Category: Biodiversity

Literature Review

Southern Florida is famous for its subtropical climate and warmth. Although the region has developed a lot in recent years, there is still enough land left to accommodate thousands of animals and plants. Historically, Southern Florida has been home to diverse native species but lately, it has been invaded by native species that are proving hard to control (Carmichael & Williams, 2006).

In the last few years, Python molurus bivittatus, popularly known as the Burmese python, has gained a lot of attention in Southern Florida. Managing the python’s population has proved futile and although its population is not supported well by existing scientific studies, so far more than 1,000 pythons have already been isolated from this region (Barker & Barker, 2008).

Burmese pythons are mainly known to inhabit mangroves, lowlands, subtropical and tropical habitants within an area of 1200 meters. The pythons are overly dependent on bodies of water and wetlands and this remains by far their single most limiting factor (Baker & Baker, 2008).

Hundreds of native wildlife species have found a home in Florida’s Everglades National Park. In addition, the non-native Burmese pythons, which now scientists claim are a danger to native species, have established themselves in the national park.

For the first time, scientists have undertaken a detailed analysis with a view to determining how the Burmese pythons could impact on a number of endangered native birds in Florida. They are also determined to assess the avian component of the Burmese python’s diet. Records show that the Burmese pythons moved to the Everglades from its native Southeast Asia region in 1979 (Baker & Baker, 2008).

Over the years, the species has increased in number and it is now estimated that there are tens of thousands of Burmese pythons in the region. Scientists from the South Florida Natural Resource Center, the Smithsonian institute and the University of Florida have undertaken studies to assess the predation behavior of the Burmese pythons on birds in the area. According to the findings, birds make up about 25 percent of the Burmese python’s diet.

These birds include the endangered species as well (Dove et al, 2011, p. 127). Dove et al further contends that since the birds had not evolved in tandem with the Burmese python as a predator, in this respect, the python poses a great danger to the pollution of native birds within the region.

Between 2003 and 2008, a total of 343 Burmese python were collected by scientist in Everglades National Park. In their studies, the revealed that the intestinal tracts of eighty five of the collected Burmese pythons contained bird remains. Using the collection specimen of bone fragments and feathers from the Smithsonian institute, the study identified more than 25 species of birds (Dove et al, 2011).

Some of the varieties of birds revealed by the study include the limpkin and little blue heron. The two species are endangered. The study also identified the remains of another endangered species- the wood stork. The Burmese python is a real threat to conservation and control efforts because of its high reproduction rate.

In addition, it consumes different species of birds and also tends to live longer (Dove et al, 2011, p. 127). The widespread and rapid invasion that characterizes the Burmese python is also believed to have been caused by its ability to adapt to diverse habitats, ability to move long distances, as well as a broader dietary preference (Snow et al, 2007).

In comparison with the hatchlings of native species, those of the Burmese python tend to be much larger. They are also less susceptible to attacks by predators. Consequently, they can effectively compete with other predators for habitat, space, and food (Gibbons, 2011). There is a looming danger following the release of the pythons in the region since it is able to thrive in the Everglades, with its undisturbed and vast habitats.

Although a larger population of the Burmese python is thought to occupy the ENP area, they have also been found to occupy more remote and new locations (Harvey et al, 2011). As competitors and predators, Burmese pythons remain a great threat to the wildlife within the South Florida region. A rising wild population of the Burmese pythons can cause great ecological problems in the region and also hinder efforts to successfully conserve the wildlife in the greater Everglades.

Because Burmese pythons are excellent swimmers there is a growing concern that they could invade the Florida Keys area that is known to be biologically vulnerable. The dietary habits of the Burmese python also pose danger to indigo snakes as they compete for food. The federal and state governments have both identified this particular species as endangered (Reed, 2005, p. 256).

There are also concerns that the human safety could be at risk. Although there lacks evidence to show that the species hunt humans, nonetheless, a number of Burmese python owners are believed to have been killed by these skins while in captive. There is also the danger that large Burmese snakes may stretch across the roads, thereby endangering the lives of motorists.

Reference List

Barker, D. G., & Barker, T. M. (2008).The Distribution of the Burmese python, Python molurus bivittatus. Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc, 43(3):33–38.

Carmichael, P., & Williams, W. (2006). Florida’s Fabulous Reptiles and Amphibians. Tenth edition. Hawaiian Gardens, CA: World Publications.

Dove, C.J., Snow, R.W., Rochford, M.R., & Mazzotti, F. J. (2011). Birds consumed by the invasive Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus) in Everglades National Park, Florida, USA. Wilson J. Ornithol. 123(1):126-131.

Gibbons, J. (2011). Invasive Burmese pythons are taking a toll on Florida’s native birds. Web.

Harvey, R. G., Brien, M. L., Cherkiss, M., Dorcas, M., Rochford, M., Snow, R. W., & Mazzoti, F. J. (2008). Burmese pythons in South Florida: scientific support for invasive species management. Web.

Reed, R. N. (2005). An ecological risk assessment of nonnative boas and pythons as potentially invasive species in the United States. Risk Analysis, 25(3):753-7.

Snow, R. W., Brien, M. L., Cherkiss, M. S., Wilkins, L., & Mazzotti, F. J. (2007). Dietary habits of Burmese python, Python molurus bivittatus, from Everglades National Park, Florida. Herpetological Bulletin, 101:5-7.

The giant garter snake (Thamnophis gigas) is one of the endangered animals in California. There are several reasons for their decline, making them an endangered species. According to the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW, n.d.), adult bullfrogs and northern water snakes predate their young ones on and if this happens at a higher rate, it becomes difficult to recover their population. The snakes also feed on fish with high mercury levels, hence they become poisoned. Moreover, there has been the destruction of the wetlands, their natural habitats, making it difficult for them to colonize new habitats.

