Category: Bioengineering

Introduction:

There are many advantages and disadvantages when it comes to genetically engineering a baby. There are also reasons why people would want to genetically engineer a baby. In the movie ‘My Sister’s Keeper’, a couple used genetic engineering to prevent their daughter from being taken away by cancer. Although, they got these body parts from the baby they made and the problem with that is if they continue taking body parts from her, then she will soon die while the daughter with cancer lives longer than her. In this essay, I will talk about what is genetic engineering and its process of it, what bioethics is, and the positives and negatives of bioengineering.

What is Genetic Engineering?

Genetic engineering is the genetic modification or sterilization of the genetic makeup of an Associate in a Nursing organism. This has been used for thousands of years by bound breeds of animals and plants. With gene-splicing, you’ll be able to amend a combination of genes, delete an entire region of deoxyribonucleic acid or introduce an additional copy of a factor. It is accustomed to enhance or amend the characteristics of an Associate in Nursing organism. Genetic engineering is used on any organism starting from a plague to a sheep. Genetic engineering is accustomed turn out plants that have the next nutritionary worse than alternative plants or will handle being exposed to herbicides.

The follow of medical specialty engineering has a long history. One of the earliest examples may be a wood and animal skin prosthetic toe found on a 3,000-year-old Egyptian mummy. Before that, even straightforward crutches and walking sticks were sort of designed helpful devices, and the person to fashion a splint for a broken bone might be thought of as own been an associate degree, or early medical specialty engineer.

The process of genetic engineering:

1. A small piece of circular DNA called a plasmid is taken out of the bacteria or yeast cell.
2. A small section of the plasmid is then cut out by restriction enzymes called ‘molecular scissors’.
3. The gene for human insulin is then filled into a gap in the plasmid. This plasmid is now genetically modified.
4. The newly modified plasmid is introduced into the new bacteria/yeast cell.
5. The cell then splits rapidly so it can start making insulin.
6. To create large amounts of the cell, the modified bacteria/yeast are grown in large fermentation vessels that contain all the nutrients they require. The more the cell splits, the more insulin is created.
7. When fermentation is completed, the mixture is filtered to release the insulin.
8. The insulin is then purified and packaged into bottles and insulin pens for distribution to patients with diabetes.

What is Bioethics?

Bioethics questions the context behind modern medicine and healthcare. They draw on a doctrine excess of traditions, each profane and spiritual, to create civil discourse on contentious problems with ethical distinction on which the general public agrees. Bioethicists foster general knowledge and comprehension each of ethical philosophy and scientific advances intending. They note, however, medical technology will modify the approach we tend to expertise that means of health, health problem,s and ultimately, the approach we have a tendency to live and die.

Bioethics is multidisciplinary. It blends philosophy, theology, history, and law with medication, nursing, health policy, and the medical humanities. Insights from varied disciplines are dropped at the bare minimum on the advanced interaction of human life, science, and technology. Though its queries are as precious as mankind, the origins of moral philosophy as a field are newer and tough to capture during a single read.

To say that ethics should be construed within the slender approach isn’t to deny the importance of the sciences, social sciences, and law to ethics. These disciplines are clearly indispensable to sensible ethics. One cannot reach an enlightened conclusion regarding what ought to be drained in some sensible case if one doesn’t have all the relevant data regarding the approach things are. Indeed, there are even circumstances wherever ethical disagreement is entirely eliminated once the relevant facts are established (which isn’t to mention that no space is then left for moral questioning). Disciplines aside from philosophy play a vital role. However, a retardant arises once scientists, social scientists, and lawyers slip from doing what they’re trained to try to go into doing philosophy. Though some do an affordable job with the latter, terribly several don’t.

Positives and Negatives of Genetic Engineering (Regarding Bioethics):

Positives:

Food shortage could be a large downside within the world, particularly with the growing population and in overpopulated areas. We tend to destroy natural habitats to form, approach farmland, and overgrazing is inflicting current pastures to become dry and untenanted. The solution to the current downside is available in the shape of biotechnology. If they will alter the composition of vegetables and animals, then we will produce new foods that may have a lot of biological process price than nature creates on its own. We would even be able to advance to a degree where foods provide North American nations with medicines we want to fight widespread viruses and diseases. Food is one of the foremost promising areas when considering the prospect of biotechnology.

A lot of diseases depend on genetic predisposition. Some individuals have a higher chance of catching cancer, Alzheimer’s, and alternative diseases than their neighbors. With bioengineering, these problems will get eliminated once and for all. There will probably still be some environmental issues that may cause these diseases, however, with applied science, we can become immune to these genetic abnormalities. Case history won’t mean something once it involves things like cancer, and that will begin eliminating diseases that have supported genetic science.

Negatives:

There are a lot of moral issues with biotechnology. People who are very religious can see biotechnology as blasphemy, for example; We’d be “playing God,” in an exceeding sense. Anyone in the United Nations agency believes in creation is against biotechnology, particularly once it’s performed on human kids. People who aren’t religious won’t love biotechnology either. Genetically designed food would possibly work, however changing the genes of individuals can increase the overspill drawback we’re presently experiencing.

One of the biggest obstacles in gene-splicing is that the chance of errors or genetic defects, particularly once performed on humans. Scientists have a general understanding of what creates a functioning human, however, they don’t have all the items to the puzzle. When it comes right down to ever-changing humans at a cellular level, scientists don’t have an understanding of the little changes that will have an effect on the event of a growing baby. Ever-changing genes can cause a lot of damaging birth defects or perhaps miscarriages. Moreover, messing with diseases might find yourself making a super-disease that may be even more durable to fight. There are several variables within the physique for gene-splicing to figure out the fullest potential.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the subject of bioengineering is a very controversial one, especially when bioethics is a factor in it. I have listed the positives and negatives that can come from bioengineering and this is where you decide if it is a good thing or not. Is it worth taking the risks of failure if the operation doesn’t go as planned, do beliefs and religion really matter when you are trying to make what can be considered a revolutionary breakthrough? There are many more questions that you should think about regarding bioengineering and if it is right to sacrifice things that can be not only valuable to you, but to other people, and the effects it can have on us human beings.

Bibliography:

1. Ross, Rachel. “What Is Genetic Modification?” LiveScience, Purch, 1 Feb. 2019, www.livescience.com/64662-genetic-modification.html.
2. “What Is Genetic Engineering?” Facts, The Public Engagement Team at the Wellcome Genome Campus, 17 Feb. 2017, www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-genetic-engineering.
3. “Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering – Benefits and Risks.” Conservation Institute, 1 Nov. 2018, www.conservationinstitute.org/genetic-engineering/.
4. Tiegreen, Tim. “What Is Bioethics?” Practical Bioethics, 17 Aug. 2018, www.practicalbioethics.org/what-is-bioethics.
5. Benatar, D. “Bioethics and Health and Human Rights: a Critical View.” Journal of Medical Ethics, BMJ Group, Jan. 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2563274/.
6. Image Sources:
7. “What Is Genetic Engineering?” Facts, The Public Engagement Team at the Wellcome Genome Campus, 17 Feb. 2017, www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-genetic-engineering.

Biotechnology is unavoidable in today’s society. From household products to medical procedures, biotechnology is ubiquitous. Defined as “something that harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop technologies and to help improve lives”, (Bio.org). There are three primary fields where biotechnology is used: medical, agricultural and industrial. Development in each of these fields is progressing at an exponential rate, with hundreds of new applications created each year. With progress in this area moving so rapidly, it is important to take time to assess the impacts on society and the environment and to ask whether all of these developments are in society’s best interests in the long term.

Biotechnology evidently has many positive impacts on society. These include advanced medical treatments, food that can be modified to provide for those in need, the manufacture of washing detergents.

Vaccines, OTC (over the counter) medications and even home pregnancy tests are all examples of medical biotechnology. While these examples of biotechnology are still debated peripherally today, the majority of people agree that these products are beneficial to society. As time progresses, what was once cutting edge biotechnology becomes accepted and the debate around it ceases. Eg, when vaccines were first introduced to western society in 1796, the smallpox vaccine by Edward Jenner, the majority of people were skeptical of its success and it had little up take initially, in contrast, today 94.7% of five year olds in Australia are up to date with their vaccinations, (Health.gov). This is a dramatic attitude change from the late 1700s and has resulted in the eradication of several life threatening childhood diseases from many countries, such as smallpox and polio.

Clustered Regular Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat known as CRISPR-cas9 is one of the newer very promising biotechnologies to be developed. CRISPR has the potential to cure a myriad of genetic diseases and help with cancer treatment. It does so by recognising the DNA and/or RNA sequence that is causing the illness or disease. In the case of genetic diseases the cas9 protein is used to cut out the sequence that needs editing in order to cure the genetic disease. In cancer it modifies the T-cells so that they can locate and kill the cancer cells. The potential uses deriving from the ability to edit DNA/RNA sequences are exciting; including drug research and pest resilient crops however, there are also deep ethical issues and risks surrounding its use which will be explored below.

Agricultural biotechnology also holds innumerable new possibilities. It focuses on genetically modifying plants to increase crop yields or introduce desirable characteristics into the plants. While selective breeding has been used for hundreds of years, today’s technology permits much faster and greater change. For example, Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are commonly used in the agricultural industry to locate and reproduce desirable characteristics in plant species. GMOs seek the desired gene in another species and then modify the DNA of the original plant species with the new gene, thus replicating a desirable characteristic in the original plant. Applications where GMOS have been used to modify species in agriculture include; to develop pest-resistance, to tolerate to extreme climates, to increase crop yield and to contain higher levels of vitamins. Modifications such as these greatly enhance both society and the environment by creating less food waste, more vitamin dense foods, maximise productivity of the limited agricultural land. Golden rice, a rice infused with beta-carotene was developed for use in third world countries where vitamin A deficiency is a problem. It has minimised the development of this nutritional deficiency amongst the population of these countries and helps people stay healthier.

