Category: Biodiversity

Energy save the campaign, it’s the slogan save Save Fuel yaani Save Money. The initial face had managed to save 20 Billion with an initial budget of 1 bill. Its main intention was to bring awareness to the Indian population about energy conservation. The main objective focused on petroleum conservation, curbing waste, and improving the efficiency of fuel (Mahapatra & Sharma, 2016).

Promotional strategies

The promotion was advertised through TV, radio, and print media. Three major media houses joined forces in promoting, and airing the government’s plea to its citizens. The aim of the campaign was to generate awareness of energy conservation tips and strategies, which when adopted would enable increased savings profiting the user ((Mahapatra & Sharma, 2016). A few recommendations were added to help increase awareness. They include Printed literature, participation in the exhibition, celebrating oil and gas conservation, and organizing essays and painting in secondary schools just to mention a few.

Save Energy

Conservation means qualitative and quantitative use of energy for the befit of future use. The source of energy can be, oil, gas, electricity, solar or geothermal. Human beings are to be aware of the qualitative analysis of energy. This is a method of only using energy when it is absolutely necessary and switching it out if the energy is not in use. Quantitative analysis is geared towards the type of source consuming the energy, for example using a car to pull a lorry or using a tractor to pull the lorry, which of the two is efficient, fast, and less fuel-consuming.

a) Petroleum

It is a natural liquid termed liquid gold; this is due to the global use of its byproducts. It occurs naturally within the earth’s crust, when refines it produces, petrol, diesel, and kerosene, just to mention a few. The PCRA camping target audience included Transport, industries, domestic, Agriculture

· Transport

The PCRA campaign focused on training drives, building model depots and garages, emission checks, and engine replacements. The camping gave a general overview of the benefits of the following guidelines. The message stated that reducing speed between 45 to 60 kph on could save gas. Annual savings totaling 25,000 Indian Rupees per year. Driving a tractor at the right speed and tinning its engine saved the farmer 3000 Indian Rupees annually, which could be used to by bicycle to son. Driving the truck at the right speed would lead to 30000 Indian rupees and annually, this could be used to buy a TV set (Mahapatra & Sharma, 2016)

· Industry

Performing energy audits and diagnosis on fuel, organizing seminars, Consumer meets workshops and R&D projects for efficiency. The importance of efficient fuel is for the durability of the engines. The seminars were for improving the learning of their industry professionals, and mass awareness about fuel efficiency. Efficient fuel emissions reduce vehicle air pollution

· Domestic

The camping’s main focus was on Educating on cooking, developing fuel-efficient kerosene and pg stoves, and encouragement of alternative energy sources such as solar heating and biogas Fuel-efficient kerosene and LPG stoves, encouragement of Alternative energy sources such as biogas and solar energy and biogas heating.

· Solar as a source of energy

This energy is harvested from the sun through the use of solar panels. The panel work by converting sunlight to energy using n-type and p-type semiconductor material. This energy can be used for providing heat, light in the evenings, hot water for bathing and drinking, electricity for running equipment like TVs, and even cooling like fridges, for homes, businesses, and industry. This is a form of renewable energy that government campaigns focused on promoting. The impact on the environment is positive as the forest cover will begin to grow with fewer charcoal burners (Averett, 2016).

· Biogas as a source of energy

Biogas is a renewable source of energy generated through bio digestion. It is a non-polluting form of energy. It is environmentally friendly because it reduces the emission of greenhouse gases. As no combustion occurs in the production of this gas meaning the production of greenhouse gases is zero (Gnanambal & Swaminathan, 2015). This is one of the strategies employed for combating global warming.

The benefits of biogas include the reduction of lung-related diseases in people who use firewood. Because biogas is smokeless energy, medical bills associated with firewood smoke are reduced. A well-functioning biogas system means the availability of quick and clean energy. The availability of this will reduce water-borne diseases as people will be able to boil water. The butterfly effect of this is that our forests will begin to regenerate.

· Agriculture

The ad campaign focus on the agricultural sector and dwelt on the replacement of inefficient foot valves, repair of lift irrigation pumps, animal feeds, and rehabilitation of demonstration centers. The measures put in order to attain these were to Offer driver-training programs, organize agriculture

Workshops and education on Kisan meals are at farmers’ fairs. The benefits would be to help mitigate food wastage to bad planting habits that lead to loss of finance (Mahapatra & Sharma, 2016).

Boosting Energy Conservation

Implementation of the laid guidelines promoted by the campaign would lead to boosting the amount of energy that is conserved countrywide. Abhay Bakre made sure that the campaign will reach the rural areas to provide a countrywide view of the progress in energy conservation, which is a global topic not only an Indian one.

