This paper is devoted to the issues of biodiversity. It is going to dwell upon its importance and benefits. Besides, it will outline the problem of extinction. Apart from that, the paper is going to speculate on the most and least diverse species in the local area. What is more, it will provide suggestions on what individuals can do to assist in preserving biodiversity.
To start with, it is necessary to state that biodiversity is important. This is because all species of animals, plants, and microorganisms are acknowledged to be interconnected. They comprise local ecosystems and appear to be an integral part of the universal ecosystem. Each species plays its unique role in the sustainability of life on earth. The benefits of biodiversity are as follows:
the possibility of maintaining life on earth,
economic benefits, and
many different species of animals, plants, and microorganisms, which is gripping for investigation.
The biodiversity can be measured in terms of the number of different species in the area, as well as in terms of the number of representatives in each species (Gaston & Spicer, 2013).
Extinction is defined as a phenomenon in biology and ecology which is a complete disappearance of a certain species. Extinction might have natural and anthropogenic reasons. In the most frequent causes of extinction of species within a short period, it is possible to speak about mass extinction. Species disappear when their birth rate is lower than their death rate during a period. The reasons for extinction are as follows:
the number of population,
genetic monotony,
life duration,
predators,
competitiveness with other species,
infections and other diseases,
catastrophes,
changes in the environment,
human factor (Smith, 2013).
Endangered Species Act is acknowledged to be a legal set of regulations that have accepted to protect endangered species from extinction. It is meant to prohibit killing animals, destroying plants and microorganisms which are endangered. Besides, it aims to protect them and create conditions for growth in their number. From the economic viewpoint, this act might prevent certain sectors from carrying out their activities, as well as hunters and fishermen from earning their living. Besides, it might entrain the development of artificial substitutes of natural materials (Gaston & Spicer, 2013).
As for the local area, the most diverse special are mosquitoes, whereas the least diverse are palms. It does not surprise me since it feels like the mosquitoes are abundant here, and each of them is willing to bite me. However, once we have been reflecting on the importance of biodiversity, I will try to do my best not to kill them. Besides, I have chosen Seychelles to look at their biodiversity. I am rather amazed to see that they have only 93 species of birds there. Below is a chart which was created on the site “Map of Life” to demonstrate the biodiversity of Seychelles (Map of Life, n.d.):
Seychelles.
To preserve biodiversity, we should be careful about nature. We should not damage ecosystems, pollute, and kill animals. Besides, we should help extinct species to survive on our beautiful planet. It is necessary to organize some special events to teach the younger generation how to take care of our world.
This paper has been devoted to the issues of biodiversity. It has dwelt upon its importance and benefits. Besides, it has outlined the matter of extinction. Apart from that, the paper has speculated on the most and least diverse species in the local area. What is more, it has provided suggestions on what individuals can do to assist in preserving biodiversity.
References
Gaston, K. J., & Spicer, J. I. (2013). Biodiversity: Introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Biodiversity is the variability of life across all the living organisms found on earth. Within the ecological research, biodiversity forms the basis to which all the living organisms exist, especially about each other. A rich diversity means the capacity of the natural environment to have many living organisms to thrive (What is biodiversity?, 2016). The availability of many living organisms within an ecosystem enhances the capacity of nature to recuperate from climatic change.
The importance of biodiversity
Biodiversity is important because a rich blend of living organisms within an ecosystem allows the facilitation of processes such as purification of air, water, and soil. Whereas the natural environment loses too much of its diversity, chances are that the indigenous species and varieties of plants and animals would deplete. This affects the quality of air and water, thereby limiting the quality of life for humanity, plants, and animals (What is biodiversity?, 2016). Besides, the knowledge on biodiversity helps scholars to identify and understand the correlations between the different life forms on earth, thus inspires scientific research on improving the quality of biodiversity.
How biodiversity is measured
Biodiversity is measured in terms of attributes that explore the quality of nature; richness and evenness of the living organisms within an ecological niche. Whereas richness implies the quantities or clusters of genetically related individuals, evenness represents the proportionality of the functional groups found within an ecological niche (Principles of vegetation measurement & assessment, 2016). According to Purvis and Hector (2000), most vegetation surveys express richness in terms of the number of species or varieties found within an ecosystem. An ecosystem with low evenness, virtually, indicates that a few varieties or species are found in an ecosystem.
Extinction and what is causing it today
Extinction indicates an evolutionary process, which gradually leads to the deterioration of species of living organisms. When living organisms become extinct, they face a series of genetic heritage loss. Through evolution, species may change into other organisms in the process of adapting to gradual environmental alterations (The extinction crisis, 2016). Natural extinction is a biological process, which might not be misconstrued to mean a negative process that might be accepted as such. Changes in the natural environment might be unavoidable, and the living organisms tend to adapt to those changes to survive; this process is responsible for the extinction.
The Endangered Species Act
Passed in 1973, the Endangered Species Act is important legislation for conserving and protecting the species under threat as well as their habitats. By providing the international community with monetary aids and incentives to advance and maintain biodiversity, the Act offers a mechanism for safeguarding nature (Biodiversity, 2016).
