides primers were used based upon T. aquaticus 33923 and was PCR accordingly using a clone as the template. The products were then digested using Ndel and HindIII and inserted into E.coli. To build the modified genes the stop codon needs to be removed in order to be a linker site for the starch binding domains. The gene was further amplified using PCR. The E and DE domain were isolated using forward primers then digested and ligated into the enzyme producing the chimera enzyme. (Park, Et Al 2007).This method in cloning and modifying this enzyme will be beneficial in future research as the biotechnology may be further improved resulting in improved TAaGT enzymes which can be used to increase Cycloamylose production.

Thermus aquaticus is also known for its Taq polymerase which is widely used for PCR, however issues such as microbial DNA from outside sources can contaminate and create a limit to the use of PCR especially during preparation. This can be a huge problem in regard to forensics because contaminates needs to be kept at a minimum due to the lack of DNA present. There is no universally accepted method of preventing contamination of PCR. A reasonable hypothesis to prevent contamination would be during dilution, contaminating DNA will decrease linearly while amplification of target DNA using Tac polymerase will geometrically still increase until target DNA become equal with Taq polymerase. Doing this increases the reliability of qPCR assays for low level bacteria contamination. (Spangler, R., Goddard, N.L., & Thaler, D.S.2009) (Spangler, R., Goddard, N.L., & Thaler, D.S.2009)

Notable points arise with the graph, one being with every dilution background DNA contamination decrease while geometric efficiency stays constant until target DNA comes to equilibrium with Taq Polymerase. (Spangler, R., Goddard, N.L., & Thaler, D.S.2009). if more DNA is needed then diluting would be a problem because the more dilute the solution less Taq polymerase would be present therefore the geometric limit is less. Increase of DNA will still occur but would remain constant once the limit is reached and product inhibition may pose a problem, further research is needed for better ways in preventing contamination from posing an issue and if product inhibition affects diluted solutions to be used in PCR.

Taq polymerase can also be inhibited when blood and soil samples are used. This can create false positive for forensics tests. This may also pose a significantly problem if target DNA is minute and may be damaged due to contamination. The enzyme can be altered by an N-terminal deletion thus changing the enzyme to Klentaq. Barnes,1992 states Klentaq is a better version of the enzyme with improved heat tolerance and stability.

An experiment made by Kermechiev Et Al, 2009 which uses several samples of soil and blood components to test for inhibition against Klentaq10, Taw22 and Wild type Taq. The results are below.

Inhibition in general was seen across all enzymes. Lactoferrin increased activity of all enzymes, the reason for this is unknown. Plasma, Serum IgG and haemoglobin increased activity slightly when used in low concentrations. (Kermechiev Et Al, 2009)

However Wild type Taq was significantly inhibited by whole blood extract and soil extract. This enzyme should not be used when amplifying DNA from soil and blood when there are better alternatives such as Klentaq. Using Klentaq alongside a diluted solution of target DNA may increase overall efficiency and decrease background contamination however, more research is needed to test If there’s a significant difference in reliability between Klentaq and dilution of target DNA compared to Taq polymerase and a non-diluted solution. A recommendation would be conducting independent T-tests and comparing the mean amount of background contamination, the speed in which the geometric limit is reached how diluted the solution should be.

Deinococcus radiodurans

Deinococcus radiodurans is a polyextremophile as it can survive many extreme environments such as: radiation and cold. Daly Et Al, 2010 shows that Deinococcus radiodurans cell extract prevent protein oxidation from high levels of ionizing radiation. It is extremely important to consider protein protection because they are the first targets of oxidation from radiation, so being able to prevent or treat protein oxidation can be a first step in alleviating or preventing damage. (Gebicki & Du, 2004).

Radiation protection is done by Applying ex Vivo Deinococcus radiodurans ultrafiltrate on cells. Daly Et All, 2010 ultra-centrifuged and ultra-filtrated, D. Radiodurans (DR), radiation sensitive Pseudomonas putida (PP) , E. col (EC) and Thermus thermophilus (TT). When these ultrafiltrates was mixed with E. coli proteins and bombarded with radiation. significant protein damaged was present which can be detected by carbonyl using a western blot analysis; however, DR ultrafiltrate was extremely protective and less carbonyl was detected.