GMOs can also have positive impacts on the environment. In 2012, the USA saw a 37% reduction in the use of pesticides on crops whilst at the same time a 22% increase in crop yields, (Centerforfoodsafety.org). In a world where food shortages and environmental issues are becoming more imminent, this is good news. 19 developing countries are currently using GMOs in cropping, giving 16.7 million farmers increased food production thereby increasing their incomes, (Studies done by the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech). In the US 88% of corn, 94% of cotton and 93% of soybeans all originated from plantations using GMOs, (Centerforfoodsafety.org).

On the other hand, there is a dark side to biotechnology. As well as the good, there are numerous negative impacts on society and the environment. The rapid pace at which biotechnology is developing, leaves little time for scientists and governments to evaluate the long term impacts and unintended consequences new applications are likely to have. This is an important concern. Gene drive, a form of extinction whereby a gene is released into a population of animals or plants by sexual reproduction in order to eradicate the species, is a recent development. The benefit of eradicating pests is obvious, however the wider implications of destroying a species on the environment are little understood.

CRISPR has a downside as well. While holding the promise of curing diseases, there are risks as well as ethical questions that arise. When researching a cure for HIV, scientists discovered resistance to the disease in some individuals due to the presence of a mutated protein. They reasoned that by deleting the mutation, patients would be cured. Trials however were troubling because mutations showed up where they should not have. Making the wrong cut in the gene sequence could make someone sicker. Edits of sequences to embryos, could lead to mutations entering the gene pool, passing them on to future generations. CRISPR also raises several difficult ethical questions. A major one focuses around germ-line editing (modifications made to the embryo, sperm and egg cells). While the desire to eradicate genetic diseases in the embryo is understandable, it is difficult not to ask whether “we are opening a door we cannot shut”, (Kurzgesagt). Once editing genes in babies starts, it will be difficult to control the desire to change other aspects such as outward appearance and intelligence. The ethical issues surrounding designer babies are complex.

The development of bioweapons also has the potential to have a huge impact on society and the environment. “Bioweapons are biological weapons, which involve the use of bacteria or other living organisms in order to destroy other organisms” (Collins Dictionary).Viruses could be released on countries or crops, creating food shortages, animal extinction and mass death. The effects of this threat were seen on a small scale in 2002 when five people were killed after Anthrax cells were sent through the mail in a terrorist attack. This shows the potential harm biotechnology could have.

Biotechnology is an important part of society however, it is essential to understand and evaluate the benefits and risks as well as the long term and short term effects of any new application before it is wholeheartedly adopted.

Introduction

Gene silencing is the regulation of gene expression in a cell to prevent the expression of a certain gene. Gene silencing can occur during either transcription or translation and is often used in research. Methods used to silence genes are being increasingly used to produce therapeutics to combat cancer and other diseases, such as infectious diseases and neurodegenerative disorders.

Gene silencing is nearly similar to gene knockout, in gene silencing the expression of the gene was suppresed, whereas in gene knockout the gene was completely erased. Even though it’s said to be similar because of the methods used for gene silencing which can reduce the expression by at least 70% not completely erase.

Gene silencing is better than gene knockout because it helps the researchers to study particular gene without removing the other genes. More than that it gives clear cut about the diseases due to suppression of a gene.

History of gene silencing

Gene silencing was discovered in 1998 by Andrew fire and Craig Mello. They won the noble prize for their discovery in 2006. They discovered the RNA interference gene silencing by ds-RNA in C.elegans.

TYPES OF GENE SILENCING

There are three major types of gene silencing;

1. Transcriptional
2. Post-transcriptional
3. Meiotic

Transcriptional involves:

• Genomic Imprinting
• Paramutation
• Transposon silencing
• Transgene silencing
• Position effect
• RNA-directed DNA methylation

Post-transcriptional involves:

• RNA interference
• RNA silencing
• Nonsense mediated decay

Meiotic involves:

• Transvection
• Meiotic silencing of unpaired DNA

APPLICATION

• Gene silencing techniques have been widely used by researchers to study genes associated with disorders include cancer, infectious diseases, respiratory diseases, etc.
• Gene silencing is also currently being used in drug discovery efforts, such as synthetic lethality, high-throughput screening, and miniaturized RNAi screens.
• RNA interference has been used to silence genes associated with several cancers.
• Ribozymes, antisense oligonucleotides, and more recently RNAi have been used to target mRNA molecules involved in asthma.
• Huntington’s disease is incurable and known to cause motor, cognitive, and behavioral deficits. Researchers have been looking to gene silencing as a potential therapeutic for HD.
• Gene silencing has been used to knock down the SOD1 mutant that is characteristic of ALS.In specific, siRNA molecules have been successfully used to target the SOD1 mutant gene and reduce its expression through allele-specific gene silencing.

Therapeutic challenges of gene silencing

There are several challenges associated with gene silencing therapies, including delivery and specificity for targeted cells. For treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, molecules for a prospective gene silencing therapy must be delivered to the brain. The blood-brain barrier makes it difficult to deliver molecules into the brain through the bloodstream by preventing the passage of the majority of molecules that are injected or absorbed into the blood. Thus, researchers have found that they must directly inject the molecules or implant pumps that push them into the brain.

Gene silencing in food

Arctic Apples are a suite of trademarked apples that contain a nonbrowning trait created by using gene silencing to reduce the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO). It is the first approved food product to use this technique.

Recent studies on gene silencing

Recent advances in reversal of gene silencing during X chromosome reactivation:

Dosage compensation between XX female and XY male cells is achieved by a process referred to as X chromosome inactivation (XCI) in mammals. Initially, XCI is developed earlier in female cells and later it is stably maintained in most of the somatic cells.

Despite its stability, the robust transcriptional silencing of XCI is reversible, within the embryo and also during a number of reprogramming settings. However, XCI has been intensively studied, the dynamics, factors, and mechanisms of X chromosome reactivation (XCR) remain unknown. This research, tells us about how new sequencing technologies and reprogramming approaches have enabled recent advances that exposed the timing of transcriptional activation during XCR.

In addition to it also discuss the factors and chromatin features which may be important to know the dynamics and mechanisms of the erasure of transcriptional gene silencing on the inactive X chromosome (Xi).

Concluding results

Collectively, recent studies that built upon the newest technological advances like scRNA-seq, allele-resolution transcriptomics and epigenomics, also as cellular reprogramming, have revealed that XCR may be a gradual process. The timing of X-linked gene reactivation involves the combinatorial effects of multiple pathways including pluripotency and other TFs, chromatin modifications, histone writers and erasers also as chromatin organization and lncRNAs. it’ll now be interesting to dissect how these layers interplay to regulate the kinetics of XCR. The enrichment of pluripotency TF binding on multiple X-linked genes suggests that these and other TFs could play an immediate role in transcriptional activation.

TFs like OCT4, NANOG, SOX2, PRDM14, and ESRRB could be directly involved in XCR and have also been implicated in Xist silencing (Navarro et al., 2008; Payer et al., 2013). Their binding to gene regulatory regions on the Xi, together of other TFs, could mediate the initiation, progression and completion of XCR. Histone modifications also appear to play a task in XCR by acting as barriers or mediators of transcriptional activation. So far, UTX and HDACs are implicated within the removal of repressive and active chromatin marks to market or oppose XCR, respectively.

Recent studies also suggested a possible influence of chromatin topology on the upkeep and reversal of Xist-induced silencing. Moreover, novel factors involved within the exit from pluripotency and early lineage commitment could potentially act as mediators of XCI or barriers of XCR. for instance , Polycomb targets which start to move after epiblast specification (pluripotency exit), the ubiquitin-ligase Rlim, whose expression correlates with XCI (Barakat et al., 2011), and therefore the refore the DNA methyltransferase Dnmt3a and the transcriptional repressor Zfp5J, which negatively correlates with XCI (Mohammed et al., 2017), might play a task in XCR. additionally , the invention of potential RNA interactors of Xist might shed light on XCR mechanisms. For this, techniques that enable to acknowledge interactions between two transcripts (e.g., Xist and potential RNA interactors) will got to be developed, almost like the one described in Quinodoz et al. (2018), where genome-wide detection of multiple, simultaneously occurring higher-order DNA interactions are detected. during this way, we’d discover unknown principles by which XCI is reversed.

Altogether, the dynamics of XCR is probably going the result of the combinatorial effect of lncRNAs, TFs, genome topology, and chromatin modifications. Understanding the reversal of gene silencing is vital for a minimum of three reasons. First, reactivation of silenced genes represents a possible therapy for diseases, like Rett Syndrome.

This strategy might reach targeted reactivation of silenced tumour suppressor genes in cancer. Second, it’s likely that revealing mechanisms of XCR will uncover gene regulation principles that are generally applicable, because it has already repeatedly been wiped out the past (Pasque et al., 2011; Nora et al., 2012). Third, reactivation of X-linked genes may underlie the emergence and/or progression of specific human disorders. Many intriguing questions are still waiting to be addressed and can open new avenues to link fundamental research with diseases and therapies.

CONCLUSION

Gene silencing as a therapeutic technique is the active area for researches. This strategy will surely found solution for Huntington’s disease because it able to reduce the expression of the protein. This highly helps researchers to identify the gene responsible for a disease. This method is popular than gene knockout technique. This could provide various solutions for the researchers for their future researches.