Some of the most and least diverse species in my local area
Some of the most diverse species in my local area are birds, fish, and butterflies, while some of the least diverse species are palm plants, coral reef, amphibians, algae, cacti, and crustaceans. In my local mapping provided here below, species are grouped in terms of their richness and vastness within the map of the lie.
What I can do as an individual to help slow the loss of biodiversity
As an individual, I can do several things to help slow down the loss of biodiversity. Among these are practicing cover cropping, diversifying my garden, enhancing consumer consciousness, limiting pesticide use, and lobbying the government to lead the fight against habitat loss.
Agricultural diversity has now become a topic for continuous discussion due to a rapid decline in agricultural variety. For centuries, the availability of millions of wild crop cultures contributed to the development of domesticated crops that have now become a source of nutrition. However, out of millions of existing types of wild crop cultures, the vast majority have been abandoned and eradicated, as the agricultural companies placed major emphasis on the breeding of domesticated cultures that are easy to grow and yield a harvest. Currently, the sphere of agriculture is widely focused on supporting and promoting monocultures instead of investing in the increased variety of crop mixtures (Wuest et al., 2021).
Such a tendency presents a severe threat to the environment and biodiversity, as eradicating wild crop variety will lead to higher exposure to poor harvest and dependence on key crops (“Importance of biodiversity,” n.d.). For this reason, in order to combat this issue and promote biodiversity, a decision was made to create specialized seed banks that would preserve unique varieties of wild crop cultures.
Undeniably, the creation of seed banks is not a full-scale solution to the problem, as the number of previously destroyed crop cultures will take much effort and technological interventions to be restored and enhanced. Still, the existence of such a preservation strategy is a beneficial means to prevent the decay of biodiversity in agriculture. A prime example of explicit seed preservation is the Millennium Seed Bank in the UK that currently stores nearly two billion seeds gathered from all over the world (Harrisberg, 2019). This strategy has, by all means, proved itself effective, but more support and investment are required to continue and improve the preservation means and crop mixture technologies.
The wide range of organisms on the planet, such as plants, animals, microbes, and fungi, is biodiversity. The earth’s species diversity varies such that many species are yet to be identified. However, many identified species face extinction due to human activities, threatening the planet’s beautiful ecosystem (Naeem et al. 1). Various opinions are revealed concerning biodiversity, including the human impact, reversal of biodiversity loss, the impact of overpopulation, the future of biodiversity, and the rate of extinction.
Biodiversity helps provide food, water, and genetic resources; similarly, it helps with climate regulation, energy provision, and recreational benefits. Despite these benefits, research reveals that the human impact has negatively affected diversity because of their overexploitation of natural resources such as deforestation and urbanization (Gavin et al. 1846). I think that human activities are the primary cause of biodiversity loss because unethical behaviors have been tolerated, such as throwing plastic cans into the oceans. Various theories concerning diversity conservation suggest that developing sustainable economic activities rather than destructive harvesting and land should be considered (Naeem et al. 2). This advice is an excellent recommendation because poverty can greatly influence overfishing, which destroys biodiversity.
Overpopulation plays a significant role in the depletion of biodiversity because they contribute to the exhaustion of natural resources, pollution of the environment, and water shortage. In addition, I think overpopulation increases disorganization and poor environmental behavior, such as poor disposal of waste. Another factor is that the future of biodiversity is uncertain because no viable interventions have been implemented to stop overexploitation (Gavin et al. 1846). The reason is that people are still breaking the policies created to support its conservation derailing the process. Lastly, the number of threatened species globally increases each day, indicating a significant problem. Currently, 99% of species on earth have become extinct due to the overexploitation of the environment (“Threatened species” para 1). Some species such as fish will also follow the same trend leaving the earth a barren place without anything.
Works Cited
Gavin, Michael C., et al. “Effective biodiversity conservation requires dynamic, pluralistic, partnership-based approaches.” Sustainability, vol.10 no.6, 2018, p.1846. Web.
Naeem, Shahid, et al. “Biodiversity and human well-being: an essential link for sustainable development.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 283, no.1844, 2016, pp. 1-2. Web.
The natural living environment involves a complex interaction of billions of species which have evolved over the years. Although extinction is a nature rule, the loss of a single species can have consequences to the whole biodiversity.
Markets for biodiversity conservation have become a controversial topic due to the unclear and untested rules governing transactions (Bruggeman). Trading policies are put in place to help reduce transaction cost. However, many people have argued that such rules have resulted in markets that favor their interest and lead to degradation of the biological environment.
Historical Background
The complexity of life has led to diverse systems in the human knowledge. As such, biodiversity conservation has emerged from human anxiety triggered by the continued demolish of the biosphere (Bruggeman). Biodiversity conservation dates back to around 250 B.C when empire Ashoka of Maury started veterinary medicine and issued directions to control the slaughter of specific animals and birds. Modern conservation started during the late 18th century in England and Scotland.