(Daly, M.J. 2012).The dose of radiation which is needed to kill 90% of an organism and how many double stranded breaks occur D.radiodurans and Bdelloid rofftier have shown a higher number of DSBs but still a higher survival with more radiation, this could mean radiation tolerant organism have enhanced DNA repair. Further research is needed on the mechanism of D.radiodurans DNA repair so it can be used for bioremediation at nuclear sites.

D. Radiodurans Also have high amounts of manganese which are roughly 15-150 times greater than radiation sensitive bacteria. (Daly Et All, 2004). Due to the high amount of manganese present in DR, Daly Et All, 2010 tested manganese protection with Bamhl (endonucleases) and states that the presence of manganese is paramount due to Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Ni2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+ having no protective effect when combined with other molecules. When concentrations of Mn2+ was lowered radiation protection was lost. Applications of this can include altering bacteria and adding manganese to E.coli to be used in bioremediation.

The radiation protective capabilities can be used to protect mice from radiation in comparison to untreated mice. They show that Mn2+- decapeptide complexes (MDP) based on DR protected female mice from radiation syndrome comparatively to non-treated mice. (Gupta Et All, 2016). Initially they tested the toxicity of MDP in vivo to mice and this showed MDP is non-toxic. This was administrated at a dose of 300mg Dp1/kg in a volume of 200uL in 2 doses orally or injected once. This is done daily. The experiment was conducted for 30 days and all mice were euthanized, and blood samples were collected. In terms of protection, MDP was administrated before and after radiation at 300mg DP1/kg caused 100% survival

Further research is needed especially with higher mammalians to determine if side effects are present and if successful. Experimentation can be conducted for humans who work at radiation sites so there would minimal ethical issues because protection from the radiation would already be in place for the worker and MDP will aid in the protection.

Conclusion

Biotechnology of the extremophiles can be extremely advantages, in both commercial and medical settings. Thermus Aquaticus have two enzymes TAqGT and Taq polymerase which we can take advantage of. TAaGT is especially useful for the starch industry and can potentially increase profits due to increase in yield of Cycloamylose. This enzyme can also be modified and potentially improved using Bacillus stearothermophilus starch binding domain ET1 CGtase DE and E, then cloned using PCR. These modifications allow the enzyme to be more molar specific to amylose and be still able to form Cycloamylose. Having the ability to clone this enzyme can allow more modifications to occur and potentially better improvements to happen further increasing yield to the sweet potato and maybe other crops. (Chu Et Al, 2016), (Park, Et Al 2007).

Biotechnology can also take advantage of existing enzymes such as Taq polymerase. Its function is to clone DNA (Via PCR) but this can be further improved with a N-Terminal deletion turning the enzyme to Klentaq. Klentaq is said to be more stable and heat tolerant than Taq polymerase. PCR is done geometrically, and contamination could affect PCR, this can be a huge issue if limited DNA is present as this could affect cloning of said DNA. Diluting the solution in which DNA is present can linearly decrease contamination while keeping the increase of DNA geometrically consistent however the geometric limit is smaller due to less enzyme being present. This is only an issue if a lot of DNA is needed. An independent student t test is needed to test contamination and reliability of both Klentaq and Taq polymerase with and without dilution of the DNA in the solution. (Spangler, R., Goddard, N.L., & Thaler, D.S.2009), (Barnes,1992), (Kermechiev Et Al, 2009).

Deinoccous radiodurans contain a high amount of manganese 2+ and its ultrafiltrate can be used to protect proteins from radiation damage. In the above experiment the ultrafiltrate protected restriction endonucleases for 66 days from radiation and protected E.coli proteins without forming a significant amount of carbonyl. Deinoccous radiodurans may also have enhanced DNA repair capabilities than other organism but more research is needed. (Daly Et Al, 2010), (Gebicki & Du, 2004). (Daly, M.J. 2012), (Daly Et All, 2004).

MDP which is manganese 2+ decapeptide based upon the bacteria manganese properties allows the researchers to protect mice from radiation with a 100% survival rate with radiation protected mice. MDP is also non-toxic to the mice. More research is needed with higher mammalian so human application can be considered and potentially experimented on. (Gupta Et All, 2016).

Introduction

The human body is filled with hundreds and thousands of small DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) strands which together as a complete strand create what’s called a Genome. DNA is a chemical compound which makes up the genetic instructions that are needed by all living things. DNA is made up of two intertwining, paired stands that create a double helix shape. Each of these strands is made up of four chemical units called nucleotide bases. These are adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine or A, T, G and C bases. The Human Genome project was an international collaborative research program, there gaol was the understanding and mapping out of all genes of human beings, or our “Gnome.”