REFERENCE

1. Red berry, Grace (2006). Gene silencing: new research. New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 9781594548321.
2. ‘Gene Silencing’. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
3. Hood E (March 2004). ‘RNAi: What’s all the noise about gene silencing?’. Environmental Health Perspectives. 112 (4): A224–9. doi:10.1289/ehp.112-a224. PMC 1241909. PMID 15033605.
4. Mocellin S, Provenzano M (November 2004). ‘RNA interference: learning gene knock-down from cell physiology’. Journal of Translational Medicine. 2 (1): 39. doi:10.1186/1479-5876-2-39. PMC 534783. PMID 15555080.
5. Kole R, Krainer AR, Altman S (February 2012). ‘RNA therapeutics: beyond RNA interference and antisense oligonucleotides’. Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery. 11 (2): 125–40. doi:10.1038/nrd3625. PMC 4743652. PMID 22262036.
6. Dias N, Stein CA (March 2002). ‘Antisense oligonucleotides: basic concepts and mechanisms’. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics. 1 (5): 347–55. PMID 12489851.

INTRODUCTION

In the world today, the demand for the use of sustainable and eco-friendly environmental processes is rapidly growing, subjected to economic, public, and legislation pressure. Biotechnology provides a pool of opportunities for effectively addressing issues pertaining to the monitoring, assessment, and treatment of contaminated water, air, and solid waste streams. These pollutants in the environment are great risks for the health of human beings. In this context, source tracking of environmental pollutants and its treatment using biological-based methods is becoming increasingly important, mainly, owing to the accuracy and robustness of such techniques. Thus comes Biomonitoring, which involves the use of organisms to assess environmental contamination, such as of surrounding air or water. This can be done qualitatively by observing and noting changes in organisms, or quantitatively by measuring accumulation of chemicals in organism tissues.

By observing or measuring the effects the environment has on its resident organisms, pollution may be suspected or inferred. Here, biomonitoring is associated with remote sensors where remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site observation, especially the Earth. Remote sensing is used in numerous fields, including geography, land surveying and most Earth science disciplines (for example, hydrology, ecology, meteorology, oceanography, glaciology, geology); it also has military, intelligence, commercial, economic, planning, and humanitarian applications.

BIOTECHNOLOGICAL REMOTE SENSORS – Measuring Pollutants

The different biotechniques available nowadays, represent both well-established as well as novel (bio) technologies, although several aspects of their performance are still to be tested, for instance, the use of novel biocatalysts and reactor designs, the understanding of the microbial community dynamics as well as the mechanisms occurring within a bioreactor, and the assessment of the performance and efficiency of bioreactors during long-term operation. If these mechanisms are well understood, biotechniques will potentially help change the way manufacturers and users build and rebuild technologies for the sustainable use of different biological processes for wastewater, air, and solid waste release and their treatments.

Thereby, measuring pollutants can be done with the help on various old and newly developed biotechnological remote sensors or biosensors etc some of which are discussed below:

• Monitoring pollutants can also be done by determining the effect of pollutants in the environment as BOD and COD analysis doesn’t always determine the effect of pollution on organism. Thus the use of specific Bioindicators and Biomarkers can be done for such.

1. Bioindicators: measure the effect of pollutants on whole organism representative of the environment and thereby help monitor pollutants.
2. Biomarkers: on the other hand measure the effect of pollutants on physiological, biochemical and molecular characteristics of organism in the environment for such.

• Microextraction – Solid-phase microextraction (SPME), is a solid phase extraction technique that involves the use of a fiber coated with an extracting phase, that can be a liquid (polymer) or a solid (sorbent), which extracts different kinds of analytes (including both volatile and non-volatile) from different kinds of media, that can be in liquid or gas phase. The quantity of analyte extracted by the fibre is proportional to its concentration in the sample as long as equilibrium is reached or, in case of short time pre-equilibrium, with help of convection or agitation.
• Electrochemical biosensors and the development of new biosensors contribute to the environmental pollutants monitoring. Electrochemical biosensors offer precision, sensitivity, rapidity, and ease of operation for on-site environmental analysis. An electrochemical biosensor is an analytical device in which a specific biological recognition element (bioreceptor) is integrated within or intimately associated with an electrode (transducer) that converts the recognition event to a measurable electrical signal for the purpose of detecting a target compound (analyte) in solution. This approach not only provides the means for on-site analysis but also removes the time delay and sample alteration that can occur during transport to a centralized laboratory.
• Microbial biosensors – Using biological engineering researchers have created many microbial biosensors. A microbial biosensor is a biosensor that uses microorganisms which consists of numerous enzymes as the bioelements. The enzymes in the living cells can produce a response to the analytes specifically and selectively, without neither the necessity of time-consuming and costly purification nor the negative effects of the operating environment. Some examples include:

Bioluminescence based microbial biosensors have been extensively used in environmental monitoring for detection of toxicity due to its ability to closely reflect to toxicity. As a proportional response to the concentration of the analytes, the changes in the density of the bioluminescence emitted by the living cells can be measured by the bioluminescent microbial biosensor. According to the mechanism of production of bioluminescence, the method to control the expression of the lux gene can be divided into two manners: the constitutive manner and the inducible manner. The constitutive manner (light-off) and the inducible manner (light-on) are two general strategies for developing a microbial biosensor for monitoring heavy metal toxicity. In the constitutive manner, the lux gene exists constitutively.

Arsenic biosensor: To detect arsenic they use the Ars operon. Using bacteria, researchers can detect pollutants in samples. In molecular biology, the ars operon is an operon found in several bacterial taxon. It is required for the detoxification of arsenate, arsenite, and antimonite. This system transports arsenite and antimonite out of the cell. The pump is composed of two polypeptides, the products of the arsA and arsB genes. This two-subunit enzyme produces resistance to arsenite and antimonite. Arsenate, however, must first be reduced to arsenite before it is extruded. A third gene, arsC, expands the substrate specificity to allow for arsenate pumping and resistance. ArsC is an approximately 150-residue arsenate reductase that uses reduced glutathione (GSH) to convert arsenate to arsenite with a redox active cysteine residue in the active site. ArsC forms an active quaternary complex with GSH, arsenate, and glutaredoxin 1 (Grx1). The three ligands must be present simultaneously for reduction to occur.

EXAMPLES – Relating to Air, Water (Marine), Soil Pollutants

Owing to the emerging globalization, industrialization, increase in the population in the planet leading to Global Diaspora, tremendous increase in the amount and types of pollutants in air, water and soil is much contributed. Here comes the use of the various biomontoring remote sensors to monitor pollutants which is of supreme importance that helps in the developments of various treatments, preventive and degradation methods that are ought to solve the rising pollution problems. Some examples are cited below:

Air pollutants are atmospheric substances both naturally occurring and anthropogenic which may potentially have a negative impact on the environment and organism health. With the evolution of new chemicals and industrial processes has come the introduction or elevation of pollutants in the atmosphere, as well as environmental research and regulations, increasing the demand for air quality monitoring.

Air pollution can thus be assessed by biomonitoring with organisms that bioaccumulate air pollutants, such as lichens, mosses, fungi, and other biomass. One of the benefits of this type of sampling is that how quantitative information can be obtained via measurements of accumulated compounds, representative of the environment from which they came from. However, careful considerations must be made while choosing the particular organism, how it’s dispersed, and relevance to the pollutant.

Other sampling methods include the use of a denuder, needle trap devices, and microextraction techniques.

Water and Marine Pollutants – Increased levels of marine pollution due to anthropogenic activities are adversely affecting marine sustainability of marine ecosystems. These include oil and chemical spills, sewage, high suspended solids, and algal blooms.

1. Heavy metal pollution in coastal and estuarine region is another major concern of marine managers and researchers. Being extensively used in industry, heavy metal becomes a main toxicant in waste water as well. The non-biodegradability of metal ions results in its accumulation in living organisms and causes various diseases. A low cost, specific, simple and quick tool is needed for monitoring heavy metals. The microbial biosensor specifically the Bioluminescence based ones provide an opportunity to solve this problem. The presence of the toxic heavy metal affects the expression of the lux gene and reduces the light density. As it can respond to any substance that is toxic to the microbe, this microbial biosensor is nonspecific. Specific biosensors, which are based on inducible promoters fused to reporter genes, are more sophisticated and sensitive. Only the specific biosensor can be used for in situ measurement of contaminants.
2. Heavy metal ions can act as an acute enzyme inhibitor and then cause some changes that can be used as the signal for detecting heavy metal ions. Example – mercury can inhibit the activity of alkaline phosphate enzymes present in the cell wall of Chlorella sp., Singh et al. developed a biosensor for determination of mercury by immobilizing Chlorella sp. on a glassy carbon surface. The use of genetically engineered bacteria, which can produce measurable signals when contacted with bio-components, is the best approach for detecting heavy metal. Ravikumarzra et al. constructed a biosensor for detecting zinc and copper based on engineered bacteria, where P and cusC promoters were fused to a dual-labeling reporter protein as an interactive biocomponent for zinc and copper to generate a signal from the constructed biosensor. A promoterless enhanced green fluorescent protein (egfp) gene was fused with the czcR3 promoter, which could respond quantitatively to zinc, for specific detection of zinc.
3. Using dead biomass to uptake heavy metals passively is a more efficient, economical and easier way for detecting them. Compared to living cells, dead biomass requires no nutrients, is easy to handle and store, and has high tolerance to toxic harsh reaction environments. Pseudomonas aeruginosa were used in a heat dried form to construct a microbial biosensor for the detection of heavy metal Pb (II).
4. Organic toxicity is another main pollutant in the environment which is harmful to human beings. A rapid, low-cost, and specific method for monitoring of various organic toxicities is needed. Microbial biosensors provide an alternative to solve this problem.