Environmentalists and scholars of the time led by Lord Monboddo put forward the significance of nature conservation which was followed by implementation of conservation policies in the British Indian forests. In 1842, Alexander Gibson led the Madras Board of Revenue to adopt forest conservation program. It was not until 1855 when permanent and large scale conservation programs were adopted worldwide by Lord Dalhousie. This was followed by the institution of the Yellowstone National Park in the US which was the first national park ever in1872.
Efforts to conserve specific species arose in mid-20th century when the New York Zoological Society started the Big Cat Conservation Program in South America. By 1970, biodiversity initiatives had developed in the United Kingdom, Sweden and Australia resulting in hundreds of individual species protection programs. The United Kingdom mainly focused on conserving sites with greatnatural, cultural and economic importance, a plan that was boasted in 1972 after being adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO. In 2006, there was a total 644 cultural sites and 162 natural sites.
In 1980, there was notable development and introduction of urban conservation movement in Birmingham, UK. This was significantly supported by research efforts that led to the establishment of the Conservation Biology Society in 1985. By 1990, many countries across the world had adopted the scientific principles of conservation of biodiversity and by the end of the 20th century, the industry had experienced increased professionalism. As from 2000, intensives large scale biodiversity conservation has developed giving little attention to specific species protection.
Background of solutions
All communities depend on biodiversity resources. However, these natural resources lack property rights definition due to the fact that they are public goods that lack apparent values. This factor has massive impacts on the over exploitation of the natural resources which leads to extinction of some species.
The first step in the process of biodiversity conservation is the quantification of its economic values. This is important in the identification and selection of potential consumers of the diversity resources (Conservation International). The second step is the use or creation of markets to boast conservation and sustainability. This step helps in the computation and capturing of economic values that have not been consumed by the markets.
Therefore, it is very important to identify the resources of diversity and classify them according to their marketability in conserving and ensuring sustainable use. To achieve this, it is important to understand diversity in terms of whether it falls under a public good or a private good. A public good is that which does not display rivalry or excludabilit (Lockie and Carpenter). Private goods have rivalry and excludable characteristics in consumption. Rivalry means that if one person consumes the good, he depletes the availability of the good to others, while excludability means that it is possible to control consumption of the good by charging a certain price.
Markets for diversity resources are not fully developed and have not so far incorporated full value of biodiversity. These markets represent a great potential source of income to the local communities and since there is a great rift between income from biodiversity and agriculture, agroforestry can be a remedy method of merging them in a sustainable and productive way. Although forest extraction has been a historical economic activity to most of forest dwellers, there has been considerable change over the years.
To improve this, biodiversity support institutions like conservation centers have been established to facilitate commercial exchange of ideas between biodiversity extractors and agriculturists (Conservation International). A good case is the herbal medicine and cosmetic sectors which have witnessed notable success in the past few years. Their success should be celebration and a caution too. This is because both ventures use plant species that are of great value to human and animal life in addition to providing medicinal and cosmetic ingredients andtheir uncontrolled extraction would result to extinction of such trees.
If employed responsibly, ecotourism can be very critical in biodiversity conservation and ensuring sustainability to the environment and the forests inhabitants. Thus, it has been one of the best market based method for promoting sustainable consumption of biodiversity resources. Though ecotourism depends largely on public resources such as national parks and reserves, it is mostly a private industry venture. Due to this, it can be a reliable source of revenue to both the public and the private sectors. These profits can be used to support conservation of biodiversity.
The lack of excludability calls for considerable policy formulation and implementation (Conservation International).This intervention can focus on enabling the use of markets to enhance conservation of diversity resources which in most cases involves policies structured to produce marketable instruments. There are two common types of economic instruments. One of the instruments create markets that limit the negative factors that affect ecosystems.
Examples of this are: tradable and auction pollution permits and land development rights that are used to regulate economic land developments by compensating owners of biodiversity identified land for its conservation. The other instrument provide incentives to technological innovation that generate both financial and environmental benefits.
Community involvement is a key market promoter especially if members of the community have experience in ventures that establish and develop biodiversity businesses and investments (Conservation International). Most of the inhabitants of the areas rich in biodiversity are either farmers of hunters. In order to achieve massive success in biodiversity conservation on these areas, the methods used should combine agriculture and other relevant uses of the diversity. In the past decades, small farmers in these areas have employed sustainable agricultural practices. In order to promote expansion of markets for the biodiversity resources, premiums and compensation can be paid for produce from these communities.
Real Implemented Cases
Bolsa Floresta Program
The Bolsa Floresta Program is a public state institution established in 2007 and managed by the Amazonas state government. Its institution was an historical step in Brazil towards promotion of sustainable environmental conservation that not only has impact on the national level but also on the universal conservation structure. The establishment of the program was provided by section 3.035 of the intermediary law on climate change, conservation of environment and Development of the Amazonas into a sustainable ecosystem.
There was also a complementary Law 53 to control the State Schemes of Conservation Unities (CUs) which was also introduced in 2007. Both laws promoted a strong innovation drive and became the backbone of the environmental regulation. This facilitated structuring of the environmental forest based economy and provided social justice in areas of environment conservation (Amazonas Sustainable Foundation).