In a dependent relationship, an organism depends on another as a source of nutrients vital for its survival. Humans are the most dependent organisms since they cannot synthesize their own food. They mainly depend on plants to utilize sunlight and soil to make food. In the above table, humans rely on bees to facilitate pollination among food crops and use their honey as food. The least dependent organism is the lichen; it produces acids, which break down rocks to form nutrient-rich soils. Interdependency relationship entails organisms, which mutually benefit from each other. For instance, persimmon trees and blueberry bush depend on bees for pollination, while the latter obtain food in the form of nectar. Moreover, in the symbiotic relationship between yeast, fungi, algae, and lichens, the algae synthesize energy, while the fungi provide it with moisture minerals. Concurrently, lichens break down rocks to provide nutrient-rich soil in the relationship.

Reference

California Department of Fish and Wildlife. (n.d.). Threatened and endangered species.

Introduction

Lichens are fungus and microalgae-based organisms. Lichens are important primary producers, fixers of atmospheric gases, and contributors to mineral cycling and integration. Lichens are environmental bioindicators. Lichens attach to live surfaces like tree trunks. These bio-substrates have enough light and complexity for lichen development (Nunes et al.). Older trees are rougher and favor institution, influencing lichen abundance.

Methods

The study site was Mansfield Hollow State Park, Chaplin CT 06235. However, several sites within each area did not meet our sample requirements. Each tree was spaced at least 5-10 m apart to ensure random sampling. There were no road or forest border tests since we only examined living trees with at least 10 cm DBH. A narrower square was used to visually assess the cover inside of the trees in each quadrat. The frame was 1.5 m up each tree trunk in the cardinal points, with the hole at that point. Where lichen developed on top of bryophytes, the surface cover of both was evaluated.

Indications of results about the original hypothesis and reasoning

The distribution pattern of lichen growth conditions within habitats may indicate dispersion limitations and the outcome of abiotic stressors on propagative choices. Sexual and asexual reproduction are both possible in lichens, and some species generate vegetative propagules.

Ecological/biological implications of findings

As a consequence of these results, the variety of foods found in forest flora that include lichens may be linked to varying optimum conditions for establishment and development. Water availability or saturation is essential in abiotic settings because it affects CO2 exchange on the lichen thallus surface and serves as a dispersion mechanism for the reproductive phase.

For example, low humidity, canopy openness, and substrate rugosity reduce substrate availability and water availability for photobiont formation and maintenance. These factors may decrease Grassland richness compared to Forest. However, increasing humidity might cause niche competition with other plants that need more water, including mosses and ferns (Nunes et al.).

This theory supports our conclusion that forests have a fantastic species diversity since increasing wetness encourages lichen growth and increases competitive pressure for space, thus affecting species coexistence.

Things that should be considered in future studies

Future research should involve more time since this experiment’s time, and resources were restricted. Existing data will be used in future studies.

Work cited

Nunes, Lucas et al. “Abiotic Effects on The Cover and Richness of Corticolous Lichens on Araucaria Angustifolia Trunks.”Acta Botanica Brasilica, vol 33, no. 1, 2019, pp. 21-28. Fapunifesp (Scielo), Web.

Introduction

Biological diversity, also known as biodiversity, is the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur.

This diversity is evidenced by differences in the morphology of living organisms which make them suitably adapted to various ecosystems. The following paragraphs discuss the importance of biodiversity on our planet and some of the different aspects of biodiversity.

Importance of biodiversity

As mentioned above, biodiversity is important because ecosystems that support life on earth have various characteristics that make them only suitable for specific species. Each organism has a specific role to play in an ecosystem.

The human species derive multiple benefits from a diverse biological ecosystem that we can not imagine how life would be sustained without biodiversity.

Natural products from plants and animals are used by human beings to provide food, medicine extracts such as penicillin, fertilizers, and pesticides. Plants and trees use carbon dioxide giving out oxygen which is used by human beings.

Diversity in plants and animals form the basis for scientific inquiry into different realms such as evolutionary science, anatomy, and ecology.

Last but not least biodiversity is beautiful, many recreational facilities benefit from biodiversity; hence biodiversity is often the subject of aesthetic interest (Wilson, 2008, p. 32s).

Loss of biodiversity will have a disastrous effect on the human species. Food security will be compromised in case of species become extinct; this will lead to malnutrition and eventually death.

Trees are a cheap energy source for many poor communities in developing countries around the world. Loss of trees will make such communities vulnerable to disease and malnutrition due to lack of heat to cook food and boil water.

Continued deforestation and destruction of water bodies will decrease the amount of clean water that is needed to support life.

Oxygen levels will decrease drastically leading to increased levels of carbon dioxide gas which will cause severe breathing conditions eventually death (Wilson, 2008, p. 57).

Aspects of biodiversity

Aspects of biodiversity fall under three major categories namely genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecological diversity. Genetic diversity is a term used to refer to the dissimilitude of organisms of the same species. Species diversity is used to refer to dissimilitude of organisms in a given region.

Species diversity presents the richness of a variety of species on a single region. Ecological diversity is a variety of biological communities or ecosystems in a given area (Wilson, 2008, p. 53).

For example varieties of biological communities that interact with one another and with their physical and chemical environments.

All the aspects of biodiversity promote better species which are more resilient to diseases; genetic biodiversity reduces relatedness within the same species in a given region such as colonies ensuring long term survival of species.

Species diversity ensures better utilization of available resources in an ecosystem thus maintaining a balanced ecosystem.

Ecological diversity ensures better coordination of species in their physical and environmental locations (Wilson, 2008, p. 64). Thus most species have been successfully conserved by biological diversity.