Soil Pollutants – defined as the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants) in soil, in high enough concentrations to pose a risk to human health and/or the ecosystem. Various biological techniques may use specific organisms to gauge not only contaminant level but also by-products of contaminant biodegradation in soil. These techniques and others are increasingly becoming more efficient, and laboratory instrumentation is becoming more precise, resulting in more meaningful monitoring outcomes. Arsenic biosensor is one such example for such.

ADVANCEMENTS

Like it is said, there is always room for improvement be it anything, similarly, several advancements have been and can be made even in this field for monitoring or detecting pollutants in and around the environment. Some of them are as follows:

• Biotechniques to treat emerging pollutants from water, air, and leachate, including endocrine disruptors is one of the latest inventions.
• Development of new biocatalysts and innovative bioreactors for pollution control and biotransformations: membrane bioreactors, microbial fuel cells, and alternative bioreactor configurations, among others are sought to be of great use for the desired.
• Introduction of various real-time monitoring advanced systems can also reduce the excessive consumption of several harsh chemicals and reagents with an added advantage of on-site determination of contaminant composition prior to discharge into the environment.
• More collaborative projects between the research community and government is of utmost importance for using the full potential of data in marine pollution management and others.
• Different applications of remote sensing such as detection of floating marine plastic litter and the use of active remote sensing for detecting algal blooms are still in the research.

CONCLUSION

Pollution is defined as the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that causes adverse change in it. They can take the forms of chemical substances or energies, such as noise, heat or light. As demand for the use of sustainable and eco-friendly environmental processes is rapidly growing, Biotechnology provides a pool of opportunities for effectively addressing issues pertaining to the monitoring, assessment, and treatment of contaminated water, air, and solid waste streams comprising of these pollutants, which are great risks for the health of human beings. The adverse effects of these pollutants to human and other organism and the planet demands an appropriate method for its detection or monitoring that will further help to find treatments, preventive measures and degradation. With the help of Biomonitoring where use of Biotechnological tools and techniques is done, the development of various biological remote sensor like products that help in monitoring the presence of these pollutants by either measuring its toxicity level, ill effects on the native habitat animals, etc is done. These include biosensors, microextrantion tools, bioindicators, and biomarkers and so on. All of these help monitor air, water, soil pollutions but are not limited to just these. As more and more progress is made in the field of Biotechnology, Environmental Biotechnology is focused on precisely, specifically for pollution related contents like this one where monitoring of pollution is done. With these advancements, more high-tech and specialized pollutants monitoring techniques are expected to be formulated and made that would benefit the human world and the society in the days to come. Real-time pollutants monitoring facility, pollutant or organism, place or habitat specific pollutants monitoring systems, class specific heavy metal pollutants monitoring process are subjected to come into highlight in the near future to help mankind create a better and sustainable environment both for the existing and upcoming generations.

”It’s the little details that are vital. Little things make big things happen” – John wooden.

In my case, cell biology is the little thing which will have a great impact on my future career. It’s difficult choosing the perfect career when you’re someone who dreams with open eyes. I’ve been up and down my road of career choices and it has been a task to finally decide on my future career. Deciding on my career was one of the most difficult decisions I had to make and cell biology played a big role in helping me decide. I’ve been fond of cell biology as a subject and therefore it opened many doors for me when I had to decide on a career. Before deciding on my future career, I considered a lot of factors which would give me an upper advantage in my field of study. Cell biology was considered my greatest advantage factor in many ways which would be useful to my desired future career.

My goal is to achieve a pharmacy degree and further my studies into the medical field to obtain a career in medicine and pharmacy. Cell biology is therefore one of the most important fields when looking into both medicine and pharmacy as my career option. By understanding cells and their different processes in both healthy and diseased states, we can develop new vaccines, effective medicines and also develop a better understanding of how life and the processes of many living organisms work. Cell biology is used in many processes, for example by analysing one’s database of genes and cell information, we can produce a health forecast of which would predict future health situations.

Cells therefore play an important role when in relation to the wellbeing of human kind. A good example would be stem cells (refer to image below), which has the extraordinary potential to develop into many different cell types in the human. Understanding these cells and their abilities, is the basic definition of cell biology. Thus, cell biology will enable me to obtain a greater understanding of these processes on the human body and this will allow me to progress in my career efficiently.

On the practical side of my career, I am required to have a good understanding of the functioning of a microscope. Cell biology therefore prepares and engages me with different cells, by teaching me to operate with a microscope, examining the different cells and studying their functions and processes in depth. This allows me to learn to identify the different cells of the human body which will be useful in my medicine career (refer to image below). By understanding these different types of microscopes and their purposes I’ll have a great experience advantage in my career.

I now understand that cell biology is more than just a subject related to my career, it is the little strings which are tied to my future career and are building blocks which will help me succeed. I conclude by saying that cell biology is the most useful course in my career.

“Biology gives you a brain, life turns it into a mind” – Jeffrey eugenides.

References

1. Bailey, R. (2018, October 22). Types of Cells in the Body. Retrieved from ThoughtCo.: https://www.thoughtco.com/types-of-cells-in-the-body-373388
2. Cell and Molecular Biology. (2016, February 5). Retrieved from Grand valley state university: https://www.gvsu.edu/cmb/career-opportunity-pharmacy-33.htm
3. Cell and molecular biology. (2017, September). Retrieved from MONASH University: https://www.monash.edu/pharm/research/areas/drug-delivery/research-areas/cell-and-molecular-biology
4. Cell biology and human health . (2017, July 7). Retrieved from Yale School of Medicine : https://medicine.yale.edu/cellbio/about/humanhealth.aspx
5. Cell Biology people, tools & techniques. (n.d.). Retrieved from BSCB: https://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/cell-biology-people-tools-techniques/
6. why cell biology is so important? (n.d.). Retrieved from BSCB: https://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/why-cell-biology-is-so-important/

What is Biomedical Engineering?

Biomedical Engineering is the application of engineered products that advance information in biology, engineering, and medical purposes, and improves human wellbeing through interdisciplinary exercises that incorporate the designing sciences with the biomedical sciences and clinical practice. It incorporates:

1. The education of new information and comprehension of living structures (systems) through the substantive and innovational use of test and systematic strategies based on the engineering sciences.
2. The improvement/development of new technologies, calculations, systems and procedures that advance medicine and biology and improve therapeutic practise and human health services.

Biomedical Engineering has been around for many centuries or even thousands of years. In 2000, an archaeologist found a wooden toe that was tied to a 3,000-year-old mummy. Before WW2, biomedical engineering was just being recognized. After WW2, biomedical engineering was becoming more and more famous because of the term ‘Bioengineering’ which was invented by Heinz Wolff. Bioengineering was being invented at the National Institute for Medical Research purposes. After Wolff’s graduation, it was the first time Bioengineering was recognised as its own course (D.R. Reyes-Guerra and A.M. Fischer, 1985). Examples of biomedical engineering technologies include:

What do Biomedical Engineers do?

Most Biomedical Engineers work in hospitals and medical institutions but some also work in government agencies and some work as teachers. Bioengineers combine engineered products with biological systems to design devices and computer systems that are used in healthcare. Most of the work they do includes creating body parts replacements, artificial organs, and machines that help improve healthcare. They also test new drug therapies through software or medical equipment. Some biomedical engineers develop materials that are needed to design artificial body parts. (D.R. Reyes-Guerra and A.M. Fischer, 1985)

What training is required to become a biomedical engineer in Australia?

To become a biomedical engineer you require personal skills like:

• Communication skills
• Problem-solving skills
• Take accurate measurements
• Teamwork
• Numeracy

Biomedical Engineers work in health care environments, and must also obtain good practical and theoretical knowledge of medical sciences and engineering. In addition, the ability to combine medical sciences and engineering is also an important skill needed. This job requires you to work with professional engineers, therapists, physiotherapists, doctors, and surgeons.

To become a biomedical engineer, Chemistry, Biology, and Maths should be done as a subject in Secondary School. To achieve a degree of biomedical engineering, the following courses are a must:

• Bachelor of Science
• Biomedical Science
• Biotechnology
• Biomedical Engineering

Typically any courses that are related to an engineering field are needed. Mechanical or Electrical engineering is a good choice to start your career. During the final years of University, you should start doing small jobs that are related to bioengineering because it will give you good training and will also tell you the environment around you and what it’s like to be a biomedical engineer.

What are the future career prospects for biomedical engineers?

The average pay for a biomedical engineer is $29.94/hr which means they earn about $64,107 per year. There are a few job options to choose from if you become a biomedical engineer like Rehabilitation Engineer Bioengineering Researcher and Clinical Engineer.

Biomedical Engineer

Biomedical engineers use mechanics to solve biological and medical problems. The main focus of this job is to develop inventive technology to improve health care. Another focus of this job is to develop technology that can replace organs with artificial organs. They build devices that help fix damaged organs.

Rehabilitation Engineer

The average salary of a rehabilitation engineer is $63,500 per year. Rehabilitation engineers design technologies for weak people and disabled people. They also design improved walkers for disabled people and devices that help improve the disease and improve human performance.

Bioengineering Researcher

This fieldwork requires you to look at the observations, research facility work, investigation and testing of a progression of living materials. The aim of a bioengineering researcher is to develop new ways to build medical instruments and devices.

