The problem of biodiversity conservation has been on the environmental agenda for quite long due to the unceasingly bad impact, which industries have on the environment. However, when it comes to defining the issue that causes the most concern and debates at present, one must mention the marine biodiversity and the possible positive effects that impure public goods may have on it. The biodiversity rates in the World Ocean in general and every single sea, in particular, are shrinking down rapidly, and unless adequate measures are taken to handle the issue, an environmental catastrophe is unavoidable.
According to the recent report, impressive shrinking of fishes has been noticed recently (Arriagada, and Perrings 802). Therefore, the problem of marine biodiversity conservation exists, and, more importantly, it is growing out of proportions extremely fast due to overconsumption and pollution. Unless the use of impure public goods is introduced into the process of public-goods supply, the marine biodiversity rates are going to drop to a shockingly low level.
Before going any further, it will be necessary to shed some light on the nature and definition of impure public goods. According to the existing sources, impure public goods are traditionally defined as the goods that “are either partially excludable or partially rival” (Arriagada, and Perrings 799).
In fact, “Biodiversity conservation, like many other IEPGs, is an impure global public good” (Arriagada and Perrings 801), as recent researches state. One might argue that the issue of biodiversity conservation does not quite fit into the range of phenomena that the concept of impure public goods embraces. However, it should also be kept in mind that the definition of impure public goods is rather loose and that, to comply with the basic definition, a phenomenon in question must meet two key requirements, i.e., being non-rivalrous and non-excludable. The concept of impure global goods seems to suit the given definition since impure global goods do not presuppose competition and, at the same time, can be accessed by the customers without the latter actually having to pay for it.
The fact that the issue concerning the global marine biodiversity and the effects that impure public goods may possibly have on these rates can lead to the development of a range of externalities that should also be born in mind. Indeed, according to what Arriagada and Perrings say, “The costs and benefits associated with many human activities spill over jurisdictional boundaries, thereby generating externalities that are often reciprocal and quantitatively significant” (Arriagada, and Perrings 803).
In other words, the failure of the wildlife products to consider the decline of wildlife population in the process of decision making “because there do not exist appropriate economic institutions and incentives to get ‘consumers of wildlife to regard the costs they impose on those deriving utility from conservation” (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 7) is often regarded as an externality in the production of impure public goods. As a rule, several key types of externalities are traditionally associated with the concept of impure public goods. Among these externalities, the inability of the consumers of the above-mentioned products to realize that their excessive consumption affects the wildlife in a very negative way and the failure to carry out a private provision of a specific product (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 7) are usually mentioned.
The technological issues of the public goods supply are also worth mentioning. As Bulte, Kooten and Swanson explain, the development of the technological advances for the changes in environmental issues to occur is the point at which the process of addressing the problem is thrown from one extreme to another. To be more exact, the legal person in question may either be provided with the rights to shape the environmental management standards in the manner that the given party finds the most suitable, or, on the contrary, to be prohibited from making a single step without consulting the corresponding authorities first (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 8).
Therefore, a thorough reconsideration of the existing regulations must be carried out so that the execution of the new principles should be more efficient. Given the scale of the threat, it is necessary to create a single set of principles to comply with when dealing with the issue.
Finally, the issue of economic incentives should be touched upon. There is no secret that the impact of wildlife on the community is very high. The environment in which people live shapes their health, habits, traditions, and life altogether. As a result, the effect of wildlife on society cannot be neglected and certainly should not be underestimated. More to the point, the process of a continuous wildlife exploration leads to the discovery of a range of factors, most of which are most likely to affect the current flow of the economy and introduce a range of changes into the balance between demand and supply. As a result, it is important to consider the types of economic incentives, which may stir the environmental concern and, at the very least, spread awareness regarding the threat that wildlife in general and marine biodiversity in particular.
Speaking of the existing types of incentives, Bulte, Kooten and Swanson offer a very decent account of the incentives classification, which is currently adopted in economy: these are common values and norms, or, speaking in economic terms, “threats or moral suasion” (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 2); command and control (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 2); and market incentives (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 2). As far as the concept of impure goods and environment conservation are concerned, the incentives for impure public goods can be identified as homogenous harvesting (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 3), efficient resources management (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 3) and spillover effects (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 4). It should be noted that not all of the incentives are regarded as positive; the last one, i.e., the spillover effect, is traditionally viewed as a drawback of the economic incentives application.
With a focus on the impure public goods, a range of improvements can be done to the current state of the environment in general and marine biodiversity in particular. Unless the required measures are undertaken, and the safety rules are enhanced for the transportation of potentially hazardous materials, marine biodiversity will be threatened greatly and may face complete extinction in several decades. Recent researches have sown that the biodiversity rates are dropping at present and have proven that urgent steps must be taken to promote a sustainable economy; the enhancement of the impure public goods concept may contribute to the promotion of sustainable economy. Thus, economic strategies affect current environmental issues. It is in people’s power to change the course of the events, and the required measures must be taken to address the issue of the shrinking marine biodiversity.
Works Cited
Arriagada, Rodrigo and Charles Perrings. “Paying for International Environmental Public Goods.” AMBIO 40, (2011), 798–806. Web.
Bulte, Erwin H., G. Cornelis van Kooten and Timothy Swanson. Economic Incentives and Wildlife Conservation. The Netherlands: Tilburg University. 2003. Print.
Rewilding our cities: beauty, biodiversity and the biophilic cities movement
Date published
April 4, 2021.
To which module from class does the news item connect?
Module 10.2 Climate Change.
Summary of article
This article discusses how plant-covered buildings benefit human well-being and biodiversity and help avert climate change. While contemporary cities primarily have glass-faced buildings that overheat and require energy to cool down, an alternative supporting the human-nature connection would be more efficient and environmentally friendly. Such a tactic suggests that buildings should be aligned with living systems that continuously evolve. As cities and urban areas grow, establishing and maintaining the connection with nature is essential not only to bring beauty into human life but also to improve health and well-being. As research shows, areas that have street trees are characterized by lower crime rates and increased property value.
The article claims that engineering systems could improve by learning from nature which manages flooding and weather in a masterly and adaptable manner. In particular, as humanity fights climate change to avoid the dangerous consequences, natural systems and native cultures can provide a basis for managing and protecting biodiversity. According to a green government architect’s “Greener Places” framework, green infrastructure offers various benefits, such as increased social interaction, lower flood risk, and improved biodiversity. At the same time, people still observe designs that do not consider natural principles or habitats created to help maintain biodiversity. In this regard, a design approach based on regeneration creates more opportunities for nature and people to benefit each other mutually.