Global warming

The population of the world is growing at a particularly high rate (Mondal, 2019). Increasing the appetite for energy has led to a high dependence on fossil fuels. The eradication of forests for the human population increase is becoming a menace both to the climate and wild animals. A solution needs to be found and implemented to feed this appetite. The only solution is to find alternative ways of complementing hydroelectric power. In the world countries, rural area does not have electricity. People are forced to rely on fossil fuels for almost all the daily needs of their lives. With the decrease in forest cover, the only solution would be the introduction of biogas and solar energy as a source of energy. This will also limit the loss of life between wild animals and human beings for those situated near jungles. Hydroelectric power also comes from water. The reduction of rain leads to an increase in electric power rates. Thus society’s only way to save on finances for hydroelectric power is to conserve the forest cover

Importance of Energy Conservation.

a) Financial

The campaign estimates showed how financial savings could be achieved by following the energy conservation mechanism. Thus it is clear that energy conservation is a way of poverty eradication. The money accumulated due to t the use of energy conversion can be injected back into important use for the family (Mahapatra, S & Sharma, R. (2016). The money can be used to accrue improved renewable sources of energy. The family can use the money for emergency purposes.

b) Health

Health improves with the implementation of new renewable sources of energy. During rainy days, firewood is hard to come by. Some families end up sleeping on an empty stomach. Sometimes it can rain for days thus days for a family to be hungry are prolonged. Having a renewable source of energy like biogas will help mitigate such disasters. The overall benefit of energy conservation is nutritional meals for the whole family.

c) Educational

School dropouts are increasing in drought-prone areas. Environmental objectives to foster a relationship between man and nature should be embraced. The effect of global warming due to the depletion of the forest is increasing. With wildfires on a constant rise in US forests. Learning to utilize other forms of energy is a major pillar in the fight for food security.

d) Psychological

The psychological difference between children in families that have embraced renewable sources of energy compared to those who have not can be seen in their performance in school. Energy is essential for the development of a character in reading. Using kerosene light compared to solar light we find that solar light is durable, clear, and provides a wide range of views compared to kerosene lights. The availability is also essential for the growth and development of a child, it is quicker cleaner, and safer to cook breakfast for your child with biogas than with a kerosene stove. Biogas is sootless and thus health-friendly while kerosene produces soot.

Impact of energy conservation

a) Well informed society

The creation of awareness is a form of passing knowledge and new information. The masses get to know the current trends in the globe. The creation of a campaign provides a positive impact in making sure the citizen get government announcements and information.

b) Better environmental policy

Once society has been informed of the benefits and costs of energy conservation, their minds can be attuned toward remedying the effects of overusing natural resources like firewood from trees and maintaining the water catchment areas.

c) Life

When human is no longer interested in interfering with the natural habits of wild animals due to the need for fossil fuel. Then many humans and any mal conflict will be minimized.

d) Global warming.

Energy conservation has led to the global powers agreeing on a way to help curb this menace. The UN has summits it holds each ear for the purpose of ensuring the world is in the union. Some of the measures put in place are stricter terms on vehicle gas emissions.

e) Acquiring assets

Money accumulated while conserving energy can be used for acquiring now asserts (Mahapatra & Sharma, 2016). It can be used for buying a new home, buying a car, traveling abroad, or satisfying one’s hobbies.

f) Job creation

Investing in research to find new, cheap, and reliable energy sources to help in the fight for energy conservation leads to job creation for people with skills in the industry of energy production and environmental studies.

g) A new field of study

Funding research in energy-efficient fuel, analysis of quality, biogas implementation, or solar energy, will provide a field of study for our children to study and explore their imaginations. This is healthy for the scientific branch of the nation to grow.

Conclusion

Energy conservation is an interesting topic of study with different branches that complement each other. Research and development of new technology to combat the ever-changing need of the people is a step toward attaining a balance between nature and technology. Financial freedom in conservation is also an interesting topic as this part tends to be underrated by many. The campaigns brought the mind of society together on a point well misunderstood by many. The cause bringing the mind of people together and teaching them ways to mitigate and solve their financial problems was a noble cause. Looking at the survey result, the campaign did generate interest among its audience.