Clinical Engineer

The average salary of a clinical engineer is $72,000. Clinical engineers apply technologies to hospitals and institutions for health care. The duty of a clinical engineer is to maintain records of the performance of the technologies and the database. This job may even offer you the chance to work with physicians to observe how those technologies are applied to different systems.

Example and description of a biomedical engineering innovation

Artificial muscles are substances, contraptions or actuators that replicate real muscle and can reversibly engage, grow, or pivot inside an individual piece because of outer stimuli, i.e current, weight, voltage or temperature (Perkins, July 11, 2019, A New Twist on Artificial Muscles). The fundamental activation effects – compression, extension, and revolution can be joined together inside a solitary segment to create different sorts of movements; for example twisting, by contracting one side of the material while extending the opposite side. General engines and pneumatic machines or rotating actuators don’t qualify as artificial muscles since there is more than one segment engaged with the activation. Because of their high plasticity, tractability and power-to-weight proportion contrasted to conventional inflexible actuators, artificial muscles can possibly be a rising innovation (Lang, 2019, An exciting new creation of artificial muscles). Even though there are limited uses, the innovation may have broad future utilisation in medicine, robotics, industry and various different possibilities

2.2 History/development of the innovation

As there are different types of artificial muscles this report will focus on the Electroactive polymers. The area of Electroactive polymers rose in 1880 when Wilhelm Rontgen planned an investigation wherein he examined the impact of an electrostatic field on the mechanical qualities on a band of normal rubber. The elastic band was fixed toward one side and was appended to a mass at the other. Electric charges were then showered onto the elastic, and it was seen that the height changed. This was soon labelled as the piezoelectric effect. (Wikipedia Contributors, Artificial Muscles, 2019)

The next significant developments in electroactive polymers occurred in the late 1960s. In 1969 the substance polyvinylidene fluoride was applied by a scientist called Kawai showed that (PVDF) displays an expansive piezoelectric effect. This started research fascination for creating different polymers frameworks that would demonstrate a comparable impact. In the year 1977, the primary electrical transmitting polymers were found by a Japanese scientist: Shirakawa Hideki. Shirakawa alongside Alan Heeger and Alan MacDiarmid exhibited that a new substance; polyacetylene was a superior electrical conductor and that by doping it with an iodine gas, they could increase its electric conductivity by 8 sets of magnitude. In this way, the conductance of a polymer was that of a metal. By late 1980s various polymers had appeared to display a piezoelectric impact or were shown to be conductive. (‘Off to a Running Start,’ National Geographic World, 1991, pp. 29-31.)

Manufacturing method of innovation

Measuring and casting

Precision and reliability are significant in the production of artificial muscles since the objective is to have a body part that comes as close as conceivable to being as adequate and worthy as a natural one. Before production of the body part is started, the prosthetist assesses the amputee and takes an imprint or digital measurement of the residual appendage.

The prosthetist at that point determines the lengths of appropriate body sections and decides the area of bones and ligaments in the rest of the limb. Using the cast and the calculations, the prosthetist soon makes a mortar cast of the stump. This is most regularly made of mortar of paris, since it dries quickly and yields a complete impression. From the mortar cast, a precise copy of the stump is made. (Fu, Y. Harvey, E. C., Ghantasala, M. K., Spinks, G. M., 2005, Design, fabrication and testing of piezoelectric polymer PVDF microactuators)

Making the socket

Next, a sheet of clear thermoplastic is heated in a large oven and then vacuum-formed around the positive mould. In this process, the heated sheet is simply laid over the top of the mold in a vacuum chamber. If necessary, the sheet is heated again. Then, the air between the sheet and the mold is sucked out of the chamber, collapsing the sheet around the mold and forcing it into the exact shape of the mold. This thermoplastic sheet is now the test socket; it is transparent so that the prosthetist can check the fit.

Further on, a layer of clear thermoplastic is warmed in a huge stove and after that vacuum-conformed to the shape required. In this procedure, the warmed film is essentially laid over the highest point of the form in a vacuum chamber. If required, the sheet is melted once more. At that point, the air within the sheet and the form is removed out of the load, making the sheet go around the mould and driving it into the state of the required shape. This thermoplastic sheet is currently the test socket; it is transparent and the prosthetist can check the fit. (Jo, C., Naguib, H. E., Kwon, R. H. (2011). Fabrication, modelling and optimization of anionic polymer gel actuator.)

Impact of the innovation on people’s lives

Lately, specialised developments have consolidated to make artificial muscles significantly more effective, comfortable and imitative than prior adaptations. Future advancements are presumably going to rely upon the relationship between three demands — progress in engineering and medical procedure, amputees’ requests, and healthcare financing; adequate improvement and utilisation of mechanical solutions.

Environmental Impact

It is sensible to propose that the extensive applications of artificial muscles would altogether increase the consumption of electricity as they require a constant current. It is reasonable to envision that the requirements of fossil fuels will grow because of the increasing speed of usage.

However, this may not be the situation. As developments in batteries occur, the implementation of artificial muscle will have a lower requirement for power and can leave a lesser carbon footprint. Likewise, to electric vehicles, artificial muscles can be powered during the night or when not in use to further increase efficiency.

Impact in Sports

Recently, in previous decades, there have been innovative progressions that allow artificial limbs or prosthetics to be utilised at large levels of sports in games. Which brings up a problem inside the field of biomedical engineering, specifically artificial muscle and revolves around the controversy that artificial muscles perhaps give an edge to competitors with disabilities compared to abled competitors. Advanced artificial muscles could create an existence where athletes can accomplish superhuman feats thus having an unfair advantage when compared to abled athletes. Numerous disabled competitors do not need to stress over their inability and can pick whatever game they need to take an interest in and do well due to new technologies like an artificial muscle which can provide human-like functionality if not superhuman.

Military Impact

Modern society has created an image of artificial limbs or artificial muscles specifically, turning normal individuals into supersoldiers or superheroes, allowing them to bounce off buildings, travel as fast as vehicles, and be impenetrable. The reality is more prosaic, however, it is as significant, if not more for the troopers’ wellbeing and strength.

While military wounds and injuries require artificial muscles similar to civilian versions, mass reduction for healthy troopers is a critical implementation. Current soldiers have to carry from 40 to 80 kg. Military artificial muscles can grant soldiers to carry more mass than usual.

References

1. Bachelorsportal.com. (2018). What Can I Become with a Bachelor’s Degree in Biomedical Engineering? – BachelorsPortal.com. [online] Available at: https://www.bachelorsportal.com/articles/578/what-can-i-become-with-a-bachelors-degree-in-biomedical-engineering.html [Accessed 9 Sep. 2019].
2. Bls.gov. (2019). Biomedical Engineers : Occupational Outlook Handbook: : U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. [online] Available at: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/biomedical-engineers.htm#tab-2.
3. Keplinger, C., Kaltenbrunner, M., Arnold, N. and Bauer, S. (2010). Rontgen’s electrode-free elastomer actuators without electromechanical pull-in instability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [online] 107(10), pp.4505–4510. Available at: https://www.pnas.org/content/107/10/4505 [Accessed 9 Sep. 2019].
4. Lovinger, A.J. (1983). Ferroelectric Polymers. Science, [online] 220(4602), pp.1115–1121. Available at: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/220/4602/1115 [Accessed 9 Sep. 2019].
5. Online Engineering Programs. (2014). What is Biomedical Engineering? [online] Available at: https://www.onlineengineeringprograms.com/faq/what-is-biomedical-engineering [Accessed 9 Sep. 2019].
6. Wikipedia Contributors (2019a). Electroactive polymers. [online] Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroactive_polymers.
7. Wikipedia Contributors (2019b). Polyvinylidene fluoride. [online] Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinylidene_fluoride#Intrinsic_properties_and_Resistance [Accessed 9 Sep. 2019].
8. Brochu, P., Pei, Q., for actuators and artificial muscles, Macromol Rapid Comm 31(1), pp. 10-36, 2009.
9. Mirfakhrai, T. et al., Polymer artificial muscles, Mater Today 10(4), pp. 30- 38, 2007.
10. Madden, J. et al., Artificial muscle technology: physical principles and naval Prospects, IEEE J. Oceanic Eng 29(3), pp. 706-728, 2004.
11. Bar-Cohen, Y. (Ed.), Electroactive polymer (EAP) artificial muscles, SPIE: Bellingham, 2004.
12. Carpi, F., Smela, E. (Ed.), Biomedical applications of electroactive polymer actuators, Wiley: Chichester, 2009.
13. Carpi, F., De Rossi, D., Kornbluh, R., Pelrine, R., Sommer-Larsen, P. (Ed.), Dielectric elastomers as electromechanical transducers, Elsevier: Oxford, 2008.

Morality and sin, these two terms are associated with the term Sexual Deviance which is the act of being deviant from the norms and standards of the society in terms of what they believed is right in terms of sexual activities. Many speculations exist because of different perspectives towards this issue. As stated in the work of J. H. Gagnon (1968), the view about sexual deviance evolves around the definition of mental health and emotional disturbance. There are numerous sexual activities that is deviant from what we know as normal and because of this there is high chance of risk to cause dangerous outcomes that could possibly lead to death if we do not acknowledge this problem. In connection with this, death is considered as one of the concerns of the study of Bioethics because their responsibility doesn’t just stop from giving importance in the beginning of life but also how it ends. This field focuses on how medicine and science agrees to certain decisions which purpose is to give importance to the lives of all the members of society. Opposing views in terms of importance bioethics can be visible through utilitarianism because according to C.D. Kay, (1997), it fails to acknowledge human rights and huge possibility that violence are committed and still be considered for the sake of the greater good. With all of these concepts having inter-related issues that clashed with each other, this paper aims to determine the connection of sexual deviances to death, bioethics and utility to better understand why certain phenomena occurs.