The author focuses on Australian practices and possibilities for the biophilic cities movement; however, the article emphasizes that rewilding is possible everywhere, even in dense city centers. Providing habitats for native speakers would also support engaging community spaces for citizens. It is worth noting that even small urban green areas are enough to create important habitats for a variety of species. By linking such areas into a larger space, one can increase the potential of benefiting biodiversity and connecting people and nature. This idea is supported by emerging projects around the world demonstrating vast opportunities. For example, Highline of New York is an example of using leftover spaces to unite people with natural elements through rewilding. Rewilding approach suggests using green infrastructure no the streets, in and in buildings, as well as in leftover spaces. The article argues that nature-based solutions can bring a healthy balance in the connection between nature and people. To do so, infrastructure and developments should be seen as initial areas for nature which humankind occupies instead of thinking that such space is for people to use and occasionally add greenery.
Using leftover spaces such as car parks, railway cuttings, or abandoned sites is an efficient approach to help prevent climate change. Roads, buildings, plazas, and rooftops increase heat and pollute water runoff as hard surfaces. The green approach does not simply involve the use of trees; instead, projects like Melbourne’s SkyFarm, Sydney’s Camperdown Commons, or Perth City Farm show how food can be grown in cities while improving community engagement. Acknowledging the benefits is the first step towards increasing the number of sustainable and green projects that prevent biodiversity loss and climate change.
The article highlights that there is no need to wait until more species extinction, bushfires, or floods occur to show that action is needed to prevent catastrophic consequences. A loss of 75% of Australian rainforests and koala extinction threats are some of the numerous examples of harmful effects that endanger all living beings. Biodiversity objectives set by the UN convention a decade ago were not accomplished, which indicates how alarming the situation is. Therefore, people must take responsibility for their actions and do their best to support nature and other species, especially since the survival of humanity depends on them. Seeing nature as an integral part of humankind is the only way to make a change, and so far, not enough action is taken. To summarize, rewilding cities is an efficient way to make people’s habitat beautiful, increase biodiversity, and help prevent climate change.
Why did you pick this news item? Why did you think it was interesting?
I picked this news item because it is related to the subject of climate change, as the article studies how rewilding of cities and green design can help prevent global warming. I thought this article was interesting because it focused on the benefits of green infrastructure and offered opportunities of making people’s life more sustainable and closer to nature. For example, leftover space can be used to bring nature not only to parks but also to built areas. The author explains that beauty and improved well-being are not the only advantages of rewilding but argues that biodiversity and climate situations can be enhanced with nature-based solutions.
What bias or agenda might the source of your news item have?
The Guardian newspaper is considered to be a reliable source of information that has a reputation for quality journalism. The newspaper claims to be the world’s leading liberal voice. Therefore, it is generally regarded as a credible source of information.
Provide at least one question you have after learning from your news item.
After reading this article, I wondered what other nature-based solutions are available to improve the connection of people and nature. Besides, I would like to know what countries are leading in rewilding and what practices they use to achieve this goal.
The selected issue is centered around the problem of biodiversity in the UAE. Biodiversity is among the most important aspects of the environment, and thus, it is important to ensure that any ecosystem has high levels of it. The main problem with biodiversity preservation revolves around the fact that human activity generally shrinks the human-free territory available for other animal species. Therefore, it is evident that many members of flora and fauna experience a decline in their population rate and even extinction. Such processes lead to the notion that only a small subset of animals and plant life are capable of adapting to the new changing environment driven by human activity, which leads to the state where wildlife of certain territories is represented by only a handful of species of animals and plants. This can be called a decline in biodiversity, where only a few populations can survive in such conditions, and many others are either driven to extinction or become endangered.
By the decision of the United Nations, 2010 was declared the International Year of Biodiversity. By this decision, the UN seeks to draw the attention of the world community and the leaders of all countries to the protection and rational use of natural resources (“2010 Biodiversity Target,” 2010). The global policy was in tune with UAE’s stance on the issue. Overuse of freshwater, energy resources, massive deforestation, modern agricultural practices, and other human activities have a devastating impact on the natural environment, leading to a reduction in biodiversity on the planet. Today, more than 7 thousand species of animals and almost 60 thousand species of plants are under threat of extinction (Tilman et al., 2017). The work was carried out to disseminate knowledge about the importance of biodiversity conservation among the general population: schoolchildren and students, workers and leaders of various industries and agriculture, politicians, and pensioners. The fact is that ecosystems and populations of living organisms inhabiting the planet cannot exist when the lower threshold or limit of biodiversity is reached.
The danger of a decrease in biodiversity also lies in the fact that in this case, there is a significant reduction in the production of eco-system services, which include climate regulation, a decrease in the frequency and power of natural hazards, soil formation, natural waste disposal, water, and atmospheric air purification, creation of ecological niches for various animals, fungi, plants, microorganisms and some others (Marselle et al., 2019). Today, the cost of ecosystem services is not included in financial and economic calculations. This leads to the fact that the political leadership and the population of many countries, including the United Arab Emirates, do not have a true understanding of the state of the economy and ecosystems. An increase in the frequency of anomalous natural phenomena leads, in general, to a decrease in the possibility of self-regulation of the biosphere of the entire planet. With a high frequency of anomalous phenomena, the biota of the planet can pass into another state that is not entirely acceptable for humanity.
The policy is the National Biodiversity Strategy of UAE, which focuses on biodiversity preservation and protection. It is stated that “this strategy is primarily aimed at addressing the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by integrating biodiversity values across all sectors of the country, reducing direct pressures on biodiversity and promoting sustainable use” (“National Biodiversity Strategy,” 2021). In other words, it is a systematic and comprehensive approach to eliminating or reducing the direct causal factor of biodiversity loss in the key regions of the UAE.
The core statement of the policy is centered around addressing underlying biodiversity pressures through several strategic objectives. The five key elements of the National Biodiversity Strategy include the integration of biodiversity concepts into all sectors and society segments, strengthening the knowledge base and capacity-building for the conservation and management of biodiversity, and improving the state of biodiversity by protecting habitats, species, and genetic diversity, and rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems, decreasing pressures on land and marine environments and strengthening cooperation and coordination at the local, regional and international levels in biodiversity-related areas (“National Biodiversity Strategy,” 2021).
The first rule to support the policy is based on raising awareness of the majority of UAE citizens. It is stated that by 2021, the objective is to ensure that the message is reached by at least 75% of the nation’s population (“National Biodiversity Strategy,” 2021). Any new regulation or policy is assessed in its impact on biodiversity. Critically important ecosystems and coastal lines are becoming managed effectively through budgetary and human resource allocations. It is stated that to support the policy, important programs are integrated to improve the status of 70% of threatened species (“National Biodiversity Strategy,” 2021).
Historically, the issue of biodiversity is tightly tied with the idea of cultural heritage. It is stated that “it became one of the most priority issues that received early and personal attention by the late father of Nation, Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyan” (“National Biodiversity Strategy,” 2021). In other words, there were no debates over the issue since it was prioritized since the UAE’s origins. The most impacted by the policy is comprised wildlife inhabiting various regions of UAE. Although there is no information on precise budgetary allocations in regards to biodiversity programs, it is estimated to be within AED 8.46 billion range expense (“The federal budget for the fiscal year 2020 amounts to AED 61.35 billion,” 2021). In other words, the efforts undertaken have an economic impact, but the main reasons are more focused on cultural heritage.