Background Biology

Your Genome is basically like the operating manual of a car except for your body. It is the thing that helped you go from a single cell in the womb to the human that you are today. It is the thing that guides your growth, helps your organs function, repairs itself when it has been damaged and is unique to you. A gene is small segment of DNA, they provide your cells with the specific instructions for making proteins, which then go on to carry out particular functions in your body. All humans have the same genes in the roughly the same order, and more than 99.9% of your genetic sequence is pretty much the same as any other human. However, we do contain at least 1 – 3 pairs that differ between each person. This is however a big enough difference to change the shape and function of proteins, how many are made where they’re made and what their purpose is. They affect eye-colour, hair and skin, but can also affect your risk of developing certain diseases. The structure of DNA was discovered by Crick and Watson in the 1950s and James Watson then when onto to start the Human Genome project which is how we were able to obtain all this information that we have today.

Development

Many technological advances were made during the Human Genome Project which allowed the project to move forward. These things include: Sanger DNA sequencing and its automation. This is a method where DNA that need sequencing is combined into a tube with some primer, DNA polymerase and DNA nucleotides. That mixture is heated so the DNA template is denatured and then cooled so that the primer can bind to the single strand template. Other advances include DNA-based genetic markers, large-insert cloning systems and the polymerase chain reaction. Throughout the project these technologies where scaled up and then through “evolutionary” [image: ]advances, such as atomization and minimization the technology became more efficient. Other technologies including capillary based sequencing and methods that are used for genotyping single nucleotide polymorphisms, were also introduced. This helped lead to further improvements in the capacity for genetic analyse. Even newer approaches have been introduced such as nontechnology and microfluidics, that have shown great promise, however further advances are still needed.

Benefits to Society

Many benefits came out of the Human Genome Project, that has allowed the us humans a greater understanding into what makes us individuals. For one it has the ability to help diagnosis and prevent of human diseases. As we start to understand the human body more and more, we can begin to understand how to mage different conditions and even what cures are needed. We could even cure genetic conditions, due to the work done by the Human Genome Project. It has also allowed to us to modify medication for more effective treatment. This is compared to the old treatment method which was a one-size-fits-all treatment and if it didn’t work for you than that’s just tough luck. Whereas now we can modify treatment so that it works for you as an individual. We now also have improved criminal justice proceedings. This is because out DNA is unique to us, and during the Human Genome Project they developed something call DNA fingerprinting. This is where DNA samples of an individual are compared with DNA samples that have been collected. This allows to more accurately accuse criminals of offenses. It has also helped boost the economy of America, as during it’s time in operation it created jobs for more than 4 million people. This created almost 1 trillion dollars in economic stimulus. It also created new positions and jobs due to it work on genetics. It has also lowered the price of sequencing a genome from about $100 million in 2001 to roughly $1000 in 2019.

Limitations and Harms to Society

As much as the Human Genome Project has had some amazing benefits to society there is no denying that in the wrong hands it could lead to some terrible things. The technology created could cause a loss in the diversity between us as humans. What makes us humans so strong as a race is our diversity. Even though diversity can be bad with things such as genetic mutations and defects. It’s what makes us human, and with the way to make the perfect human, it would strengthen us is so many ways, but it would take away what makes us what we are, and we wouldn’t be individuals any more. We would start forgetting about normal reproduction and start worrying about how to make the perfect human in the lab causing entire populations to be exactly the same. It could also be used to create new weapons that are able to target certain genetic populations in different [image: ]civilizations. This would reduce the amount of structural damage caused by war, making it attractive to other nations looking for more global recourses. It might also become the foundation for genetic racism where we move away from judging people based on their race, skin colour, gender preference and sexual preference. Instead we would move towards whether you have better genetics then someone else which would push the gap between developed and developing civilizations further apart because the developed one will have access to the technology first.

Conclusion

In Conclusion, it can now be seen how much of a success the Human Genome Project really was. The goals were reached ahead of schedule and under budget and the information gathered has pushed genetic research further than ever. The first complete map of a human genome was created and was made available to the public eye. Multiple new and improved technologies were created during the project to help push it forward which have helped us learn more about genetics. It has created multiple benefits for society after being complete and even though it may have a few harms that could be created, as long as we keep this technology in the hands of the right people, we can be sure that it will be able to make everyone’s lives so much better.

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