Conclusion

As discussed above, biodiversity is essential. It is particularly important in the sustenance of species. Species are preserved by their interrelation.

Evidence of the dependence of man on biodiversity is everywhere, but the most useful benefit of biodiversity is the provision of oxygen and clean water which enables all the organisms to thrive on earth without which there could be no life.

Reference List

Wilson, E. (2008). Biodiversity. California. Barnes & Noble.

Duck

A duck is a domestic bird that is reared for food in most parts of the world. It has a wide long beak and webbed feet to allow them top wade on mud. A duck feeds from muddy surfaces.

Dove

A dove is a flying bird that is domesticated and has an attachment to homesteads. A dove is usually larger than other birds and does not build nests on the trees but lives inside the roofs of the house.

Giraffe

A giraffe is a wild animal that has a huge body and has a characteristic long neck which is adapted to its feeding habit. It feeds on leaves from tall trees and shrubs.

Monkey

A monkey belongs to the ape family. It is a herbivore and also feeds on fruits and other wild seeds.

Bee

Is a honey-producing insect that belongs to the class Insecta. Bees live in colonies and feed on nectar from flowers which they use in making honey as their reserve food for raising up their young ones. Bees sting for protection and this is a characteristic unique to them.

Housefly

A housefly is a household fly as the name suggested. It is associated with food in the household and is smaller than a bee.

Characteristics of the species in the Kingdom Animmalia

The selected species above have the following characteristics which make them fit in the kingdom animmalia;

• They are all capable of moving from one position to the other. Unlike the species kingdom Plantae, animals can move on their own and are not attached to the ground or any surface like plants.
• All the species in this kingdom are able to reproduce young ones though they do it differently. Giraffes and monkeys in the mammalian class give birth to young ones which are strong and are able to move shortly after birth. Insects and birds lay eggs that produce the young ones.
• All the species take in oxygen for metabolism and produce carbon dioxide, unlike the kingdom Plantae which uses carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Animals feed on physical food substances, unlike plants.

Characteristics shared by the mammals above

The mammals, giraffe, and monkey have the following common characteristics;

• They give birth to young ones. Their young ones are strong and move shortly after birth.
• They are both covered with hair that keeps them warm.
• The two mammals have mammary glands which they feed their young ones at the early stages of development.

Differences between giraffe and monkey

• A monkey is an ape and has an opposable toe which they use to climb trees. Giraffes have four limbs and walk in all fours. The forelimbs of a monkey are placed like those of a human being.
• A monkey has a large face with an external nostril while a giraffe has a long head and a long neck for feeding on top tree branches.
• Monkeys are higher animals with reasoning abilities. They are believed to be next to human beings as they are the able top reason.

Insects

Similar characteristics of a housefly and a bee

• Bees and houseflies are large insects as compared to other small insects.

Differences between a bee and a housefly

• Houseflies are domestic bees while bees are more of wild insects though they are domesticated for the production of honey.
• Bees have stinging ability thus harmful while houseflies are not harmful because they do not sting. However, houseflies are disease-carrying vectors associated with cholera and diarrhea.
• Bees feed on nectar while houseflies feed on cooked food and waste kitchen garbage.

Birds

Birds are vertebrates that have feathers modified for flight and also for active metabolism. The birds selected above, duck and dove.

Similarity

• They are domestic in nature though ducks are somehow wild birds.

Differences

• Ducks are ground birds and do not fly up high while doves are high flying birds living on top of trees and buildings.
• Ducks feed on worms from muddy waters, as they are able to wade while doves feed on seeds from plants.
• Ducks are large while doves are smaller.

Echinoderms

Basket star belongs to the subclass Ophiuroidea. They are sea-living animals. Snake stars also belong to the same class but are longer in shape than basket stars. (Hendler and Miller, 1996 pp. 89-134) Echinoderms selected are basket stars and snake stars.

Similarity

• They both live in water and have the same feeding styles.

Difference

• The only difference that exists between the two is their shape, the basket star looks like a basket while the snake stars are longer like a snake.

References

Hendler, G. and Miller, D. (1996), taxonomy of sea species. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Pp. pages 89-195.

Information on animal classification. Web.

Introduction

This speech focuses on a few important aspects within the sphere of biology. Five main characteristics of life define an object as a living creature. First, the living creature responds to the changing features of the environment.

Discussion

For example, if a person tries to catch a hare, it will react by moving. The second characteristic is growth and development – seeds grow into plants, and frog eggs develop into frogs. Then, the living objects produce offspring – reproductions can be as simple as cells dividing into more cells or more complex. Living creatures maintain homeostasis, which means that they have a complex chemistry. For example, a human body remains at the same temperature, which does not depend on the temperature outside the body. Finally, living objects consist of cells, which are the basic units of their function and structure.

The viruses’ structure depends on which nucleic acid is included, which denotes that there are DNA and RNA viruses. Nucleic acids help viruses reproduce, alter cellular functions, and create proteins. DNA or RNA is surrounded by capsids, which are protein shells that protect viruses. Some viruses additionally include outer envelopes that consist of proteins and lipids. These particles are necessary to prevent viruses from external impact.

Viruses are considered living and non-living creatures simultaneously. They are living objects because they can reproduce, even though this feature is only possible within host cells. However, viruses are non-living because they are not cells on their own. Furthermore, viruses do not have the ability to perform homeostasis or metabolism, which is possible for living organisms. This information demonstrates that viruses are controversial creatures that have features of living and non-living objects.