Sustainable development of the country largely depends on the level of conservation of biological resources, which are the basis for the existence and development of human society. As a result of the constantly increasing anthropogenic impact on the environment, the stocks and populations of many plant and animal species are rapidly decreasing. The UAE and developed countries have a different experiences in the theoretical substantiation and implementation of environmental monitoring of biological resources. The strong point of the UAE’s experience in the field of environmental monitoring is a systematic approach to assessing the state of biological resources, which was reflected in the development of documentation for the creation of a unified state system of environmental monitoring.
However, the existing UAE’s National Biodiversity Strategy policy is not focused on monitoring the environmental and economic efficiency of ongoing environmental projects and programs, which will also have an economic impact. Analysis of the current situation shows that in the country, as in many other countries, there is still no systemic, objective, and reliable data on the state, protection, and reproduction of natural resources, and their ecological and economic potential. There is no necessary and relevant information about the objects and subjects of biological resource management. The process of development and implementation of monitoring works in UAE’s National Biodiversity Strategy is only included in generally accepted practice as a means of environmental protection management and rational use of natural resources. In this direction, there are many problems, both theoretical, methodological, and practical, since the main focus of environmental monitoring work is to use their results in social production, nature management, environmental protection, and other areas (Maiti & Maiti, 2017). As a result, such efforts should give the opportunity to purposefully manage natural resources, including biological, taking into account the economic interests of the development of society.
However, such a mechanism has not yet been developed in the case of the National Biodiversity Strategy, except for improving legislative norms and general recommendations. It follows from this that certain indicators of environmental monitoring should be assessed by economic parameters. The combination of environmental and economic indicators is the very management mechanism that should fit into monitoring systems when assessing the state of environmental parameters of biodiversity. Ecological and economic monitoring is an information system for observing, assessing, and forecasting changes in the state of the environment using environmental and socio-economic parameters, created to highlight the anthropogenic component of these changes against the background of natural processes. It should be aimed at systemic assessment, analysis, management decisions, and forecasting (Maiti & Maiti, 2017). Only a coupled analysis of the dynamics of natural biological components and anthropogenic impacts of an ecological and economic nature can provide objective information about the state and possible negative or positive changes, manage these processes and improve the nature management strategy.
Each and every country has something unique that differentiates it from others. These are special areas that do require special protection because of the different roles they play. These biodiversity hotspots in certain countries act as tourist attraction sites. In so doing, these regions earn the country foreign exchange that is vital in the growth of different sectors of a country. In many countries, these areas are under serious destruction from human activities.
As a result, there is a need for protection of these biodiversity hotspots. This paper explores biodiversity hotspots, the case of Philippines. This entails defining the term biodiversity hotspot and offer solutions on the global efforts aimed at curbing biodiversity loss. The solutions are based on the latest developments in the protection of endangered areas.
Hotspots definition
A biodiversity hotspot refers to one of the 34 areas that have been designated world wide. These areas are rich biologically and are normally characterized by high levels of plant endemism. Here, cases of high loss of habitat are of serious concern. Consequently, such regions are the most endangered hence they require conservation actions to be directed towards them.
For any region in the world to be considered as a biodiversity hotspot, it has to contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants which have to be endemics. Additionally, such a region should have endured a high level of habitat loss. Normally, a hotspot must have experienced 70% loss in the original habitat. In many cases, there is only 1.4% of land that remains whereas this is to support 60% of the world’s reptiles, plants, amphibians, birds and mammals (Conservation International, 2005).
According to the Australian Government’s Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (2009), these areas do support natural ecosystems which are mainly in their natural state with a well representation of native species, as well as communities. Biodiversity hotspots, thus, have a diverse range of endemic species which are local and are not easily found in those areas that are outside the specific hotspot.
In case there are no any conservation management strategies put in place to control continued destruction of the diversity, then any current, as well as planned human activities risk these areas. However, natural values of hotspots are mainly intact. This essentially means that all efforts directed at maintaining the values ought to provider value for money. This is in the contribution of efforts aimed at biodiversity conservation in the biodiversity hotspots.
The International Conservation has classified the Philippines as one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world. The country is made up of over 7,100 islands making it a biologically rich country. In Philippines, many of the endemic species are found in forest fragments that currently cover 7% of the original hotspot that existed hitherto.
The remaining species here are more than 6,000 plants plus various bird species like the Philippine cockatoo, wrinkled hornbill, the enormous Philippine eagle, the Cebu flowerpecker and the Visayan. Further more, there is a high amphibian endemism that boosts of species like the panther flying frog. Additionally, the country is said to be one of the areas that are endangered in the world.
This is essentially due to the fact that over time, there have been many cases of logging reported in the country. Currently, there is deforestation as people forests for agricultural purposes. Moreover, these forests are being cleared in order to pave the way for accommodation facilities to cater for the high population in the country (Conservation International, 2007).
According to the US Department of State (2011), Philippines measure an area of 300,000km2 (117,187sq. mi.). Its capital city is Manila with a population of 11.55 million people. The country has a mountainous terrain with 65% of the surface being mountainous. It also has narrow coastal lowlands. Additionally, the Philippines has a tropical climate characterized by astride typhoon belt. In the Philippines, more than 40% of total land area is under arable farming.
Despite the country being a rich agricultural land, a number of factors do limit the productivity gains in the country. These include poor infrastructural facilities, financial constraints and government policies. However, agricultural products are used for consumption, as well as export. Only a third of the population is employed in the agricultural sector. It is worthy noting that agricultural productivity does not even contribute a fifth of the country’s GDP.
The country has experienced deforestation in many parts. Over years, there has been continued uncontrolled logging, as well as farm clearing for agricultural purposes.
This has resulted into serious implications in terms of the ecological balance. Government efforts aimed at reducing deforestation have not been effective. Essentially, cases of deforestation are still a serious problem in Philippines. Global warming has been said to represent a major threat to the biodiversity in Philippines.
An increase in the concentrations of carbon dioxide affects both plants and animals. The carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere a result of numerous human activities. Studies undertaken show that many unique habitats are likely to be lost, as a result of changes brought about by climate. An increase in the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere results into the rise in temperatures.
Consequently, it is estimated that the rise in temperature is likely to eliminate over 56,000 plants and 3,700 endemic animal species in the biodiversity hotspots in the world, the Philippines included. Geographical limitations restrict migration options for many of the endangered species in the Philippines. As a result, many species in this region become vulnerable to effects of climate change (Alave, 2011).
Causes of extinction
Philippines is one the major threatened hotspots in the world. The country has remarkable levels of species endemism. However, only seven percent of its original forest still exists as a result of massive destruction. In the lowland regions, only three percent of the forests do exist.
In case conservation measures would have been instituted, then many areas would have been able to experience regeneration in the long run. Thus, the major cause of extinction in the tree species in the Philippines is high deforestation rates (The Utrecht Faculty of Education, 2011).