Sexual deviances and death come hand in hand in few situations and some of these are rooted from fetishes. Fetishism is a sexual deviance that substitutes something as its target for the person to express their sexual urges. As reported in NBC news (2015), there was an instance wherein an individual engage into a fetish act of using sex toys as to gratify himself, in the news, the man died because of choking into his sex toy. Due to airway obstruction which is one of the main functions that keeps an individual alive. . Death as explained by S. F. Malamed (2015) happens when breathing and heartbeat already came to an end and these are considered as two important factors to sustain human life since it depicts the final physical state of the person and therefore determines the vital functions of the body. Sexual deviance can cause death if one is not cautious enough when it comes to doing sexually deviant behaviour. As mentioned by M.C. Kearl (2019), it was reported by cardiovascular specialist that there is a possibility that people engaging in sexual activities are predicted to have complications in the heart because of increased blood pressure and pulse rate during the sex itself and this is prone to those who are having rough sex and sadomasochism. If this problem continues to worsen, then death might definitely occur because of lack of discipline.

Life and health are what Bioethics struggle to justify together with human values and rights to life and health. According to G.K. Pike (2013), This field is very particular and meticulous with regards on how appropriate certain developments in healthcare institutions are, and with the term “developments” in encompasses different issues such as in-vitro fertilization and surrogacy. Sexual deviance of homosexuality plays a huge role in the development of surrogacy because in this generation where homosexuals are somehow accepted by the society, these couples also demand things that only man and woman can produce, and that is no other than a child. They started to demand to experience of having their own child that is why they contribute a lot to what we call surrogacy. As defined by the Center of Bioethics and Culture (2011), surrogacy is when a woman agree to have their bodies used and undergo pregnancy in return for the payment that they received. This issue causes several arguments and debates in the field of bioethics because they are the ones who are morally responsible with this problem for it involves not just the health and human rights of the women but also the child that is being conceived and born. This also makes the biological process of pregnancy into a business transaction just to provide for the needs of the woman.

Justice and individual rights are two of the main issues that are being faced by the concept of utilitarianism. In this, what is considered ethical is the one that produces the greatest good. With this, issues regarding sexual deviance particularly “gang rape” became controversial for different parties. If we will be following the concept of “the greatest amount of good for the greatest number” then the act of gang rape may be considered because we are talking about quantity of the involved and those who received the benefit out of the action. However, it does not really make sense if we let this particular case pass because according to RationalWiki.org (2019), if we were to talk about the pleasure gained by the rapists, we cannot conclude that it outweigh the pain and trauma experienced by the victim and even if it does, the act is not reasonable still because they could also achieve the same level of happiness(pleasure) without having to harm another individual. On the other side, there is what we call rule utilitarianism, which conforms to a rule that leads to the greatest good. If we sided with this, then the act of gang rape is obviously unethical and wrong for it is against the law because rape is a sexual deviance violates human rights and dignity of a person. Regardless of the type of utilitarianism, this issue remains crucial for it tackles about human values.

Sexual deviance is a sensitive issue because it is within the topics of morality and human values. With this, bioethics is correlated because this is a field of study that explains on how medicine and science come together to generate developments that prioritize the health of an individual. Since some practices of sexual deviances violates some of the ethical standards that concerns about the health of the people involved, bioethics also seeks to give interventions if any of these deviant sexual behaviors comes to a point that it becomes dangerous for the well being of the individual. Death is connected with bioethics because one of the core concerns of this study involves how a life ends as well, it gives the field of bioethics their sense of responsibility since the sexual deviance serves as an awareness that the health of those who engage in this are in danger and must develop a way to somehow lessen the harm that sexual activities may cause. Utilitarianism are then related in terms of using the definition of “greater good for the greatest number” to bioethics because this field of science aims to develop possible advancement in medicine and science for the good of all the members of its society and to serve justice to the human rights to health and life.

References

1. Gagnon, J.H. (1968). Sexual Deviance in Contemporary America. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1037807?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.
2. Kay, C.D. (1997). Notes on Utilitarianism. Retrieved from http://sites.wofford.edu/kaycd/utilitarianism/.
3. NBC NEWS (2013). Owner of Killer Bear Chokes to Death on Sex Toy. Retrieved from http://www.nbcnews.com/id/43744222/ns/us_news-weird_news/t/owner-killer-bear-chokes-death-sex-toy/#.Uk8w3haYW2x.
4. Malamed, S.F. (2015). Medical Emergencies in Dental Office. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/clinical-death.
5. Kearl, M.C. (2019). Sex and Death, Connection of – World, Body, Life, Cause, Rate, Time, Human. Retrieved from http://www.deathreference.com/Py-Se/Sex-and-Death-Connection-of.html.
6. Pike, G.K. (2013). What is Bioethics?. Retrieved from http://www.bioethics.org.au/Resources/Resource%20Topics/Bioethics%20Default.html
7. The Center for Bioethics and Culture (2011), Surrogacy: A 21st Century Human Rights Challenge. Retrieved from http://www.cbc-network.org/issues/making-life/surrogacy/.
8. RationalWiki.org (2019). Talk: Utilitarianism. Retrieved from https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Talk:Utilitarianism.

What Is Corona Viruse (COVID-19)

Corona viruses are a wide group of viruses that in animals and humans may cause disease. Corona viruses are known to cause respiratory infections in humans ranging from mild colds to more severe diseases such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Since being first identified in southern China in 2002, 26 countries continued to be affected, resulting in more than 8,000 cases and 774 deaths. The Coronavirus which was recently discovered triggers the Corvid-19 virus.

COVID-19 is a disease which can cause an infection of the respiratory tract. The upper respiratory tract (sinuses, nose and throat) or lower respiratory tract (windpipe and lungs) can be affected. The infection is spread from one person to others via droplets produced during coughing or sneezing from the respiratory system of infected people,it considered to be more contagious if people become symptomatic, The time from exposure to onset of symptoms is usually between two and 14 days, of an average of five days.

History Of Corona Viruse (COVID-19)

The disease seems to have arisen from a seafood market in Wuhan, China :where wild animals, including marmots, birds, rabbits, bats, and snakes, are illegally traded. Coronaviruses are known to move from animals to humans, and it is believed that it was transmitted by the first people diagnosed with the disease through contact with animals

The first human cases of Covid-19 disease were discovered, in December 2019. The injury was for a woman selling shrimp in the fish market in Wuhan. She was infected on December 11, 2019, with fever for an unknown reason. It later became clear, according to press sources, that it was the first confirmed case of ‘Covid-19’ infection in the Wuhan Fish and Marine Products Market.

Since the first reports of (COVID-19) in Wuhan, there has been considerable discussion on the origin of the causative virus. Infections with (COVID-19) are now widespread, On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization rated it the global pandemic.

In light of the World Health Organization predicts that there will be a vaccine in the late year 2020, the number of people who have been infected with Corona virus around the world continues to increase with a total of (1 million and 981 thousand and 239 cases), while the number of recovery cases from «Covid-19» to a total of (486,622) Case), and the number of deaths due to it increased to (126 thousand and 761 cases) until April 15, 2020.

Coronavirus Origins (COVID-19)

Chinese-US blame game on the sources of the coronavirus pandemic has fuelled a host of hypotheses, some more plausible than others.

The most common theory at the outset of the December outbreak was that the virus emerged from a so-called wet market in Wuhan, the Chinese city where the first COVID-19 cases were registered.

But the role of public-health laboratories in Wuhan came under increasing scrutiny as the virus spread globally. Long-running experiments with bat viruses in two laboratories in Wuhan helped scientists rapidly recognize the coronavirus as most likely to have originated from the nocturnal rodent, but the same laboratories have also fuelled fears regarding biosafety.

In the early weeks of the outbreak, the practice of collecting viruses from bats first burst into public view when Shi Zhengli, a renowned scientist with the Wuhan Institute of Virology, refuted a swirl of online allegations, both at home and abroad, that coronavirus may have leaked from her institute, where a laboratory accredited as BSL-4, the highest standard for the handling of dangerous pathogens, opened three years ago.

Director-General of the World Health Organization Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesu called this speculation part of a ‘infodemic’ of fake news about coronavirus, while other public health officials said they belonged to the slew of conspiracy theories claiming the virus had been engineered .

Some scientists, both inside and outside China, claim that an accidental leak remains a possibility-insofar as there is no proof to disprove it, But All scientists who studied the virus genome agree that it would be impossible.

Richard Ebright, a molecular biologist and director at the Waksman Institute of Microbiology at Rutgers University in New Jersey, US. said ‘There is nothing ‘fake’ about lab accidents,’ and ‘There is nothing ‘conspiratorial’ about lab accidents.’

It Is Genetic Makeup

Everyone still wonders: Where did the ‘COVID-19 emerging’ virus come from? Some researchers have believed that the virus is spread by frequent infections that jump from animals to humans, and then pass from person to person. However, other researchers have assumed that the virus probably only jumped once from animal to human and has spread to humans since mid-November 2019

Emma Hudcroft, a molecular epidemiologist at the University of Basel in Switzerland, adds: ‘We see absolutely no evidence that the virus was designed or released on purpose.’ It was not part of the Andersen Group, but is a member of a team of scientists at “Nextstrain.org” that tracks small genetic changes in the coronavirus to learn more about how it is spread around the world. Emma adds that some extensions of the genetic material of the virus resemble HIV, but this is something that stems from those viruses that share with their ancestors during evolution.