Conclusion

The reductionist approach is more traditional in science and is based on dissecting the biological system into their constituting part for further studying them. However, reductionism is limited because it fails to address the complexity of biological systems and study their components. Therefore, systems biology is focused on biological networks, and health and disease are properties of these changing networks. In this class, the systems biology approach seems more appropriate because it draws specific attention to changing networks and their components.

Introduction/Method

The practical field survey was in the Goat Island Bay and the two study sides were Echinoderm Reef and Waterfall Reef. Akin to the baseline survey carried out by Cumming (1980), the intent of this group effort was to carry out an atlas of one transect at each site (see Fig. 1 below), recording the occurrence of predicted species and others. and determining habitats or communities across the upper, middle and lower intertidal zone.

As in the pioneering effort by Cummings, six random sample quadrants (measuring 0.25m²in area) were drawn for a total of 18 samples in each study site. Within each quadrant, the common species were counted or, in the case of seaweed and moss, proliferation estimated as a percentage of the quadrant occupied. In general, the field practical covered some of the more systematic measures recommended in the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (n.d.) ‘Marine Nature Conservation Review’ form. The recording standard for ‘Littoral Habitat (Detailed)’ includes, as this survey did, height limits and bands, zones, seabed inclination, main characterising taxa, and self-admitted survey quality (JNCC, n.d.), besides providing an exhaustive checklist of species that might be found.

Findings

Just six classes of organisms were found in the Echinoderm area (see Table 1 below). On the other hand, the exposed greywacke characteristic of the Waterfall portion of the reserve lends itself to a slightly greater variety of classes.

Table 1: Main Taxa in the Two Areas Surveyed

In general, the Waterfall area supports more classes since ray-finned fish, sponges, and Echinoidea were found only here. The more quantitative aspect of species count within class is revealed in Fig. 2 below. This shows that Waterfall Reff is more diverse in point of hosting not just one but two species of Rhodophyceae (versus none at Echinoderm, three Maxillopoda species (versus two), and four times more bivalve mollusc species.

On the other hand, both areas host about the same number of Gastropod species.

In both cases, as Fig. 3 below strongly supports, biodiversity in point of discrete taxa is greatest in the middle level, 12.5 to 15.5 metres from the waterline at low tide.

Examining taxa counts by individual samples, one finds that these are consistent with the proportions when averaged by level in Fig. 3 above. The difference is that the sheer scarcity of organisms at the upper level of Echinoderm Reef is emphasized by the fact that two thirds of the samples taken yielded nothing at all (Fig. 4 overleaf).

Counting barnacle and seaweed colonies as 1 each, we obtain the comparison of populations of individuals in Fig. 5 below. The most striking finding here is the peak individual count at upper sample 2 in the Echinoderm area. This is due to the proliferation of the gastropods Haustrum (dark rock shell) and Nerita atramentosa (black nerite) in that sample, a phenomenon not repeated elsewhere in the area or in the adjacent Waterfall Reef.

Consistent with the aforementioned low taxa count, samples three to six in Waterfall Reef upper level are remarkable for yielding no individuals at all (Fig. 5 above). At Echinoderm, individual counts are also lowest (one each) in upper level samples three to five and in lower level sample one as well.

Across the 18 samples taken in Echinoderm Reef (see Table 2 below), the red seaweed Coralina officinalis is present in fully half and is therefore the single most widespread species. This is followed closely by the gastropod Turbo smaragdus. In the same area, on the other hand, the brown seaweed Glossophora kunthii and half of all gastropods encountered were found in just one sample each.

Table 2: Most and Least Widespread, Echinoderm Reef

At Waterfall Reef, oyster borers (Lepsiella scobina) and brown barnacles (Chaemaesipho brumea) were somewhat more widespread than any other species. The fact that Cellana ornata and Chaemospiho columna ran close second attests to the greater biodiversity of the area.

Least present in Waterfall, by virtue of being found in just one sample each, were, Xiphophorus, Evechinus chloroticus, Corallina, Melagraphia aethiops, and Gelidium pusilum.

Table 3: Most and Least Widespread, Waterfall Reef

References

Cumming, A. (1980). Cape Rodney to Okakari Point Marine Reserve survey 2. Rocky shores. Leigh Marine Laboratory. The University of Auckland, New Zealand. Web.

Joint Nature Conservation Committee (n.d.). Marine nature conservation review: Site survey. 2010. Web.

Joint Nature Conservation Committee (n.d.). Marine nature conservation review: Littoral habitat (detailed). Web.

Introduction

The study of biodiversity stems from the subjects of ecology and evolution, from where it derives its two main objectives. The first objective is to understand how the natural systems operate and are ordered (Bernhardt 2). The second objective is to understand how the systems were derived.

The study of biodiversity entails various important practical applications primarily focused on conservation. The knowledge of biodiversity enables us to determine the species that are threaten by extinction under given circumstances and the best way forward to avoid their extinction. At the same time, the knowledge and a more informed understanding of the whole concept of biodiversity gives us the power to intervene in the event that we are faced by the loss of biodiversity, and to restore the lost diversity.

Does the current trend in biodiversity help in its conservation?

Wilson (2) purports that a majority of the species that ever roamed the surface of the earth have been faced with extinction at an average rate 1-2 species over the past 200 million years. In addition, incidences of mass extinction have occurred in which many taxa (a wide range of life forms) have disappeared within the same geological era.

According to the July 8^th 2010 edition of the UN news center, Edward Norton assumed his role as United Nation Goodwill Ambassador for Biodiversity. The new goodwill ambassador is credited for his active involvement in mobilizing support for conservation endeavors in his position as a board affiliate of the Maasai Wilderness Conservation Trust and in partaking in the official launching of the Crowdrise networking policy to improve engagement in charitable activity.