A number of factors have contributed to the high rates of deforestation experienced in the Philippines currently. The principal issue here is the high population in the country. Currently, according to the BBC (2011), the Philippines has a population of 93.6 million people. This was from the 2010 UN estimate. The annual population growth rate as per 2007 was estimated to be at 2.04%. The livelihoods of all these people are dependent on natural resources in the country.
Rural areas are said to experience severe poverty. Further more, a high population density estimated at more than 273 people per km2 has been a burden on the only remaining forests in the country. People began using timber a long time ago, for instance the Spanish who used the timber in constructing their fleet. By the year 1945, forest cover was estimated at two-thirds of the country (Australian Government, 2009).
Contrary, proceeding years saw acceleration in the logging rates in the Philippines. The Conservation International (2007), states that about 2,000km2 of trees that constituted the country’s natural forest cover were logged on an annual basis. The rate at which the logging occurred was three times the rate at which tropical forests were being converted in the rest of the world.
However, there has been a reduction in logging in the country due to the current state of forests. Many of the forests have been depleted meaning people cannot undertake such activities again. More so, there has been increased community awareness. This is in an effort to teach communities involved in logging on the importance of forests.
This has been done by government agencies, as well as non-governmental organizations involved in environmental conservation efforts. Despite what has been witnessed and achieved so far, it has not been rosy. As it was witnessed in 2004 when landslides occurred in Philippines, there are still numerous logging activities which are going on in the country’s forests that still remain (Guerero, 2007).
Forests, which are part of Philippines’ biodiversity hotspots, have been on the decline due to land conversion and mining. As per the Conservation International (2007), by 1997, one-quarter of the Philippines was under mining activities.
To make the destruction case serious, these mining activities were taking place in more than half of the primary forests that were remaining in the country. Land conversion has seen construction of infrastructural facilities which are not in harmony with the country’s set goals on biodiversity conservation.
These infrastructural facilities include irrigation projects, ports and harbors, development of road networks, energy and power projects. During the construction of these facilities, there is massive clearing of vegetation cover in order to create space (U.S Department of State, 2011).
Campaigns for rectifying this trend have included the introduction of exotic species to what already existed. This has not been working especially in the wetlands, with lots of negative impacts experienced. Some of the species which include fish like the giant catfish and black bass, water fern, toads, water hyacinth and frogs. However, immediate action is needed in order to avoid a looming crisis in the Philippines region.
Without intervention measures in place, then the whole region would most likely become extinct. The government has been issuing conservation concessions but these are yet to take effect. Logging has continued especially in the lowland forests. This has reduced these forests to a very tiny fraction of what existed initially.
Despite protected areas and national parks being very crucial in the conservation efforts in the Philippines’ biodiversity, only 11 percent of the country’s total land area is currently protected. This is approximated to be around 32,000km2 out of the total land area of the whole country (300,000km2) (Conservation International, 2007).
Currently, there is no clear demarcation of the national park boundaries. Further more, government agencies involved in enforcement are doing little when it comes to matters of conservation. As a result, there is even a raging debate on the number of national parks existing in the country at the moment.
Already two-thirds of the national parks have been converted into human settlements whereas one-quarter of the national parks’ lands have been disturbed in one way or the other. For instance, many of the land areas have been converted and are being used for agricultural activities in the country. Other land areas supposed to be for national parks have been cleared for creating space to accommodate the ever increasing human population in the country (Conservation International, 2007).
On the other hand, a number of positives can be drawn from the conservation measures being undertaken in the Philippines. In the year 2002, the government of Philippines managed to reclaim five new protected areas. More over, the expansion of the Penablanca Protected Landscape and Seascape in the year 2003 was a big step towards concerted conservation measures in the country.
The expansion programme saw the area increase from 4,136 hectares to 118,108 hectares. In the recent past, the president issued a decree that saw the establishment of the Quirino Protected Landscape that covers 206,875 hectares in the northern Luzon area of Philippines (Conservation International, 2007).
There is a need to ensure that the already existing network of protected areas is able to conserve biodiversity in an adequate manner. This can be achieved through the government, as well as other stakeholders ensuring that Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are conserved in an adequate way.
Other areas that do require intervention in terms of conservation include those with populations which are globally threatened by human activities. Further more, areas that have species which are geographically restricted should be conserved to protect these species.
In this case, KBAs are special biological areas set aside for endangered species. By so doing, these species of global conservation concern are able to be managed as a single unit within a given location. It is commendable that something is being done to conserve KBAs in the Philippines. For instance, a number of organizations are collaborating in an effort to identify and delineate all the KBAs found in Philippines.
These organizations are the Field Museum from Chicago, Conservation International-Philippines, Haribon Foundation, as well as other partners involved in the conservation of biodiversity hotspots in Philippines. The work of conservation undertaken by these organizations is to refine a number of broad-scale priorities that had been identified during the Biodiversity Conservation Priority-Setting Process held in the Philippines in the year 2000.
This work of biodiversity conservation receives much of support from CEPF. The Haribon Foundation had earlier identified 117 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in 2001 where most of the conservation efforts are directed. Normally, IBAs are areas that contain congregatory species which are threatened world wide with a restricted-range. Consequently, they offer these organizations a starting point when it comes to the collection of vital data that is used in the identification of KBAs.
Research is being undertaken on ways of conserving these biodiversity hotspots in Philippines. This research is vital in supporting efforts already underway in the creation of protected areas and support conservation activities.
The research has resulted into the discovery of new endemic species providing information that has to be directly fed into the refining and prioritization of KBAs. In addition, numerous activities are also being carried out concerning conservation in Philippines.
One of the organizations that is fully involved in conservation is the Philippine Cockatoo Conservation Program on Palawan. This organization has been involved in efforts aimed at reducing theft of eggs of the endangered species. The Cebu Biodiversity Conservation Foundation Program is involved in the protection of the last areas of forests that remain in the country.
The activities of this organization have been more pronounced especially after the rediscovery of species of the Cebu flowerpecker that had earlier been assumed to be extinct. By providing grants, organizations do support the conservation efforts that are on-going in the Philippines (The Utrecht Faculty of Education, 2011).
Some of the organizations which have been on the forefront in providing funds to conservation efforts include the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund and the Haribon Foundation. These organizations provide grants through organizing special programs, for instance, the Threatened Species Program.
However, long term measures are vital in the Philippines in order to include the conservation of landscape and the seascape. This ensures that there is complete conservation of the biodiversity hotspots in Philippines. Efforts have been on-going to ensure long term conservation of the endangered species in Philippines. Collaborations between organizations have been evident to this end.
Some of the targeted areas in these efforts include Palawan, Eastern Mindanao and Sierra Madre regions. Work in these regions has been coordinated by Conservation International in collaboration with the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. Additionally, there has been the establishment of the Philippine Eagle Alliance charged with coordinating works undertaken by conservation groups operating in the country (The Utrecht Faculty of Education, 2011).