The researchers compared the emerging coronavirus with other newly found coronaviruses in nature, including bats and pangolin, and concluded that the ‘Covid 19’ virus could be a mixture of bat and pangolin viruses. Viruses, especially RNA viruses, often exchange like coronaviruses and genes in nature. The finding of genes related to the pangolin viruses was particularly reassuring, because the genetic makeup of these viruses was unknown until after the discovery of ‘Covid 19’.

He adds that sugars binding sites were further evidence that the virus is normal, as sugars create a ‘mucin shield’, which protects the virus from attack by the immune system, but when viruses are transplanted into laboratory tissues, the virus grows without the presence of immune systems. This makes it unlikely that such adaptation will arise from virus growth in the laboratory. Emma adds that the similarity of the ‘Covid 19’ virus to the bat and pangolin viruses is one of the best evidence that the virus is natural. ‘This was just another animal extension to humans.’

How It Has Affected Mankind

Covid 19 is one of the coronaviruses that causes respiratory diseases in humans, ranging from colds to pneumonia. The incubation period varies between coronaviruses, for example, the virus that causes SARS requires 11 days, while the incubation period for Covid 19 is between two to 14 days. Exposure to the virus to begin infecting the cells lining the throat and lungs to store and proliferate Covid 19 viruses, according to USA Today. The body contains Covid 19 viruses inside its cells without showing symptoms of the disease or any apparent effects, and the infected person may transmit Covid 19 virus to others during the incubation period.

The severity of symptoms increases after a person becomes ill, according to the strength of the body’s immunity, such as a rise in temperature or a decrease in it very clearly, and a feeling of fainting and shortness of breath. The kidneys do their work, and the chance of developing bowel lining increases. Corona Covid 19 virus causes other health problems such as severe hypotension, 4.7% of vital organs, diarrhea and indigestion.

Severe corona disease causes pneumonia, as the vesicles begin to fill with water, causing shortness of breath and difficulty, so patients need 14% in this case to have a ventilator so they can breathe, and it is worth noting if the patient does not receive enough oxygen that can cause severe symptoms Pneumonia leads to failure of vital organs after that death.

HOW TO PREVENT ITS SPREAD

Because of the rapid infection caused by coronavirus covid19. All they can do is to contain the epidemic, reduce the infection, disease and deaths caused by it. The best way to limit the spread of the virus is by adopting prevention methods by diagnosing patients and carriers, quarantine, prohibition of gathering, movement restricting and last using antiseptics and sterilizers. If implemented in a timely manner and effectively imposed, it is possible to reduce the risk of infection and thus the number of patients and victims.

Movement Restrictions

One of the first steps most countries have taken is to impose restrictions on flights coming from affected areas. This step succeeded in reducing the spread of the virus in the early stages of the disease outbreak by almost 80 percent, although this did not stop its spread at the epicenter of the original virus outbreak in Wuhan, China. While it was more effective when it took other precautions such as prohibition of assembly and maintaining hygiene. Although the number of patients is an important factor, it can also be deceptive. Due to the passage of time from the moment the patient is infected until the onset of symptoms he has, so it is difficult to know how many patients exactly are in each moment.

BACKGROUND

THE latest threat to global health was recently given the name COVID-19 caused by SARS-COV-2(severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2). FIRST case was reported in December 2019, in Wuhan, Hubei province, china and is rapidly spreading from Wuhan to the rest of the world. Many of the initial cases had a common exposure to the wholesale seafood market in china that also trade live animal. This virus belong to beta-corona virus and compared with SARS and MERS, this virus has high transmissibility and low mortality rate. There have been two events in the past wherein crossover of animal beta-corona viruses to humans has resulted in severe disease. First was in 2002-2003 in china and second in 2012 in Saudi Arabia. On 18 December 2020, data showed that, more than 2.29 million cases were confirmed to be infected by covid-19, more than 157,000 individual were died and more than 5, 83,000 people were recovered.

RESEARCH DONE

1) STRUCTURE, GENOME AND LIFE CYCLE OF COVID-19

Covid-19 is a single strand RNA virus with a diameter of 80-120nm. Six corona viruses were previously known to cause disease in humans; SARS-CoV-2(covid-19) is the seventh member of the corona virus family. Corona virus is large pleomorphic spherical particles with bulbous surface projections and its envelope consists of lipid bilayer. Inside the envelope, there is a nucleocapsid (protein shell enclosing genetic material) and it is bound to the positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome. The lipid bilayer envelope, membrane proteins, and nucleocapsid protect the virus when it is outside the host cell. The genome size of Corona virus is one of the largest among RNA viruses. The genome has a 5′ methylated cap and a 3′ polyadenylated tail. The genome organization for a corona virus is 5′-leader-UTR-replicase/transcriptase-spike (S)-envelope (E)-membrane (M)-nucleocapsid (N)-3’UTR-poly (A) tail. Genome having the reading frames for the accessory proteins and their function is unique depending on the specific corona virus.

The 2019 corona virus and the SARS-corona virus share central biological properties. Genome sequence recognition rates of SARS-CoV2 and bat SARS corona virus are 96% and it implies that covid-19 might have originated from bat. Bats are considered to be the natural hosts of Covid-19 while snakes are thought to be the intermediate hosts. But some studies found no evidence for snakes and rather pangolin is the intermediate host of the SARS-CoV-2. Further, Chinese researchers found that 92% of genetic material was shared between pangolin corona virus and SARS-CoV-2, which is insufficient to prove pangolins to be the intermediate host.

Studies have identified angiotensin receptor 2 (ACE2) as the receptor through which the virus enters the respiratory system. Covid-19 mainly recognizes the corresponding receptor on the target cell through some specific glycoprotein and then enters into the cells and causing the infection. THE glycoprotein through which it recognizes the corresponding receptors is S-GLYCOPROTEIN. COVID-19 has higher binding affinity for ACE2 than SARS-CoV and that’s why it has more rapid transmission capability in humans. After attachment, a protease of the host cell cleaves and activates the receptor-attached spike protein and this allow virus to enter into the host cell by endocytosis or direct fusion of viral envelope within host membrane then genome of virus enters cell cytoplasm. The corona virus RNA genome has a 5′ methylated cap and a 3′ polyadenylated tail, which allows the RNA to attach to the host cell’s ribosome for translation and this result in formation of polyprotein. The virus’s RNA code for proteins that stay in the host cell at least three are known. One stops the host cell from sending out signals to the immune system that it’s hijacked by virus. Another forces the host cell to release the newly created virions. And another one helps the virus resist the host cell’s immunity. In replication part, the main protein for replication is the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and formation of mRNAs also takes place. The replicated RNA becomes the genome of the progeny viruses. Progeny viruses are then released from the host cell by exocytosis through vesicles. THE virus copies proliferate, break out of the cells in the body.

AFTER entering the body, virus enters nasal passage and mucous membrane of throat then move to bronchial tubes. The infections can damage the air sacs of lungs and hinders the lung’s ability to oxygenate the blood and remove carbon dioxide and can fill the lungs with pus, dead cells and other fluid which cause pneumonia. Pneumonia caused by the corona virus is more severe than pneumonia caused by bacterial infection, which can be treated by antibiotic. It can further cause other organ failure and body’s immune response to infection can cause organ malfunction. As with mostly viral infection, body temperature increases to kill the viruses and WBCs ingest, destroy infected cells and create antibiotic. But different people’s immune system behaves differently. Sometime prolonged fevers degrade body’s own proteins. If an infection sufficiently damages the lungs, they will be unable to deliver oxygen to the rest of the body and to survive a patient will require a ventilator. Anything which weakens the immune system (even having drinking or lack of sleep or missed meal) can increase infection. In addition immune system creates small proteins called Cytokines that hinders the virus’s ability to replicate but over production of cytokine (know as cytokine storm) can harm body very badly.

2) SYMPTOMS AND TRANSMISSION

The WHO says that infection is transmitted through small droplets generated during coughing, talking and sneezing by symptomatic patients but can also occur from asymptomatic(infected person but don’t display any symptoms) people. The role asymptomatic carriers in transmission are not yet fully known. Infection is acquired either by inhalation of these droplets or touching surfaces contaminated by droplets (fomite transmission) which produced while breathing out and fall onto the surface and then touching the nose, mouth and eyes. The virus can survive on surfaces for hours to days. Specially, for one day on cardboard, for up to three days on plastic and stainless steel and for up to four hours on copper but this time periods also depends on humidity and temperature. The loud talking releases more droplets and uncovered cough can lead to droplets to travel more distance.

Emergency symptoms include difficulty breathing, chest pain or pressure, difficulty walking, and bluish face or lips. In some cases, disease progress to pneumonia, organ failure and death. Most common way of transmission of covid-19 is close contact and virus is not generally airborne but air transmission might be possible. Researchers detected SARS-CoV-2 in saliva, urine, digestive tract, gastrointestinal tract of covid-19 patients. All ages are susceptible to this disease. Disease in infants and children has been reported milder than the adults. Elderly citizens get easily infected by this corona virus as compared with other groups because immune system tends to weaken with age and especially male citizen with diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, etc. People should pay more attention to elderly people who might be more vulnerable to the SARS-CoV-2. No Specific information regarding infection from pregnant women to their fetus. The common observing symptoms include fever, cough, sore throat, headache, fatigue, headache, loss of smell, breathlessness whereas diarrhea and vomiting are rare. These symptoms are indistinguishable from other respiratory infections. Corona virus can cause damage to tissues and organs other than the lungs. Some COVID-19 patients have acute heart injury, secondary infection, abnormal liver function etc. The incubation period (delay between the moment when a person is infected with the virus and the time when they develop symptoms) may range from 2 to 14 days. The lungs are the organs most affected by COVID-19 because it is most abundant in ACE2. The ACE2 is also abundantly expressed in some other parts of the body such as small intestine, heart.