In his new position as the United Nations Goodwill Ambassador for Diversity, Edward Norton is charged with the responsibility of collaborating with the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in a bid to highlight on the disaster of biodiversity and mobilize world leaders to take appropriate measures to preserve the ecosystem.

According to the executive secretary of the CBD, Ahmed Djoghhlaf, in the same New York City press conference, the rate of disappearance of certain species surpasses the natural rate a 1000 times.

Do humans contribute greatly to loss of biodiversity?

Humans play a pivotal role in as far as the issue of disrupting biodiversity is concerned. Human practices which adversely affect biodiversity include unregulated hunting, road construction, over fishing, gathering, deforestation, agricultural progression coastal encroachment, and urban development, among a host of other practices.

These practices are an attribute of six fundamental human factors including;

1. high rate of population growth,
2. over engagement in trade for agricultural, fisheries and forest commodities,
3. economic scheme and policies which disregards the importance of ecosystem
4. bias in ownership and utility of the ecosystem
5. insufficient knowledge, and improper utility of knowledge,
6. legislature that allows unsustainable utilization (Lamb and Coffman 8).

Ways of Biodiversity and disaster management

According to the reports by the secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) (cited in Srinivas #. 1), a total of 478,100 people have been killed. In addition, more than 2.5 million people have been affected by the changing biodiversity with an estimated 690 billion US dollars economic loss being incurred over the past 10 years.

Furthermore, the losses suffered from some of the disasters could have been avoided, or reduced significantly if at all the necessary measures had been put in place in the first place.

For this reason, the occurrences of such disasters and the ensuing losses both in the form of property and human or animal life, is largely regarded as a result of human carelessness. For instance, logging has been implicated for landslides and flooding events. This has recently augmented the importance of decisive environmental management in curbing disaster incidence (2)

How marine reserve conserves biodiversity

The key factor in conservation of marine live is human activities, particularly fishing. Fishing has lowered the stock of fish in the Ocean, Sea, lakes and rivers by 50% (The Canadian Biodiversity n.d.). Naturally, every fish caught by man is normally replaced. At this juncture, to get a better understanding of this concept, the research paper shall endeavor to explore the three common habitat of marine life.

To start with, the research paper intends to examine the open sea habitat of marine life. The open sea extends from near the shore outwards to the center covering both the rich and the poor waters, from the top to the deepest trough. The habitats of this region include pelagic fish which feed on the planktons growing near the surface. These fish are constantly being relocated in and out of their reserves by the water currents.

Secondly, we have the sea bottom habitat comprising of soft sand and mud that covers the beach outwards to the continental shelves and deep beyond the reach of sunlight on the continental slope. The inhabitants of this zone are not subject to the sea currents and as result the fish population is uniform.

The third habitat comprise of the hard rocky shore which covers between 5-20 meters from the coast and the outer islands in the ocean. The inhabitants of this zone comprise the sea weed and sessile creatures which are attach to the rocks. The fish in this region adapt a sedentary life, they do not move from one place to another. This allows them to enjoy protection from the marine reserve, and would only be caught if they stray from the marine reserves.

It is worth noting that marine reserves protection is focused more on the few rocky shore inhabitants, thereby leaving out the other two habitats which need protection from threats of commercial fishing. Where fisheries facilities are to be found, the fish species are not extensively exposed and therefore, does not pose a major threat to fishing. Marine reserves are inadequate when it comes to offering protection to the commercial fish species, and subsequently they have very minimal benefit.

What are the causes of declining biodiversity?

According to Coffman (3), growth of cities, highways, large scale agriculture, logging, and other activities have contributed in the loss of biodiversity. Borrowing from an environmental theology, the earth’s network of life is facing destruction leading to extinction of the species by thousands, alongside the disappearance of biodiversity.

Can politics impact positively on biodiversity?

The year 2010 has been designated by the UN the international year of biodiversity (IYB). During the year numerous schemes will be established to mobilize organizations, companies, individuals, and institutions to engage directly in alleviating global loss of biodiversity. The celebration for the IYB is headed by the secretariat of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in collaboration with Countdown 2010.

Within a span of few years, countdown 2010 has achieved mobilization of growing number of participants including civil society associations, industries and the local government. Countdown 2010 take the center stage for IYB in Europe and worldwide via its well-developed network. The objectives for the IYB include;

1. To create awareness of the socioeconomic values for conserving biodiversity.
2. To improve the civic understanding of the pressure on biodiversity and methods of conservation.
3. To motivate organization to take an active or passive role in biodiversity conservation.
4. To commemorate the accomplishment of Countdown 2010 associates and other participants.
5. To report on possible failures that lead to unattained goal.
6. To arrange the platform for highlighting the post-2010 goals.

Is the role of economics vital in curbing biodiversity?

Ever since the 2006 CBD conference in Curitiba, the CBD has been diligently searching for business associates in executing their objectives. In 2009 “LIFE certification” project was launched in Brazil with the aim of quantifying and acknowledging organizational efforts towards conserving biodiversity.

Another economical participation was triggered following the 2008 conference in Bonn. This new organization was called the economics of the ecosystem and biodiversity (TEEB) and its goal was to develop an economic structure centered on biological resources (Djoghlaf 6).

In addition, the Japanese commercial alliance, Nippon Keidanren, launched a business biodiversity initiative while the Ministry of the Environment organized plan on the subject, for the preparation of the Nagoya Biodiversity Summit (7).

Does culture play significant role in conserving biodiversity?

Various cultures have diverse view points of utility and preservation of the natural resources (Toledo culture by Choc, in Halffter 134). Different communities may utilize the natural resources respectfully while others may exploit them to gain immediate and maximum benefits regardless of the harm they can inflict on the environment.