Philippines as a hotspot
Philippines is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of diversity and hence biodiversity hotspot. In 2000, the country was considered to have 52,177 species of flora and fauna. Out of this, 418 were listed as being endangered, a third of 9,000 species of flora are said to be endemic. Of the 165 mammal species, 121 are only found in this region of the world. From this data, it is therefore clear that many of the species in the country are threatened. There are a number of species which have been lost in the Philippines over time.
Rhinoceros and Elephants
In the past few years, different animal fossils have been discovered in the Philippines. These fossils have made scientists believe that animals like rhinoceros and elephants used to live in Philippines. Additionally, the scientists have been able to identify two species of elephants and one of rhinoceros that live during yesteryears. The elephant species were Elaphas beyeri and Elaphas cf. namadicus whereas the rhinoceros was called Rhinoceros philippinensis (Conservation International, 2007).
Monkey-eating eagles
Scientists believe these are some of the largest eagles ever to live on earth. Its scientific name is Pithecophaga jefferyi and is believed to be living in the rainforests of Samar, Mindanao, Isabela and Leyte.
The eagle feeds on hornbills, large snakes, civet cats, monkeys, and flying lemurs. The eagle creates nests over 39 meters the ground. Currently, scientists estimate that there are about 100 to 300 meaning that they are like to be extinct.
Philippines hence has to protect these remaining species so that they do not become extinct. These eagles included Sulu hornbill, Philippine cockatoo, Palawan peasant pheasant, Cebu black shama and the Mindoro imperial pigeon. However, the Philippine Eagle is a symbol of the efforts by Egyptians in environmental conservation. It represents the decision of the people regarding the conversation of forests and country (Conservation International, 2007).
Flying Lemur
The Flying Lemur is the most distinct creatures which still exist in Philippines. In a single leap, this creature can glide around 100 meters. This creature only moves around at night, just like the lemurs of Asia. The creature has a head that resembles a frog. On the other hand, the body of the Lemur is like that of a Canadian flying squirrel.
The creature is called kagwang in the Mindanao region. World wide, the creature is referred to as the flying lemur (colugo). The creature consists of two species namely the Cynocephalus variegates. A mature lemur is 1 to 1.7 kilograms whereas its length ranges from 14 to 17 inches. Additionally, the species which has small ears, wide flat head with big eyes has its 12-inch tail connected by way of a patagium.
The continuous destruction of tropical forests in Philippines is such a big threat to the existence of kagwang. Some of the common areas for this creature were Leyte, Mindanao, Samar, Basilan and Bohol. Currently, there are no records which can tell the exact number of kagwang remaining in the country (Conservation International, 2007).
Bats
It is said that there are at least 56 bat species in Philippines. The smallest and largest bat species out f the 1,000 species available are found in Philippines. In the world, the smallest bat species is the Philippine bamboo bat (vespertilionid). The bat, found in Philippines, belongs to the family of vespertilionid. Its length is about 4 centimeters whereas its widespan is 15 centimeters. Its weight is expected to be around 1.5 grams.
On the other hand, the largest bat species stays mostly in the thick forest around Bataan and Subic Bay. The largest bats are the golden crown flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus) and the giant flying fox (Acerodon jubatus). These bats have for years been living in the Subic Forest National Protected Area.
This is 10,000 hectare area acting as the biggest roosting site for bats world wide. However, a giant flying fox weighs 1.1 kilograms, making it heavier than the golden crown flying fox. The golden crown has a wingspan of six feet, hence making it the largest among all bats. It is worthy noting that the two species are just among the 15 bats species that exist in the Philippines.
On the other hand, bat species that used to inhabit other parts of the Philippines are believed to be extinct. These species include the Panay fruit bat or Acerodon Lucifer and bare-backed fruit bat or Dobsonia chapmani. The only highly endangered bat species in the country currently the Nyctimene rabori, also known as the Philippine tube-nosed bat. There have been warnings that this species has to be protected (Conservation International, 2007).
Last Remnants of Dinosaur Age
The only living remnants of the dinosaur age are said to sea turtles. However, if there are no efforts to protect these turtles, they are likely to follow the dinosaurs into extinction. In the world, there are over 220 species of turtles. Of these species, seven species are considered marine.
There are five species of turtles in the Philippines. These include Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea), Green (Chelonia mydas), Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea). Typically, a Philippine Sea Turtle’s weight ranges between 180-210 kilograms, making it hard for it to retract its head, as well as limbs under its streamlined shell.
The Green Sea Turtle is the most common species in Philippines growing to upto 1.5 meters long and weighing 185 kilograms. Further more, growing to more than two meters in length, the Leatherback Turtle is thus the largest species in the world (Conservation International, 2007).
Smallest Hoofed Mammal
The Philippine mouse deer (Tragalus nigricans) is the smallest hoofed mammal in the world. This mammal resides in the South of Palawan on the Balabac Island. The mammal is only 40 centimeters. However, in the other countries, the mammal is referred to as Chevrotain.
Contrary to the real deer, the male species does not have antlers. In self-defence, the mammal, therefore, uses its canine teeth. Other mouse deer species in the world include the African water chevrotain and the Malay mouse deer (napu). These species are can be found in India, Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.
The World Conservation Union is worried because of the alarming rate at which these mouse deer species were disappearing. Consequently, the organization, in the year 1996, did declare these mouse deer species as an endangered species (Conservation International, 2007).
Most Endangered Deer
In the dwindling forest of Panay Island in the Philippines, there lives one of the mammals considered the world’s rarest. Considered the most endangered deer in the world, this mammal is the Philippine spotted deer (Cervus alfredi). This mammal is 80 centimeters. Over years, these species have been reducing in number making them to be declared endangered.
In many cases, these deer species have had their habitats damaged, reduced or altered hence risking their existence. A survey done in 1985 showed that only a small population of the original number of the Philippine spotted deer was found (Conservation International, 2007).
Calamian Deer
In the Calamian Islands, there lives a deer species that is not found anywhere else in the world. Consequently, scientists decided to refer to it as the Calamian deer in order to distinguish it from all other hog deer species in the world. Ordinarily, one Calamian deer measures 105 to 115 centimeters long and 60 to 65 centimeters high.
Additionally, they weigh 36 to 50 kilograms. Compared to other hog deer species, the Calamian deer has longer and darker legs. Their populations have been dropping since the early 1940s to levels described as being “dangerously low” in the 1970s. For instance, by 1996, the population had dropped to only 900. This prompted conservationists to declare the Calamian deer as an endangered species (Conservation International, 2007).
Largest Endangered Animal
In the early 1900s, there used to be about 10,000 heads of pygmy water buffalos that were unique in the island of Mindoro, in the Philippines. Currently, these water buffalos are not anymore. There are fears that these water buffalos may be extinct meaning that Mindoro might lose its only symbol of pride.
These water buffalos (Bubalus mindorensis), also known as the Tamaraws are believed to be the largest land animal that is endangered in the Philippines at the moment. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) declared the Tamaraws as one of the ten most endangered species world wide in the year 1996. Currently, there are only about 20 heads of Tamaraws still existing from the 10,000 heads that were there in the early 1900s (Conservation International, 2007).