Bolsa Floresta Program was then initiated and implemented by the State Secretary of environment and sustainable development in September 2007 although FAS took over its governing in March 2008.
The Bolsa Floresta Program operates through four components which are: family, income, social and association. The participation of the families under the Conservation Unities (CUs) guarantee them direct benefits, community level social gains, association support and reliable source of income. The program further offers opportunity for voluntary participation in workshops, climate change training as well as admission of children of the participants in schools.
Guyana Conservation
Guyana conservation is the first Guiana Community Owned Conservation Area (COCA) and also the largest protected area in the nation. The conservation program is managed by the Wai Wai indigenous community and covers over one million hectares of natural forest. It was established in Konashen district 2004 after the Wai Wai people received title for their land and with the help of the Guiana government and the Conservation International, they selected forest area for conservation.
The establishment of the area as a conservation reserve came about as a result of the locals wanting to reduce encroachment of their ancestral home by miners and loggers. Following the gazette of the forest, locals have disregarded wildlife trading which was once a survival economic activity and embarked on a journey to conserve their biodiversity in a sustainable way that ensures economic and environmental development.
The conservation of this region has ensured protection of habitat of unique species such as the jaguar, river otter, harpy eagle, blue poison frog and the emerald boa.
Advice from Conservation International has further helped the Wai Wais in making informed development decisions of the area and attainment of long term conservation goal. Moreover, six members of the community have undergone training and graduated as rangers in order to lead operating and managing plans of the conservation.
This has further encouraged the government to start working on a national environmental system to manage and finance the protected areas in order to achieve a long term sustainable conservation program.
Malau Biobank
Biobank is a venture of two entities: Eco Products Fund LP and the Malaysian government. Through this initiative, Eco Products Fund has set aside about US$ 11 million after receiving conservation rights from the Malaysian government to help in reforestation of the Malau Forest Reserve for the next five years.
The role of the Malau Biobank is to sell certificates for biodiversity conservation that represent 100 square meters reforestation and conservation land. To support the program, TZ1 Limited, which is a voluntary carbon market registrar, has been named the global registry for biodiversity certificates sold by Biobank. Buying of these certificates is a method supporting conservation of the Malau rainforest.
Firms buying the biodiversity certificates make significant and reliable contribution to conservation of the Malau forest and enhance their brands in the process. Several firms operating in Malaysia bought biodiversity conservation certificates while other international corporations showedinitial interest in the program and later bought the certificates. The biodiversity certificates cost US$ 10 per piece and the anticipated total cost for the whole project was US$ 10 million. After selling out the biodiversity conservation certificates, Biobank generated great returns both to the investors and the local government of Sabah.
Bolsa Floresta Program
The Bolsa Floresta program was established by Amazonas state government in 2007 to contribute in mitigation of climate. This was the first law made in Brazil concerning environment conservation and development. This program was also the first internationally certified Brazilian initiative that facilitated compensation of traditional communities for the protection of the environmental services which is provided to the tropical forests (Lucas).
The main objective of the program is to provide payment for the environmental products processed by the traditional inhabitants that favor the sustainable extraction and consumption of natural resources, conservation, protection of the environment and the voluntary calling for regulating deforestation.
Payment System
According to Lucas 2013, the Bolsa Floresta was established with participative approach giving significant attention to the local communities and the State government in Amazonas. A special agreement contract was then made with each of the families dwelling in the affected region: this was after an educative awareness on the zero deforestation objective of the program. That contract was valid only to those people who had lived in the area for more than two years. The contract obliges the community to avoid deforestation in the regions referred to as the primary forest.
Managerial structure
The Bosla Floresta program is managed by a committee that was put in place to ensure smooth running of the program. The committee has the mandate to conduct studies and identify the valid beneficiaries in the area of interest, promote interaction among the different participants of the program as well as valuation of implementation of the program. The program has four main components;
Forest Allowance Family (BFF) – This is the monthly payment of approximately US$ 28.6 (R$ 50) that is paid to the mothers of the families living in the affected Amazonas and only those willing to participate in conserving, preserving and developing of the environment.
Forest Allowance Association (BFA) – This is the direct payment to the association of Amazonas dwellers, Lucas 2013. It is equivalent to 10% of the amount paid to the BF family in each month. The objective behind this payment is to strengthen the organization and enhance social control of the program.
BF Income – It is the annual average payment of approximately US$ 2285.7 (R$ 4000) to each CUs which to approximately US$ 200 (R$ 350) annually per family. This payment meant to support and develop sustainable extraction of forest resources such as oils, fruits, honey and fish.
BF Social – This consists of an annual average payment of approximately US$ 2285.7 (R$ 4000) to every CUs which translates to approximately US$ 200 (R$ 350) per family. This is paid to fund the local social improvements in health centers, schools, transport and other social amenities that promote social unity.
Geographical extent
The Bosla Floresta Program predominantly covers roughly 45% percentage of the Amazonas rainforests regions inhibited by indigenous communities in Brazil.
A research conducted by Sustainable Amazonas Foundation showed that there were 6326 families with a total of 28634 persons in October 2009 who were registered and participated in the Bolsa Floresta project occupying 14 conservation regions that cover at least 10 million acres (Lucas).