3) DIAGNOSIS

The WHO has published the standard method of testing is real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). Results are available within few hours to 2 days. A case is confirmed by positive molecular test on respiratory samples. Virus may also be detected in the stool and in severe cases, the blood. In India, the suspect sample has to be sent to designated reference labs in India or the National Institute of Virology in Pune.

It is not possible to differentiate COVID-19 from respiratory viral infections through routine lab tests and that’s why travel history becomes important aspect. The white cell count is usually normal or low. Platelet count is usually normal or mildly low. Chinese researchers have published genetic sequence so that other countries could develop polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests to detect infection.

Chest CT scans (computed tomography scan allow users to see specific area inside the object from specific angles without cutting) may be helpful to check covid-19. CT scan is more sensitive and specific. In fact abnormal CT scans are used for cases with negative molecular test, many infected people had positive molecular test on repeat testing.

4) TREATMENT

Remdesivir was recently reported as antiviral drug against many RNA viruses and some researchers reveal that it can control COVID-19 effectively. Meanwhile, chloroquine was proved to be effective in treatment of COVID-19. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, a drug to treat malaria and it have apparent efficacy against COVID-19 associated pneumonia. It might inhibit the release of viral RNA into host cells. Favipiravir, a drug from Japan, could keep viruses from replication. Some also believe that ACE2 protein can be targeted using hypertension drugs. Another approach is to take blood serum from people who have recovered from the virus and use it and also its antibodies as a drug. This method is effective in various viral infections but it is unclear how effective it is against SARS-COV-2. There are many types of basic vaccines, including killed viruses, weakened viruses, and parts of viruses, or viral proteins. All aim to exposes body to components of viruses so that blood cells can make antibodies. In past it has been difficult to manufacture vaccines for corona virus’s family. A lot to trial and error are involved. A new approach to form vaccine is to copy genetic material from a virus and add it to artificial nanoparticles and this makes it possible to make a vaccine based on genetic sequence. But it is unclear that such RNA vaccines are strong enough to stimulate sufficient response from immune system. Other antiviral treatment tries to slow down the virus’s spread, but there is no clarity how effective they are.

5) PREVENTION

ISOLATION is most important to prevent transmission to the other people. We should maintain proper hydration and nutrition and controlling fever and cough. we should stay at home, avoid crowded places, washing hands with soap and water often for at least 20 seconds, especially after toilet or when hands are visibly dirty, before eating, and after toughing one’s nose, coughing , sneezing. This is because outside human body virus is killed by soap. If soap and water are not available than use sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol. Avoid touching eyes and nose or mouth with unwashed hands. Cover the mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing or sneezing and proper hand hygiene after cough or sneeze is encouraged social distance aim to reduce contact of infected persons with groups by closing crowded areas like schools, workplace, public gathering etc. Another method is quarantines. Many governments have recommended self quarantine for entire population like in India. Vaccine is not expected until 2021. Patients are discharged from isolation once they have two consecutive negative molecular tests with one day gap. Studies have shown that vitamin C may prevent the susceptibility of lower respiratory tract infections. Therefore a moderate amount of vitamin C may be a way to prevent covid-19. It is particularly important to enhance self-resistance.the best ways to boost personal immunity is to maintain personal hygiene, a adequate nutritional intake. The use of mask by patients with respiratory symptoms is necessary.

CONCLUSION

COVID-19 is a serious infectious disease caused by SARA-COV-2 and its most likely source is bats. This new virus outbreak has challenged the economic, medical and public health infrastructure of the whole world. This life threatening disease has posed a great threat to global health and safety, so to control the spread of it and reduce mortality as soon as possible is the most important issue. Until now the specific mechanism of virus is unknown and no specific drugs for virus have been developed. So at present it is important to control source of infection and cut of the transmission chain. We should continue research and promote development of vaccines. Time alone will tell how this virus will impact our liver here in India. More so, future outbreaks of viruses and pathogens of zoonotic origin are likely to continue. Therefore main concern is to prevent future outbreaks of zoonotic origin.

MY PERSPECTIVE

The experience gained in china and other countries offers valuable lessons that we can beat this problem together by following proper prevention methods. Currently there is no standard treatment for disease, so the best we can do to stop its transmission by protecting yourself and others around you by knowing the facts and taking appropriate precautions. We should stay informed on latest developments about covid-19 and follow advice given by your healthcare provider, your national and local public health authority. Be patient and properly maintain social distancing. It’s a ‘matter of time’ before things get back to normal in the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12098-020-03263-6
2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924857920300984
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_outbreak
5. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/04/15/999476/explainer-how-does-the-coronavirus-work/
6. www.technologyreview.com

Systems biology is the scientific analysis and modelling which displays systemic properties as well as dynamic interactions in biological objects. This holistic approach is used in a quantitative and qualitative manner by combining different experimental studies with mathematical modelling (Klipp et al., 2016). Systems biology can be used in order to establish the relationship between bodily systems which cause changes in the biology of individuals, altering their BMI and playing a role in other metabolic disorders associated with obesity. Obesity is due to the excessive of abnormal fat accumulation in adipose tissue, impairing health (WHO, 2000). The prevalence of obesity has increased in Australia in recent years, and has been predicted to continue to rise (WHO, 2000). Both genetics and environment are attributes to obesity, however the extent and understanding of these causes are still not completely understood. The microbiome, being the usually microbial inhabitants present in the body, has been studied as a contributor to obesity. Additionally, the metabolic activity of individuals in relation to their microbiome is being studied in order to determine various causes for obesity and metabolic syndrome. Systems biology allows for large-scale analysis of data from several studies to understand the obesity epidemic, and therefore treat it effectively.

Systems biology creates an analysis of behaviours and interactions of numerous systems, providing a comprehensive understanding of how different relationships cause different diseases and disorders (Klipp et al., 2016). Obesity is a component of metabolic syndrome which can be studied through systems biology of a population. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) is an example of systems research which identifies small genetic variations across individual, whilst linking this in with traditional genetics. This gives scientists the ability to establish crucial functional relationships between genes, found in different systems, associated with the progression of obesity and metabolic syndrome (Lusis et al., 2008). When GWAS was conducted over 130 independent studies, CD44, a cell surface adhesion receptor involved in cell-cell interactions, was found to have the top role in modulating adipose tissue inflammation and glycaemic control, as it was the highest differentially expressed gene (Meng et al., 2012). Additionally, GWAS has identified links between the FTO gene and melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), which then caused changes in BMI and therefore the progression of obesity in both children and adults (Tung & Yeo, 2011). Without systems biology, this first-hand information about causal relationships between variations in genes and disease would not be formed, emphasising its importance in helping to understand and treat obesity.

Systems biology can be used to gain a better understanding of the microbiome found in the gut in order to link microbial activity to the prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome. The microbiome functions within the body to assist with metabolism, and when imbalanced can lead to disease, such as obesity and metabolic syndrome (Kinross et al., 2011). Parallel computing for systems biology allows for a large-scale analysis of GI tract’s under various physiological conditions that both are human’s or mimic human microbiota (Maruvada et al., 2017). Profiles of parallel microbial communities on murine models, such as human babies, give insights to microbiomes which have not adapted to their environment yet. These show that microbiomes with higher Actinobacteria are linked to a higher rate of development of obesity and metabolic syndrome (Martin et al., 2007). Other examples of components of metabolic syndrome which this profiling shows is the mice with an increase in Clostridium perfringens had increased liver triglyceride as well as higher plasma glycerol, indicating towards the progression of diabetes (Martin et al., 2007). The modelling of the gut ecosystem microbial levels are vital for disease prevention that is specifically targeted to each individual (Kinross et al., 2011). It can be seen, using systems biology strategies, that varying levels of microbes in the gut microbiome can cause a higher chance of development of obesity or metabolic syndrome.

The functioning relationships between an individual’s microbiome and their metabotype is associated with the progression of obesity and metabolic syndrome, shown by systems biology. A metabotype is an individual’s metabolic phenotype and systems analysis allows for the differences from person to person to be highlighted (Calvani et al., 2010). Using a systems-based approach for a FISH analysis showed significantly lower microbial population in obese mice, compared to mice within a healthy weight range (Waldram et al., 2008). The obese mice also had decreased creatine production, found via a urine analysis and Hydrogen Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (H-NMR), indicating obese and lean mice have different metabotypes therefore making obese mice more inclined to be obese due to their biology (Waldram et al., 2008). Additionally, urine analyses from humans while initially obese, and once becoming lean showed a significant difference in their metabotypes. Variations in their microbiomes shown via H-NMR are a probable attribute to this difference in metabotypes (Calvani et al., 2010). The metabonics used here allowed for a complex study of the metabolite profiles of these biological samples, showing the benefits of a systems approach in order to understand metabolic regulation on a global level. Using systems biology for both FISH analyses and H-NMR shows evidence of relationships between metabotypes and they microbial environments and the development of obesity.

Therefore, the development of metabolic syndrome and, a component of it, obesity within a population can be analysed on a large-scale using systems biology. This has been seen through systems biology experimental strategies including GWAS, parallel microbiological profiling, FISH analyses and H-NMR which display underlying mechanisms which were not identified previously. Systems biology is extremely beneficial due to its ability to provide an in-depth analysis of the current obesity epidemic, and creates the opportunity for a better and wider array of treatment options, but more importantly prevention.