Utility of mechanical tools and agrochemicals have greatly eroded the harmonious relationship that existed between humans and the environment in the ancient times. Presently success is measured in term of capital, agrochemicals, machinery and, and market share. The extent of deterioration is prominent in the urban setting.

Halffter (136) argues that the concept of culture have been overlooked in pursuit of the elements which shape the relationship between people and nature, and in turn between people and biodiversity. Further, he asserts that the interaction with the ecosystem forms the essence of culture. Literary, culture entails our visions and principles of the ecosystem in relation to self.

Does involvement of corporation, government and individuals have positive impact on biodiversity conservation?

Our natural environment is transforming at an unpredictable rate. At the current time the world is in the initial stages of mass extinction coupled with global warming. It is believed that these adverse events are the result of human activities; and that their severity and their persistence will depend on the actions we take to combat them (The Canadian Biodiversity 2).

Every person is accountable for the conservation of his/her immediate biodiversity. Nevertheless, conservation of biodiversity at the national level is a prerogative of the government. The duty of the government towards the citizen is not only to preserve diversity but also to do it in a manner which benefits the population (3).

According to Devall (69) corporations are the key players in biodiversity conservation projects. For example ChevronMobil serve over a hundred countries, because such corporations are ranked in the fortune 500 chart and thus have more money compared to most of the national governments members of the UN. These corporations actively engage in petroleum, coal or gas mining in unprotected wild lands in various geographical locations.

According to evidence some of these corporations take up the disguise of green belt movement, and may engage in public relations promotion to express their active participation in conservation, the move referred by environmentalist as ‘green washing.’ Other critics believe that corporation other stakeholders must negotiate with them regarding conservation issues (Devall 70).

Does Forest contribute to biodiversity?

Ferraro and Simpson (2) claim that many biodiversity including major forest are situated in poorly developed countries which profit less from their ecosystem.

With regard to biodiversity tropical forest forms the richest terrestrial ecological unit. Forests have been utilized by humans from the prehistoric time a source of a wide range of commodities including fuel, medicine, foods, and wood (Topfer para. 4).

In the contemporary times, the utility and perception of forests has increasingly changed. Numerous institutions, associations and individuals have expressed interest in forest and their biodiversity, for cooperate profits, for sustaining livelihood, preservation of spiritual and cultural morals and conserving biodiversity.

To realize these diverse objectives as well as organize and forest biodiversity, various activities have been executed by the stakeholders including, individuals, communities, NGOs, intergovernmental organization and national governments (FAO 2).

Works Cited

Choc, Gregory. Land, value and economic development in Toledo. 1996. Web.

Coffman, Michael. Biodiversity treaty more than senate willing to pay: white man’s cities. 2000. Web.

Devall, Bill. Conservation of biodiversity: opportunities and challenges. Human ecology Review, 13.6(2006).

FAO. Forest biodiversity. 2010. Web.

Ferraro, Paul, and Simpson, David. Protecting forest and biodiversity: are investments In eco-friendly production activities the best way to protect endangered Ecosystems and enhance rural livelihoods? Topic 4: improving livelihoods and protecting biodiversity. Paper presented at the international conference on rural livelihoods, forest and biodiversity 19-23 may 2003, Bonn, Germany. Print.

Halffter, Gregory. Towards a culture of biodiversity conservation. 2005. Print.

Lamb, Henry and Coffman, Michael. “Global biodiversity assessment: section 10.” Eco.logic special report. Environmental Conservation Organization, 2006. Print.

Srinivas, Hari. Environmental management and disaster reduction- an introduction. Web.

The Canadian Biodiversity. What is biodiversity? Web.

Topfer, Klaus. Environmental management and disaster reduction. 2010. Web.

UN News Center. “Actor Edward Norton is celebrity advocate for biodiversity.” UN chronicle, 2010. Web.

Wilson, Edward. The Diversity of Life. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1992. Print.

Brief Definitions

It is often the case that incredible natural landscapes and landforms become so commonplace if humans live nearby that they cease to inspire natural grandeur and interest. Nevertheless, such areas remain areas rich in both biodiversity and geophysical dynamics. One such ecosystem has been chosen for discussion in this paper. It should be emphasized that the term ecosystem used in this paper is considered a natural community characterized by a constant cycle of energy and resources, the presence of consumers, producers, and decomposers, as well as the interconnection of biotic and abiotic components (Knapp, 2020). The area chosen in this work is a mountainous terrain, which is a three-hundred-meter wooded green hill, which is dominated by trees. This ecosystem is familiar to the author because of its close proximity to home: thus, the author has visited this upland area several times and studied flora and fauna.

Exploring Aspects of the Ecosystem

Flora and Fauna

The biotic component of the selected ecosystem is a unique combination of animal life unique to biogeocenosis. In fact, the mountainous terrain near the house is represented by wild fauna, characteristic of the classic Canadian coloration. Here one can find small animals that feed mainly on the bark of trees or fruits of small plants: these include hedgehogs, wild hares, and cats, some species of local birds. At the same time, mountainous terrain has a structured trophic chain, so phytophages become victims of zoophagous of the first and then of the second level, as shown in Figure 1. It should be noted that the figure gives information about some dangerous animals, be they gray wolf, bison, or grizzly. The author has never personally encountered them during a walk, but the warning signs installed indicate this possibility. As seen in Figure 1, the local trophic chain is represented by all components of the natural ecosystem, where the arrows describe the transfer of energy between levels. Thus, by feeding on sunlight to produce glucose, plants become food for first-, second-, and third-level consumers. In turn, as a result of infectious disease or death, second-order zoophagous feed decomposers represented by native ants, bacteria, or fungi. Table 1 summarizes the results of independent observation and species identification.