The BolsaFlorestaProgram is partly financed by the Amazon Fund which is BNDES, a Brazilian Development bank and the FAS. The objective is to channel more than half (60%) of investment towards sustainable and reliable income generating ventures, 10% to welfare of the associations and the remaining 30% of funds to social amenities programs such as education and medical institutions. As at 2013, Juma REDD was the only program implemented by REDD although it is believed that there are more on the way.
Cost Frame
The Bolsa Floresta Program annual report for the year 2012 indicated the costs and investments undertaken for one year that ended in June 2013. The four components costs for the year are as follows:
Table 1:
Family
Income
Social
Association
Total BF
Total US$
1974829.00
969142.80
1103656.00
368156.00
4415783.40
Total US$/Family
312.20
153.20
174.50
58.20
698.20
Total US$ per ha
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.04
0.40
The annual payment for a BF family is US$ 312.20 to every family with consideration to direct economic benefit of the program. Indirect benefits consist of the other components which are: income, social and association. The cost for each family is US$ 698.20 per annum. The average for every hectare (The total number is 10 million hectares) is US$ 0.40 per annum.
Final Results of BolsaFloresta Program
Satellite images from of the Amazonas region where the program has been implemented indicate an increase in deforestation. However, the Amazon region has witnessed a reduced increase in the rate of deforestation since the year 2007, thanks to the program (Gripne).This achievement can be attributed to the improvement of technology in monitoring systems, increase of conservation scope and implementation of rewarding and compensating programs.
Annual benefits
Table 2:
Direct Benefit
Indirect Benefit
Total
US$ per Family
312.20
385.90
698.20
US$ per hectare*
0.20
0.20
0.40
US$ per hectare**
9.90
12.30
22.30
*Cost dividend by the whole conservation area
**Cost per family dividend by 31.80 ha per family.
The average income of the affected population exceeds the minimum wage which is approximately US$ 292 per month by an insignificant percentage. However, the monthly income received by each family from the BolsaFloresta program increases the total income earned by each family. The main debate has been on what should be the optimum payment that ensures maximization of the welfare of the traditional community. (Lucas). Another issue that has been brought forward is the frequency and to whom the compensation have been paid to. This is to ensure the maintenance of thriving community morale and sustainability.
Effectiveness of the Program
The Bosla Floresta Program has experienced widespread success since its implementation in 2007. This success can majorly be attributed to the involvement of the local communities that live in the CUs. This has been further boasted by reliable compensation mechanism that consists of several classifications of payments as explained earlier in this paper.
Another factor that has contributed to the effectiveness of the program is the widespread awareness created by UNESCO the Amazonas state. The awareness identified Amazon rain forests as a key region whose conservation and protection will have a positive impact on global climate change. As such, the installation of the program came at a time when this knowledge was widely available to the affected communities. This resulted to adequate support and corporation from the traditional inhabitants.
Works Cited
Amazonas Sustainable Foundation. “Making Forests worth More Standing than Cut.” Bolsa Floresta Program, 2017. Web.
Alberti (2005) journal mainly focuses on the effects of urban development on the surrounding natural ecosystem and biodiversity. The main aspects covered in the journal are that the urban ecological systems are mostly characterized by the complex relationships that exist in the economic, socio, cultural and political environments of a particular area. Such relationships and their interactions are viewed to generate human dominated landscapes that impact on the natural processes of habitat ecosystems.
Alberti’s journal further highlights the fact that changes in ecosystem conditions that result from human interferences in urban areas affect the health and well being of the people who are inhabitants of those ecosystems.
The journal also highlights the fact that different urban patterns generate different ecological effects on the natural ecosystems around the urban areas. The review of the topic shows that the relationship between urban developmental patterns and the dynamics of ecosystem are concepts that are still not clearly understood in the scholarly world as well as in general.
Aylward’s paper evaluates biodiversity and the losses that incurred to biodiversity species. The main argument is focused mostly on what causes the habitat losses in a natural ecosystem. It does not cover the aspect of urban developments and its impact to the ecosystem as highlighted by Alberti.
The factors that have been identified by Aylward (1991) that cause biodiversity loss are the global economic markets, global and regional market price, and the policy failures of the government to conserve the environment. The paper also clarifies the economic and ecological rationale that is formed behind developing a distinction between the biological resources in an ecosystem and the biodiversity values. Recommendations proposed in the paper are to look for alternative approaches for attaching some economic relevance to biodiversity.
Carpenter’s book is one of four volumes for the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment that have been designed to meet the scientific decision making processes with regards to ecosystem changes and the well being of humans. The book identifies four scenarios that will be used to focus on ecosystem changes and their impacts to the habitat and biodiversity of plants and animal species.
The four scenarios are the global orchestration scenario that depicts the global market, the order strength scenario that represents a global world concerned with protection of ecosystems, the adapting mosaic scenario which depicts a fragmented global world and the techno garden scenario that depicts a connected world that relies on technology and highly managed ecosystems.