Endangered Cockatoos
Some of the most exotic birds in the world are found in the Philippines. Scientists have been able to document 577 bird species that live in the Philippine archipelago. 185 of these species are endemic to the Philippines. Consequently, the Bird Life International has listed 116 of these bird species as being threatened.
The most endangered species of them all is the Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia). This bird species belong to the parrot’s family with a capacity to live for over 50 years. Known for mimicking human voices, they are 33 centimeters long weighing 0.29 kilograms. Only about 1,000 to 4,000 of this species remain and is restricted to the Pandanan Island and El Nido Marine Reserve (Conservation International, 2007).
World’s Largest Fish
In the town of Sorsogon in the Philipines, there is a group of 40 whale sharks (Rhincodon typus). This fish species is considered as being the largest fish in the world. They are 18 to 35 feet long weighing 20 tons.
Given their special features, the Philippine government declared this shark species as being endangered in 1998. This meant that it was illegal to exploit them. Responsibility for promoting eco-tourism aimed at protecting the shark species has been transferred to the Department of Tourism in the region of Donsol (Conservation International, 2007).
World’s Smallest Fish
The smallest freshwater fish in the world is found in the Philippines. Measuring 1.2 centimeters, the dwarf goby (Pandaka pygmaea) is said to be the tiniest vertebrate alive on earth. It was discovered by American Ichthyologist Albert Herre in 1925 in the Malabon River. Additionally, there is the sinarapan (Mistichthys luzonensis) which is said to be the smallest commercial fish in the world. The Sinarapan is 1.25 centimeters. Uncontrolled fishing in the Philippines threatens the survival of this species (Conservation International, 2007).
World’s Smallest Monkey
Measuring only 12 centimeters, the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) is said to be the smallest primate in the world. The monkey has two big eyes which cannot move and it has no protective cover for the eyes. In order to survive, the monkey has learned to turn its head 180 degrees. It weighs between 117 and 134 grams.
These monkey species are found in the islands of Bohol, Samar, Mindanao and Leyte. Currently, only 1,000 species of the monkey exist in the Philippines. The government has formed the Philippine Tarsier Foundation Inc. which is mandated to ensure that these monkeys are conserved (Conservation International, 2007).
Endemic Plants
There are over 9,000 tree species in the Philippines. Out of these, 200 are fruit trees. Some of the endemic fruit trees found in the Philippines include the mabolo, durian, bignay and pili. The Bignay tree (Antidesa bunius) grows upto a height of 10.6 meters. The fruit diameter ranges between 8 and 10 millimeters. The tree has medicinal value in that its leaves are used in the treatment of snakebite.
Summary and Conclusion
Biodiversity hotspots are vital as they support the livelihoods of plant and animal species that are endangered. In this case, conservation of such areas is critical as they provide habitats to some species that are of benefit to human beings. Students who may be far ought to be concerned about hotspots as these are areas that support lives of interesting species in the world. It is, therefore, crucial that international support be provided to conservation efforts. These areas are vital in scientific research and, therefore, should be conserved at all times.
This support from the international community should be in the form of grants directed towards conservation efforts. Laws and regulations should be instituted to guard exploitation of these species. Poachers and those engaged in overfishing ought to be prosecuted. Policies to control population growth rates should be formulated. This is to guard against population explosion that leads into clearing of forest reserves for accommodation and agricultural purposes.
References
Alave, K. L. (2011). Hottest’ of biodiversity hot spots found in Philippines. Web.
Australian Government. (2009). Biodiversity hotspots. Web.
According to the most common definition, biodiversity simply refers to having a variety of species. It is a reflection of the population, variety and variability of organisms on earth. Biodiversity includes diversification within and between different species and among ecosystems.
This variation of species in the ecosystem is a very important concept and factor that indeed is the basis for sustaining life on our planet. Considering such a great role of this matter, it is regrettable that biodiversity has been threatened by a number of factors largely fueled by human activities in recent days. This essay discusses the benefits of biodiversity on both the human beings and other living things.
Benefits of Biodiversity
To start with, biodiversity provides most of the food that humans and other living beings use for their survival. Humans feed on a wide array of living organisms like animals, plants, fish and others, which provide holistic nutritional value to them. Likewise, predators depend on other animals for food while plants rely on microorganisms to keep soil suitable for growth. Clearly, with an alteration in biodiversity, not only humans but also many other species of living things stand to suffer.
Secondly, biodiversity is a primary and great source of medicines and herbs used all around the world to treat various illnesses and health conditions. In the developing world, herbs are harvested directly even where drugs are manufactured for the ingredients to be primarily sourced from living things, especially plants. To give a more specific example, penicillin and anesthetics, which are commonly used in human treatment, are got from animal species and microbes.
Biodiversity is important for fighting against different threats that can harm our health and life. With a rich genetic composition within a species, the capacity to counter different bacteria, virus and other health impairing factors is greatly improved. For example, human beings avoid inbreeding in order to expand their genetic diversity, thereby this factor gives them an advantage and better chances to survive genetic and health attacks.
In addition, biodiversity is important for global warming mitigation. There are several plant tissues and organic matters on land and in ocean ecosystems that process carbon, which is part of the combination of greenhouse gasses contributing to climate change. For instance, as a measure for controlling the rate of global warming and desertification, countries worldwide have launched campaigns to plant many trees so that they can act as carbon sinks.
Again, biodiversity is very important for sustaining the global economy. Many people derive direct and indirect incomes from exploiting biodiversity. Indeed, it provides an important contribution to the economic development of all the nations of the world. Natural pesticides, fibers, waxes, fuel, gums, dyes and many others are goods harvested from biodiversity. Also, nature related holidays and ecotourism that are the main sources of income of many countries rely on biodiversity.
Moreover, the most important supporter of life, which is soil and water in it, depends on biodiversity for its maintenance. If the soil were eroded, then life would cease to exist very quickly. Microorganisms in the soil are responsible for breaking down organic matter and serving plants with essential nutrients. Vegetation, on the other hand, keeps soil intact and protects it.
Clean air that is very essential for life is purified by plant species, which filter unwanted and harmful particles from industries, recycle oxygen and regulate atmospheric composition. Indeed, plants use carbon dioxide to manufacture food and give out oxygen in its place.
Humans depend a lot on planted crops to provide food which are, however, susceptible to many pests. Other organisms including insects, birds and fungi eliminate a great majority of the potential pests that attack crops. These natural and cheap ways of controlling pests are far superior to artificial ones as pests often develop resistance to the latter.
The intrinsic value of biodiversity must not be also overlooked. Human beings and a number of other animals enhance their emotional wellbeing by being close to natural beauty. For example, the mutually helpful relationships between humans and biodiversity are easily discernible in arts, traditions and religions of diverse cultures all over the world. For instance, a picture depicting a beautiful; nature where green and healthy trees are represented is considered by many to have a calming effect on the human’s mind.