Table 1. Summary of local animal and plant observations

For the selected ecosystem, a developed network of animal-plant relationships is also noticeable. Not only do plants provide valuable nutritional resources to phytophages, but some of the bird species also use trees for nesting or creating storage sites for food reserves — this is an example of commensalism. At the same time, a generally neutral relationship between species is realized when trees and grasses produce oxygen as a byproduct of their food, and this oxygen is used by animals for respiration. Mutualism describes the relationship between native insects and flowering plants: insects receive nutrients, and plants are pollinated. In addition, it cannot be ruled out the possibility that symbiotic bacteria may be present on the roots of some plant forms, which capture nutrients from the soil and metabolically transform them into organic forms (Wang et al., 2018). These combine to create a sure framework of relationships between the animals and plants of the upland area near the home.

In addition to a well-developed network of relationships and the presence of all necessary components, any ecosystem must have a historical context. More specifically, since an animal and plant community resides in the same biogeocenosis for a long time, it is natural to expect them to be characterized by unique adaptive traits (Ho & Zhang, 2018). For local flora and fauna in general, Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules are noticeable: this means that due to cold winter days, their bodies are larger with comparably smaller protruding parts such as ears, nose, and tail (Shelomi & Zeuss, 2017). Thus, native animals — and especially hares and foxes — are noticeably larger than their relatives from warmer regions, such as the United States. It is also relevant for hares to change their body coloration to off-white to create additional protection from hungry predators. In addition, bacterial cells almost certainly form cysts to exist during adverse conditions. An interesting example of adaptive transformation describes the life history of Canadian marmots: when winter arrives, they go into anabiotic states in which their body temperature drops and their heart rate and respiratory rate are markedly reduced.

Climate

The local climate, which determines the course of life in the selected ecosystem, is harmoniously represented by all seasons. Summer lasts from June to mid-September, and autumn takes all the time until the end of November. In December, winter begins, which brings animals and plants in poor conditions until mid-March, and from that time until June, spring lasts. Summers are quite hot and humid, with an average temperature of 25 degrees and 12.3 rainy days. In contrast, the local winter is incredibly harsh and snowy, with average temperatures below -10 degrees and 19 cm of snow. Figure 2 summarizes the numerical data on local climatic features. Finally, it should be noted that extreme weather conditions are generally uncommon for the local ecosystem, but tornadoes and hurricanes occasionally come here, as well as prolonged heavy rains. Nevertheless, water is not retained in the soil because of the hilly landscape, and floods are completely absent here.

Plant Adaptation

Not only animals but also plants are a necessary component of a stable ecosystem. In addition to Table 1, it should be mentioned some of the adaptive changes that are characteristic of the local flora. For example, gymnosperms plants here are characterized by narrow leaves, needles, which allow them to store moisture and evaporate less during the hot season: that is why such trees are green even in winter. In addition, the crowns of the trees here are arranged in a cascade. This means that even stunted woody plants get plenty of light because they are not in fierce competition with large plants like elm, oak, or maple. Because the flowering plants need help from insects to reproduce, their leaves are bright white or colored to attract attention. What is additionally interesting is that many of the native plants have a conical crown, which means snow will not linger and break off the branches.

Geological Features

It has already been emphasized that the selected ecosystem is a hilly terrain covered with woodlands. At the same time, the ecosystem is part of a larger biogeocenosis located on the inland lands of the continent: thus, the local lands cannot be classified as either insular or coastal. However, the humidity here is low, which can be justified by both the lack of fruit plants and the absence of lakes that feed the soil. These are infertile mountain-podzol soils, on which it is not easy to grow crops.

Anthropogenic Factor

Local news studies have reported no findings of positive human activity for local systems. In fact, individuals may pick up trash or remove grime, or helping local flora and fauna, but these are isolated instances. Instead, locals often use areas of the ecosystem for picnics, and valuable plants are cut down, and grasses are burned. In addition, since this is a mountainous area, it is not uncommon for municipal mining and sand.

References

The climate and weather of Ottawa, Ontario. (2020). Living in Canada. Web.

Ho, W. C., & Zhang, J. (2018). Evolutionary adaptations to new environments generally reverse plastic phenotypic changes. Nature Communications, 9(1), 1-11.

Knapp, S. (2020). Ecosystem. Biology Dictionary. Web.

Shelomi, M., & Zeuss, D. (2017). Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules in native European and Mediterranean Phasmatodea. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 5, 25-38.

Wang, Q., Liu, J., & Zhu, H. (2018). Genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying symbiotic specificity in legume-rhizobium interactions. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 313-330.

Biodiversity is essential for survival of many living organisms on the earth (Duffy 438). Disturbance of the ecosystems on the earth results in many changes, some of which could contribute to human diseases. Pathogens and disease vectors are the major causes of infectious diseases in human beings.

Diseases lead to poor health outcomes and unhealthy people who cannot be productive in the process of economic development (Chivian and Bernstein 287). The pathogens that cause infectious diseases include parasites, viruses, fungi, and bacteria. Diseases spread at high rates from one person to another.

In some cases, infectious diseases may originate from animals; zoonotic diseases. The World Health Organization (WHO) focuses on seeking remedies to clear the infectious diseases. WHO funds numerous projects dealing with infectious diseases, especially in regions of high pandemics and epidemics.

African countries and other third world countries within the tropics are at high risk of infectious diseases (Chivian and Bernstein 296). The ongoing programs and research studies aim at reducing disruptions, mortality, and morbidity rates resulting from epidemics of infectious diseases.

Research studies in major higher learning institutions and research institutes develop mechanisms of preparedness, prevention, recovery, and response with regard to infectious diseases.

Some of the approaches have succeeded while others have stagnated due to limited funds and/or complexity of projects. However, there is hope that continued efforts will bear fruits in the long run (Chivian and Bernstein 289).