Changes in biodiversity are also evaluated with regards to the four scenarios. This is analyzed in chapter ten of the book where the scenarios are examined to determine how biodiversity will change in the future and what actions we can incorporate to maintain the ecological system (Carpenter, 2005).
To add on, Hanna et al’s (2002) journal covers the aspect of conservation strategies for an ecosystem and the role climate change plays in these strategies. It provides an outlook of how climate change research has potential in providing effective improvements in the conservation strategies.
The journal focuses on biodiversity areas around the world that have a high vulnerability to climate change conditions as well as challenges that affect conservation efforts in these areas. The tools that are used for climatology, ecology and biogeography purposes are also evaluated in this paper. The paper highlights the fact that collaboration efforts across all industries and professions are important to ensure the proper planning of conservation activities to respond to climate changes.
Willis & Bhagwat (2009) on the other hand focus on several models that have been developed in the past to forecast the effects of climatic changes on biodiversity and ecosystems. Their article analyses the results of the models which have shown some alarming results on the consequences of climatic changes on biodiversity.
Examples of these results are that plant and animal species will go extinct in the next decade because of the changing climatic conditions. The results of the models also show that there will be large scale degradation of rainforests around the world as a result of negative impacts on biodiversity. The article does not cover the aspect of conservation strategies that can be used to deal with the changing climatic conditions.
Merrifield’s article analyzes the aspects of global market approaches that can be used to develop biodiversity conservation strategies. It highlights the policy involved in the implementation the Endangered Species Act which prohibits activities that are deemed harmful to specific plant species.
Little has been done to advance biodiversity conservation causes and the prohibitions from the Endangered Species Act are viewed to impose a significant amount of expenses on the economies of countries involved in those efforts.
Merrifield (1996) develops a mechanism that will be used by global markets to internalize the social costs that arise from eliminating scarce habitats and the social benefits that can be accrued from conserving the biodiversity. The mechanism is useful for environmentalists because it does not involve any politicization or budget cuts.
References
Alberti, M. (2005) The effects of urban patterns on ecosystem function. International Regional Science Review, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp.168-192
Aylward, B., (1991) The economic value of ecosystems: biological diversity.
Gatekeeper series 91-03. London: Environmental Economics Carpenter, S.R. (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being, Volume 2. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Washington: Island Press
Hanna, L., Midgley, G.F., & Millar, D. (2002) Climate change integrated conservation strategies. Global Ecology and Biogeography. Vol. 11, No. 6. pp 485-495
Merrifield, J. (1996) A market approach to conserving biodiversity. Ecological Economics Vol. 16. pp. 217-226
Plants play a major role in supporting the survival and diversity of insects (Mehlhorn 2011).
The plants provide food, shelter and promote the defensive mechanisms of the insects (Thompson 2011).
This study focuses and seeks to identify ways in which the urban trees support the diversity of insects in the respective environments.
Methods
Critical analysis of secondary data was conducted to get information about the habitat and environmental requirements of insects and the plants’ physiological processes.
The observation was also an instrumental method that was used to assess the behavior and the existence of insects in relation to plants.
Discussion
There are different species that have various types of insects. If there are many urban trees, they support the diversity of insects.
Climate change might cause global warming and the extinction of some insects. The presence of trees helps to prevent extinction and hence biodiversity (Higgins 2011; McMahon 2011).
Plants offer different habitats to insects hence diversity.
Fig. 1: Insects’ Habitats: Plants offer different habitats to insects hence diversity.
Results
Conclusions
Plants provide diverse living habitats for insects hence promoting their diversity.
Plants purify air to allow the survival of many species of insects that could otherwise die because of gases produced in urban environments (Mehlhorn 2011).
The plants curb climatic change that would lead to the possible extinction of some insects.
Bibliography
Higgins, M 2011, The best of bugs: designing hand pollinators: insects, plants, and agricultural engineering for elementary students, National Center for Technological Literacy, Museum of Science, Boston.
McMahon, M 2011, Plant science: growth, development, and utilization of cultivated plants, Prentice Hall, Boston.
Mehlhorn, H 2011, Nature helps– how plants and other organisms contribute to solve health problems, Springer, Heidelberg.
Thompson, W 2011, The whitefly, Bemisia tabaci interaction with geminivirus-infected host plants Bemisia tabaci, host plants and geminiviruses, Springer Science and Business Media, Dordrec.
The American Museum of Natural History is one of the largest museums in the globe, which comprises 28 buildings and consists of 45 exhibition halls devoted to a wide variety of scientific and historical subjects. On November 11, 2018, I had a chance to visit the museum in person and see some of the exhibited items that I find the most peculiar. While I was strictly limited in time, my visit was reduced to seeing the Hall of Biodiversity, Irma and Paul Milstein Family Hall of Ocean Life, and the exhibition of reptiles and amphibians. Although it was only a minor part of the museum artifacts, my knowledge of life forms inhabiting the planet was expanded making me realize the importance of biodiversity and think of enhancing the exhibitions.