Generally, biodiversity provides all the basic needs of men and other higher animals. The provision of food, shelter, clothing and all the other basic needs can be traced back to the issue under the consideration. In fact, almost all food comes from living things, fabric for clothes is made from plants and skin or fir of animals while many of the materials used by people to build houses also have an organic nature and are the results of biodiversity.
Conclusion
That is why it is necessary to state that biodiversity is not just an important and beneficial but crucial aspect of life. Nature has its own way of balancing life, and biodiversity is at the center of this grand plan. Every single organism that exists on our planet has a role to play in supporting other life forms in all the different ecosystems. Biodiversity must be, therefore, protected and preserved if humans want the life to be sustained.
The (Caretta caretta) loggerhead sea turtle is the species of oceanic turtle which is spread all over the world and belongs to the Cheloniidae family. Adults measure an average of 90 centimeters in the carapace length (Blasi & Mattei, 2017). Its normal weight is 135 kilograms although there are bigger species whose weight is more than 450 kilograms. Its skin color ranges from yellow to brown and the shell is naturally reddish-brown (Blasi & Mattei, 2017).When they are young, there are no external differences in sex until they become mature when adult males develop thicker lower shells and thicker tails than their female counterparts. The turtles are mostly found in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans and the Mediterranean Sea (Blasi & Mattei, 2017). Most of their time is spent in estuarine habitats and saltwater, although the females come ashore to lay eggs.
The Caretta Caretta have a low rate of reproduction, where females lay approximately four clutches of eggs after which they become inactive without reproducing for two to three continuous years (Blasi & Mattei, 2017). The turtles have a lifespan of 47 years and they reach maturity when they are between 17 and 33 years (Blasi & Mattei, 2017).They are omnivorous animals that majorly feed on the invertebrates that live on the bottom of oceans. They have powerful jaws which help them to catch and dismantle their prey without much struggle. They have dorsals that are in the shape of the heart and its width is 76 to 86% of their actual body length (Blasi & Mattei, 2017).The carapacial scutes are hard and tough but thin with scales. The hatchlings are dark-brown with pale-brown dorsal and the lower shells are paler (Blasi & Mattei, 2017).The young loggerheads are prone to several sea predators and the eggs are susceptible to the terrestrial organisms that feed on them.
Figure 2: Geographical Regions for Loggerhead Turtle Habitation.
When they become adults, their formidable body sizes protect them from being preyed on by large sea animals such as sharks. The International Union for Nature Conservation regards the animal species as endangered because of the numerous potential threats (Blasi & Mattei, 2017). Most loggerheads die due to unintended fishing by large trawlers. Caretta is broadly distributed in the coastal subtropical and tropical waters which has temperature ranges of between 16 and 20°C (Bolton & Witherington, 2019). This type of species prefers wandering between the boundaries of the warm currents and the temperate waters. Marine scientists suspect that the creatures take long migrations in the warm currents, especially in the California Currents, North Equatorial, Gulfstream, and Kuroshio Currents which have a temperature ranging between12–20°C (Bolton & Witherington, 2019). Sometimes they find themselves wandering in the waters that are above 10°C. When they reach territories with cold waters in their course of migration, they remain helplessly on the shores (Bolton & Witherington, 2019).When they remain astray for a long time, they become vulnerable to human beings who sometimes take them out of the waters to the conditions that are not favorable for their survival.
Primarily, this turtle inhabits the continental shores of shallow waters which are commonly found in warm areas, although they also live in highlands such as Zakinthos in Greece, Masirah in Oman and the Archipelago in Japan. It is the only species of the sea turtle family that inhabits in temperatures above 20°C (Family, 2018). Immediately after the end of the breeding season, the females leave to far grounds for feeding. The juveniles and hatchlings are usually associated with the convergences of the oceanic currents, eddies, and downwellings where the epipelagic floating animals are usually found (Bolton & Witherington, 2019).There is a period of one year when the young turtles remain in these places feeding on organisms that are connected to the sargassum mats. There are numerous main nesting areas for the species and most of them are found in the northern latitudes. Generally, the loggerheads do not inhabit Arriba zones but they nest on big beaches. The main areas for nesting are found in the southeast of the United States of America, mainly in South Carolina and Florida with an average annual production of 4000 nests. The sea Caretta is the most common type of turtle in the Mediterranean Sea and is frequently captured either incidentally or directly (Family, 2018). The size of the eggs varies depending on the size of the turtle. Small turtles lay small eggs and the bigger ones lay big eggs. The diameter of the eggs ranges between 34.7 to 55.2 millimeters and their weight ranges between 26.2 and 46.8 grams (Family, 2018). Figure 3: Loggerhead Turtle Growth Pattern
Figure 3: Loggerhead Turtle Growth Pattern (Family, 2018). Their incubation period varies amongst the different populations because it depends on the attitude of the beaches. For instance, in South Carolina, it takes 55 to 62 days while in the Hutchinson highlands, it takes 68 days. The weight and size of the hatchlings depend on the size of the eggs and where they were hatched in. However, the average weight is 18.8 to 21.1 grams and the length is between 33.5 and 55 millimeters. The mating and courtship of these animals are not performed near the nesting beaches the way other animals do, but rather along the migratory routes, in particular, the breeding and feeding grounds. They mate in maximum secrecy because they ensure that they are covered by other members before the mating process begins. The ideal incubation happens within a temperature range of between 26C and 32C. There is also credible evidence showing that if the temperatures are cool, the hatchlings will be male, and if they are high – female (Lawrence, 2015).The survival of the young ones decreases with the increase in temperature.
The Threats Encountered by the Loggerhead Turtle Include Terrestrial
This type of turtle is vulnerable to several threats which are a danger to their survival. Their populations are facing a major threat due to the reduced populations of hatchlings because they are fed on by the native and natural fauna (Johnson & Bayley, 2016). The loss of hatchlings and eggs has been identified as the most major threat in the United States and Australia.
Lower Water Table and Changed Light Horizons
There is an increasing evidence of decreased hatchlings due to the increased amount of water. This problem is prominent in Queensland Australia, and it has been experienced in some parts of the United States. Light horizons in the habitats of the sea turtles occur when there are operation phases and construction on the offshores. The activities disrupt the hatchling, foraging habits, and nestling of the turtles (Dutton, Squires, & Mahfuzuddin, 2017). Studies have shown that light pollution on land affects the nestling of the female turtles.
Armoring of Beaches and Fisheries by Catch
Armoring of beaches to prevent the dunes and soil erosion also affect the loggerhead turtle. The land-based construction on the areas where there are marine turtles directly destroys and changes the coastal vegetation that the creatures rely on. The beaches are made unsuitable for the nesting of eggs hence making them lose the beaches for nesting. The interaction between the loggerhead turtles and the fisheries mostly occur when they are either young or at the juvenile stage. The fisheries without any intentions capture the young turtles through entanglement in fishing nets (Dutton et al., 2017). This affects both the habitat and the life of these young creatures, which sometimes lead to their death.