The ecosystem of the vectors is complex and is influenced by human activities (Bradshaw, Sodhi and Brook 79). In fact, human activities like farming, fishing and deforestation have been shown to greatly impact natural ecosystems.

Agriculture, being a major economic activity in African and other third world countries, may encourage breeding of vectors such as mosquitoes, snails, and tsetse flies.

The chemical method of controlling the vectors may not be efficient because it results in the destruction of the ecosystem causing imbalance and destruction of useful resources for human survival.

The diversity of the life cycle of the vectors is a protective mechanism for proliferation and increase in numbers (Chivian and Bernstein 300).

The mode of transmission also varies among different vectors and infectious agents. The major route of transmission is penetration through the skin, ingestion, inhalation, and sexual intercourse.

The vectors and infectious agents develop mechanisms of evading the human immune system in order to proliferate (Chivian and Bernstein 302).

The ecosystem of infectious agents changes due to human disturbances (Duffy 440). The major human activities on the ecosystem are deforestation, agricultural activities, mining, and water management. The human activities cause degradation of land, which leads to soil erosion, droughts, and global warming.

Pollution is rapidly increasing across the world due to the presence of nitrogenous fertilizers, pesticides and disposal of industrial wastes. The urbanization process is contributing to changing ecosystems, leading to variation of breeding seasons of the vectors and infectious agents (Bradshaw et al 83).

Some governments such as in Argentina are conserving plains, grasslands and forests. The presence of forests and grasslands creates good breeding grounds for vectors such as mosquitoes. Destruction of natural ecosystem encourages vectors in changing habitat to human homesteads.

The control mechanism of the vectors within the homestead results in the development of resistant strains that act as reservoirs of the infectious agents.

The resistant strains of the vectors make the elimination process of infectious agents difficult in eradication from the human population. The existing mechanisms of controlling vectors and infectious agents are useful because they control the breeding of the vectors.

The disturbance of the ecosystem has some effects on the dynamics of vectors and infectious diseases. For example, altering forest ecosystem results in the destruction of mosquitoes, sandflies, blackflies, and tsetse fly species. The affected vectors seek new habitats in homesteads and they cause infections in human beings.

Human settlement increases the changes of transmission of infectious diseases. Individuals living in overcrowded places have a high likelihood of transmitting malaria at a faster rate than the individuals in sparsely populated locations (Chivian and Bernstein 204).

Deforestation may also make human beings to have multiple infectious diseases due to different types of vectors. Mosquito bites cause transmission of plasmodium species in the human blood circulatory system. Deforestation may lead to change of vectors from resilient to resistant strains (Chivian and Bernstein 304).

The presence of streams and stagnant water bodies provides an array of habitats for mosquitoes both in the forests and around the homesteads. Presence of tall grass and bushes around the homestead enhances development and proliferation of the vectors that transmit infectious diseases.

Paddy areas such as rice growing regions have a high likelihood of obtaining schistosomiasis due to the presence of snails. Snails breed in marshy areas and in forested parts. The leading causes of death of all infectious diseases are lower respiratory infections due to bacterial infections (Chivian and Bernstein 310).

According to WHO records, infectious diseases cause more than 100,000 deaths every year. Previous research successfully eliminated some infectious diseases, but some are re-emerging in the 21^st century (Chivian and Bernstein 312).

The re-emerging phenomenon of infectious diseases is due to mutual interaction of the pathogenic parasites resulting in new species. The new pathogenic species have different genetic make-up that results in resistance with regard to the available preventive approaches.

In summary, human activities disrupt the natural ecosystem resulting in the loss of diversity of the infectious agents. The loss of diversity results in complexity of infectious agents’ life cycle and the methods of prevention. In addition, there exists a complex interaction among the vectors, infectious agents and human being.

Scholars and researchers are developing different preventive approaches that target the vector, infectious agent or the lifecycle of pathogenic agents in human beings. Change of climate is a contributing factor in the emergence of new species and infectious diseases.

For example, Ebola re-emergence is due to changes in genetic diversity of human beings, vectors, and pathogens. Vector-borne infectious diseases are on the increase due to urbanization, settlement, and global warming. Infectious diseases are the leading causes of death in the tropical countries, especially Africa.

Third world countries have high levels of poverty and lack of jobs. These lead to poor health, malnutrition and death. Research on infectious diseases is undergoing in the African countries in order to develop the best mechanisms of eliminating infectious diseases.

The major challenge that scientists face in the field of research is a change of climate. Change of climate correlates with the change of pathogens, change of vectors, and change of patterns of infections.

An infectious disease that has affected human beings

AIDS is an example of infectious disease mainly that is transmitted through sexual intercourse. HIV attacks and destroys the CD4 cells responsible for boosting the human immune system.

Individuals with AIDS have a high likelihood of obtaining opportunist infections such as oral thrush, tuberculosis, Pneumosytis carni, Herpes zooster, and protozoal infections.

An infected individual becomes malnourished, resulting in general body weakness. HIV has diverse methods of evading human immune system through shedding its coat. Also, HIV/AIDS has a history of a vicious cycle of disease, malnutrition, and poverty.

Works Cited

Bradshaw, Corey JA, Navjot S. Sodhi, and Barry W. Brook. “Tropical turmoil: a biodiversity tragedy in progress.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7.2 (2008): 79-87. Print.

Chivian, Eric, and Aaron Bernstein, eds. Sustaining life: how human health depends on biodiversity. Oxford University Press, United Kingdom, 2008. Print.

Duffy, J. Emmett. “Why biodiversity is important to the functioning of real-world ecosystems.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7.8 (2008): 437-444. Print.