The Hall of Biodiversity
When I first entered the Hall of Biodiversity, I was torn by the desire to visit all available sections. While I was short of time, I paid maximum attention to viewing the Dzanga-Sangha Rainforest exhibition since I always admired the diversity of African plants and animals. From the notes and examples found in the hall, I have discovered that the African ecosystem is currently suffering heavy damages, losing a threatening number of species every year. The given fact made me think of the importance of biodiversity for the planet’s future and humanity in particular.
The diversity of species is a clue to the normal operation of the major life processes. Practically all plants and bacteria on Earth are engaged in biological and geochemical reactions (“Deep-sea communities,” n.d.). The given reactions involve either the use of carbon dioxide or hydrogen (Devlin, 2018). With regards to this fact, biodiversity’s role is to boost the ecosystem’s productivity through the higher concentration of crops and massive production of oxygen.
Dzanga-Sangha Rainforest is home for thousands of gorillas and elephants; insufficient amount of plants can reduce the count of these species (the existence of the latter is linked to consuming a large variety of plants). As to the relation of biodiversity to humankind, the former is the foundation for human health; it supports food security and provides important ingredients to produce medications. Diets based on food diversity can help one to fight the diseases caused by the insufficient amount of vitamins and minerals.
Summarizing the facts, the absence of biodiversity can seriously threaten one’s health due to the lack of components required for the normal functioning of an organism. In addition, this issue can affect one’s adaptation to environmental or climate changes since no proper support for a cardio-vascular/immune system’s work is provided. The example of Dzanga-Sangha Rainforest shows that the destruction of habitats in the Congo Basin leads to massive losses in life forms.
Other Parts of the Museum
While staying at the museum, I took a chance to visit the Milstein Family Hall of Ocean Life and the Hall of Reptiles and Amphibians. Although the species represented in both exhibitions inhabit different ecosystems, aquatic habitat is what forces one to draw an analogy between the two. For me, it was a convenient opportunity to compare the representatives of the mentioned ecosystems and thus, discover their differences and similarities.
Irma and Paul Milstein Family Hall of Ocean Life contains a large number of samples (blue whale model, walrus, dolphins, and more) to assist one with sinking into the undersea world. It is an unmatched source of information introducing one to the fish and animals inhabiting the global ocean and zones of the deep in particular (“Deep-sea communities,” n.d.). Meanwhile, the exhibition devoted to reptiles and amphibians pursues the goal to educate people about the anatomy, defense, feeding, and reproduction of ectothermic organisms. By analogy with bacteria, some of the amphibians demonstrate excellent survivability in extreme conditions (Devlin, 2018). The hall provides exhaustive information about the life and habitats of Cuban frog, American alligator, Komodo dragon, and other species.
When comparing the two exhibitions, I could not miss the fact that some animals have similarities in their behavior. Thus, the Galapagos giant tortoise and the walrus are accustomed to staying both underwater and on the surface. With regards to the museum notes, the two species are rather plentiful and reach large dimensions. Another analogy that I have drawn is that both creatures show excellent adaptability to environmental conditions, which allows them to survive even mass extinction.
However, along with the similarities, there are multiple differences between the species of the two ecosystems. One of the distinctions is that they inhabit various climatic zones. Yet, the major difference is that walruses are marine mammals while Galapagos tortoises are reptiles. The first prefer piling on top of each other, while the latter do not show such a behavior.
It is evident that both the Milstein Family Hall of Ocean Life and the Hall of Reptiles and Amphibians contain a wide selection of samples and educative material on the species’ behavior. Animals from the two ecosystems have similarities and differences in the way they interact with the environment and adapt to climatic changes. By learning these behavioral peculiarities, one can expand his/her knowledge about the environmental interactions in the animal world.
The Missing Section
After the thorough study of the halls and visitors’ preferences, I come up with the conclusion that the museum needs an exhibition devoted to bacteria and animals capable of surviving the most severe conditions. There has to be a section introducing the life forms that could outlive both humans and other animals in case of a global cataclysm, which would prove that the life on Earth cannot be stopped. The present paper will touch upon the species to represent on the exhibition to come.
Among all species on the planet the deep-sea microbes are regarded to be the most enduring to extreme conditions. Scientists have discovered that some amoebas inhabiting Mariana Trench (10.9 km deep) withstand high pressure and could even survive in the open space (Devlin, 2018). It is known that these microbes thrive in the environment, which is close to that on Saturn’s moon, Enceladus (Devlin, 2018). However, they are not the only representatives to include to the exhibition since other bathypelagic creatures, such as gulper eel or brittle star, can continue existence regardless of the surface conditions too (“Deep-sea communities,” n.d.).
Considering this fact, building a hall devoted to the animals of great vitality would be a wise step in matters of people’s education about biodiversity and the importance of every species including the smallest ones.
In closing, a wing introducing the most enduring life forms represents a huge value for educating people about the diversity of species and the roles they play in the planet’s life cycle. By providing the examples of the most conditioned organisms on Earth, the museum could drag public’s attention to both the problem of climate shifts and animal extinction. For this goal to be achieved, one needs to carefully select the exhibited samples.