Ship strikes and Dredging
Marine vessels such as commercial ships, recreational crafts, and fishing boats cause serious disruptions and injuries to the sea turtles. This normally happens where the coastal foraging habitats are shallow and if there are a lot of commercial and recreational activities. (Frontmatter, 2017). During marine development and construction, the underwater demolitions, and removal of structures in the areas occupied by marine turtles can cause major impacts and disturbances which affect the lives of the loggerhead turtle.
Marine Debris
The non-degradable debris, such as garbage and plastics that float in the water, leads to the restricted movement of the loggerhead turtles, which can lead to ingestion, starvation, and drowning. The other issues affecting the marine turtle include climate change, legal and illegal harvesting of the turtles, and diseases that are caused by poor quality of water. There are many more ways in which the habitats of the loggerhead turtles are affected; however, the above-heighted ways are the main ones (Ayyam, Palanivel, & Chandrakasan, 2019). It is, therefore, important to employ recovery strategies so that these organisms do not face extinction.
Adaptation Management Strategies
The adaptive management measures are supposed to involve all the stakeholders so that all of them can work together for a common goal. The recovery plans are prepared by the National Maritime and Fisheries Service together with the Fish and Wildlife Service. Other parties include the state agencies and subcontractors (Allen & Garmestani, 2015). The recovery plans can be modified if there are new findings of the species and if there are changes in the recovery tasks.
The Recovery Procedure
Objective: To protect the species from extinction.
The Recovery Standards: To protect the species the following criteria should be strictly followed: 1). To enforce agreements of fishing in the international waters where most of the loggerhead turtles inhabit. 2). The existing forage areas for the species must be upheld as healthy environments. 3). Design a management plan to maintain or increase the population of this species in their habitats.
4). Formulate a formal agreement and cooperation with the regional programs in charge of the sea turtles. 5). Enact international agreements to protect the stocks shared by different countries (Jefferies & Moore, 2016) Conserving biodiversity is one of the pertinent problems that deserve greater attention of organizations, governments, and individuals. There is a complex link between the human survival and that of the several species that are within our environment. Despite investing money in the conservation of the loggerhead turtle, the process has been erratic and slow. Studies on this species would assist in navigating the problems so that the animals do not face extinction (D. Witherington & B. Witherington, 2016). Most of the researchers in the field of environmental conservation have been focusing on the conservation biology, but it is not time to focus on the threats humanity poses to creatures such as the loggerhead turtle (Cunningham, 2018).
Adaptive management has not been broadly applied in conservation efforts to protect the loggerhead turtle (İşler, 2020). In order to address the objectives of this issue, this study will mainly rely on the publications from several fields and the research analysis. It is important to preserve the populations of turtles to recover them from becoming extinct by ensuring that the nesting females, their hatchlings, and nests are safe. The following actions therefore have to be taken to protect their populations: 1). Eradicate the direct take of the turtle’s eggs, hatchlings, and adults. Studies have identified the direct take of the turtles as the primary cause of their reductions in the Pacific areas. 2). Upsurge the enforcement of the laws that protect this species of turtles by ensuring that courts punish those who violate them. The prosecutorial and judicial enforcements should receive adequate support and resource to effect this obligation (Johnson & Bayley, 2016) 3). Make sure that the constructional equipment causes minimum disruptions to the hatching and nesting activities of the turtles. Eventually, the construction equipment should be prohibited from operating on beaches.
4). The lighting of the construction sites at night should be forbidden during the hatching and nesting periods because they affect the exercise. The structures that block turtles from accessing the beach should be demolished. 5). Reducing nest predation by domestic and feral animals (Johnson & Bayley, 2016) 6). Feral animals such as mongoose and dogs pose a threat to the hatchlings and nests of turtles. It is therefore important that these predators are prevented from accessing the nesting areas. Other animals such as pigs can also destroy the hatchlings and nests. The domestic animals should be restricted from accessing the nesting and hatchling regions (Cunningham, 2018). 7). Protecting important nesting beaches. The nesting activities should be regularly monitored to identify the beaches that are mostly used for nesting so that they can be protected. Standardized surveys should be used in identifying the seasons for nesting. Information surveys should be conducted with the local communities to receive information about the historical and current beaches for nesting.
The surveys need to be done consistently by the personnel who are experienced both in turtles and in surveys. Since female turtles are faithful to their nesting beaches, the censuring method should be used to assess the turtle’s maternal populations. This is the most effective method that will give an accurate picture of what is happening on the ground (Cunningham, 2018) 8). Define the stock boundaries for Pacific sea turtles. Turtles have a unique genetic signature for every main nesting assemblage, and because the assemblage of nests provides an easy way of monitoring their populations, the genetic analysis technique will be the most appropriate in determining their stock boundaries. The method also makes it easier for the managers of the turtle protection program to assess the type of stocks which are impacted mostly by the activities that displace them from their nesting areas (Cunningham, 2018). 9). The marine environment should be highly protected and conserved so that no form of pollution will affect the habitat of the turtles. This kind of protection can only be achieved through the enactment of legislation that projects the creatures from environmentally harmful effects. The protection should range from the protection of the nesting, the hatchlings, and the environment of the mature turtles (Walter, 2015).
References
Allen, C. R., & Garmestani, A. S. (Eds.). (2015). Adaptive management of social-ecological systems. New-York, NY: Springer.
Ayyam, V., Palanivel, S., & Chandrakasan, S. (2019). Coastal ecosystems of the tropics – Adaptive management. New York, NY: Springer.
Blasi, M. F., & Mattei, D. (2017). Seasonal encounter rate, life stages and main threats to the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) in the aeolian archipelago (southern Thyrrenian Sea). Journal of Aquatic Conservation, 27(3), 617–630. Web.
Bolton, A. E., & Witherington, B. E. (Eds.). (2019). Loggerhead sea turtles. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Books.
Dutton, P. H., Squires D., & Mahfuzuddin, A. (2017). Conservation of Pacific Sea Turtles, Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press.
Family, C. (2018). The sea turtles: Handbook of turtles, 341–410.
İşler, C. T. (2020). Deniz Kaplumbağaları (Caretta caretta ve Chelenoidas mydas) Gözlerinin Ultrasonografik İncelenmesi. Hatay, Turkey: Kafkas Universitesi Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi.
Jefferies, C. S., & Moore, J. N. (2016). Marine mammal conservation and the Law of the Sea. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Johnson, M., & Bayley, A. (2016). Coastal change, ocean conservation and resilient communities. New York, NY: Springer.
Lawrence, A. (2015). Sea turtles: Amazing pictures and animal facts everyone should know. Scotts Valley, California: Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.
Walter, S. (2015). Grandpa Julius and the green sea turtles. Singapore: Partridge Publishing Singapore.
Witherington, D., & Witherington, B. (2016). Sea turtle of the Pacific. New York, NY: Nimbus Publishing