Conclusion
Biodiversity is one of the factors that influence the planet’s life cycle. My visit to the AMNH has helped me to fully comprehend the importance of every life form for the wellbeing of the humankind. I have discovered both similarities and differences in the behavior of species belonging to various ecosystems. Although I have seen only three exhibits, it still helped me to figure out what features could be enhanced or introduced.
The considered threat to California biodiversity is a relevant topic in the face of climate change. For instance, according to researchers, the water level in the coastal zone can rise to 5ft, which will ultimately threaten the integrity of 59% of the entire coastline (www #1). This perspective is dangerous since a large number of wildlife species live close to the ocean. To prevent this outcome, it is necessary to involve the competent authorities and plan a possible mode of operation in case of flooding and damage to certain areas.
The proposal to take active measures at the national level is essential, and it is implemented today. There is a special intervention plan, and one of its points is the conservation of renewable energy on about a quarter of the entire state (www #2). In addition, various public organizations concerned about the situation in California create movements in support of biodiversity protection and promote ideas to government boards. Such steps may have positive results if a sufficient number of stakeholders take part in such an environmental assistance program.
Another potentially valuable activity can be a closer look at those species that are in California. This approach to drawing public attention to the threat to state biodiversity is a step towards solving the problem, and today, many students are involved in such activities (www #3). Volunteer units engaged in studying the wildlife of California provide significant support to official boards. As a result, more people can learn about current difficulties due to information disseminated on social networks. Thus, the active involvement of non-indifferent people has a potentially significant result for the conservation of the biodiversity of the state.
In simple terms, biodiversity is the number and variety of both plants and animals species within a given ecosystem which can range from a small habitat to the entire planet earth.
It is the “sum total of all biotic variation from the level of genes to ecosystems” according to Andy Purvus and Andy Hector in their article entitled “Getting the Measure of Diversity” which appeared in the May 2000 volume of Nature Magazine.
Biodiversity, therefore, encompasses all forms of life on earth. Human destruction of life forms on earth (and thus their diversity) has been on the increase. This has necessitated the need for research to answer questions on how badly this destruction affects the proper functioning of the ecosystems and life on earth which can directly impact on human lives.
The article under review therefore highlights the serious challenges that lie in measuring biodiversity and goes ahead to propose the use of several schemes of measurement such as species numbers, evenness, and difference each of which may not be satisfactory.
Measurement of diversity (though it may be difficult in absolute terms – as pointed out in the article under review) is very important as it gives an indication or points out to the status of a given ecosystem or habitat in terms of its health and life support capabilities.
Information on biodiversity is increasingly being applied in everyday life by both scientists and policymakers, and its importance is now reflected in the increased research activities on environmental issues most of them geared towards reducing the rate of extinction of endangered and other species in the world.
Changes in biodiversity can also lead to ecological outcomes such as increase or decrease of the incidence of herbivory, carnivory, predation, and even in the prevalence of diseases some of which can affect other populations, including plants or animals. Diversity of a single group can also promote the diversity of other associated groups.
However, quantification of biodiversity is often a big challenge because of the complexities involved and the broadness of the subject which calls or more studies in this subject. Researchers have found easier ways to investigate specific area/ facets which in turn point out to new and interesting discoveries.
The article under review has provided enough background information on biodiversity studies carried out so far beginning from the times of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace to date. In biodiversity studies, it is recommended that one compares results from several other groups, places and over different time scales to come up with credible information.
It is imperative to select the most appropriate diversity measure, while acknowledging the fact that no single measure can be appropriate in answering all conservation questions.
Challenges have emerged as continued studies on the ecosystem have given insight into biodiversity, allowed inferences on past evolution to the present day to be made, and revealed explosion of species dating back millions of years. Recent discoveries point out to the vast areas that are still unknown to mankind and also predicting that only about 10% of all species on earth have been identified.
The high rate of environmental degradation has also led to habitat loss reaffirming the urgency in dealing with the issue and carrying out more research. Controversies have also emerged regarding studies on some species and many questions remain unanswered.
According to the article under review, some studies have gone further to suggest that biodiversity is always near equilibrium giving an example that when there is an incidence of extinction, then a higher than normal diversification incident is bound to follow.
Temporal patterns in biodiversity have been studied both locally and globally using huge sets of data to support some of these explanatory models. And some studies have even highlighted that there is more biodiversity than numbers of taxa on earth.
Records show that recent rates of species losses are unsustainable and have been increasing and human destruction of ecosystems has been identified as the major cause. Selective destruction is more serious as species are not able to survive or regain their numbers.
Effects of changes in diversity on stability and ecosystem functioning have also shown that principal abiotic and biotic factors such as climate, soil degradation, and disturbances due to population changes and activities of specific organisms can play significant roles in ecosystem degradation.
Some studies have even shown that intact diverse communities in specific ecosystems are generally more stable and function better than those which have lost species.
To conclude, biodiversity studies have shown tremendous improvements over the years as a result of genetic and other molecular tools, etc, and have proved valuable information. However, there is yet a lot to be done.
It is even not absolutely known how many species inhabit earth, and yet there is continuous destruction of ecosystems accompanied by extinctions. Therefore many questions still remain unanswered, which makes it very important to develop the right tools and systems for measuring diversity.