References

1. Gnanambal, V., & Swaminathan, K. (2015). Biogas production from renewable lignocellulosic biomass.International Journal of Environment, 4(2), 341-347. https://doi.org/10.3126/ije.v4i2.12662
2. Mahapatra, S., & Sharma, R. (2016). The PCRA: social marketing campaign for petroleum conservation. 2016-06-07. Retrieved from https://www.yourhomeworksolutions.com › EXTERNALCP15507_pcs.1.pdf.
3. Mondal, S, H. (2019). The implications of population growth and climate change on sustainable development in Bangladesh. Journal of disaster risk studies, 11(1), 535. doi:10.4102/jamba.v11i1.535
4. Averett, N. (2016). Solar Power Saves Everyone Money. Retrieved from https://www.bu.edu/articles/2016/solar-energy-advantages/

Introduction

Declining biodiversity across the world has compelled many countries to come up with effective conservation measures that enhance sustainable use of natural resources. The Costa Rica National Institute of Biodiversity entered into unique agreement in 1991 with a pharmaceutical company, Merck & Company, which allowed joint exploration and exploitation of biodiversity for the benefit of the pharmaceutical company and conservation of the environment to save the declining biodiversity. The prime objective of the agreement was to enhance sustainable use of untapped resources in Costa Rica forests in production of medicine by Merck & Company, while Costa Ricans would benefit from conservation of natural resources using profits accrued from production of medicine. According to Blum (2003), the agreement stipulated that the Merck & Company should pay the Costa Rica National Institute of Biodiversity a million dollars and some royalties from the developed drugs in exchange of insect, plant, soil, and microorganism samples obtained from Costa Rica forests (p.4). The agreement between Costa Rica National Institute of Biodiversity and Merck & Company, set precedence in conservation of natural resources because it depicted how pharmaceutical companies can sustainably explore and exploit natural resources. Despite the benefits of conservation, there are still ethical reservations regarding the use of natural resources to benefit Costa Ricans.

Ethical Perspective

From an ethical perspective, biodiversity that exist in the Costa Rican forests is a natural property of Costa Ricans who live around the forests. An environment consists of ecosystems that continually sustain themselves for centuries with the maximum number of biodiversity at all instances; unfortunately, human activities that involve exploitation of natural resources have been destructive and unsustainable, thus creating an ecosystem imbalance, which threatens decimation of biodiversity. Since human beings are part of ecosystem and are highly dependent on it, activities that tend to eradicate biodiversity in the forests have equal effects on humanity. According to Axt and Corn (1993), destruction of ecosystems does not only lead to loss of plant and animal diversity in the forests, but also threatens the existence of humanity for they all coexist in the same ecosystem (p.4). Thus, people who live in the same ecosystem as diverse species in the forests are the ones who should own all species that live in forests. Therefore, it is unethical for any organization to claim to have any exclusive right to explore and exploit natural resources in a given ecosystem without considering the welfare of those living within the ecosystem.

Although the government has noble responsibility of ensuring that people conserve their natural resources, it does not mean that natural resources should belong to a given ministry and thus bar locals living around forests from exploiting the natural resources sustainably. The Costa Rico v. Merck & Company agreement unethically allowed National Institute of Biodiversity, which is a private organization, and Merck pharmaceutical company to exploit natural resources from the forest while terming it as an effective collaboration of conserving natural resources. Axt and Corn (1993) argue that, biodiversity plays a significant role in maintaining and sustaining varied ecosystems across the world and cumulatively help in balancing earth’s ecosystem (p.7). Thus, if biodiversity is crucial to pharmaceutical companies when exploited, what explains the fact that the local people who benefit from biodiversity in their natural settings do not benefit from exploited resources except in conservation measures? Therefore, ethics demand that local people should not only benefit from natural resources of biodiversity in their natural settings, but also when exploited by pharmaceutical companies or any other body for that matter.

Commercialization Benefits

The local people should be the first to benefit from commercialization of natural resources since the resources are part of their ecosystem. Moreover, since human beings form an integral part of an ecosystem and are substantially dependent on natural resources, exploitation of natural resources without considering to reward them amounts to human abuse. It is abusive and discriminative to restrict human beings from exploring and exploiting natural resources in their own environment while allowing foreigners to benefit from the same resources. Natural environment with all its biodiversities has been a home for human beings since the beginning of life and thus segregation of natural resources from human beings is inhuman. Chichilnisky (1993) argues that, industrialized countries have depleted their natural resources and are currently scrambling for meager natural resources in developing countries without giving due benefits to the communities conserving them (p.3). The communities surrounding Costa Rican forests should be beneficiaries of commercialized natural resources because they belong to their ecosystems, which have an impact on them if poorly exploited without considering sustainability.

Given that government of Costa Rica plays a central role in conservation of environment, it should be also a beneficiary of commercialized natural resources. Conservation measures require a substantial deal of resources necessary in ensuring that there is sustainable exploitation and management of natural resources for the benefit of society and posterity. In addition, government formulates appropriate laws and policies that aim at protecting natural resources. Effective implementation of policies and laws depend on cooperative relationship between communities that utilize natural resources, and government ministry that deals with matters of conservation. Dedeurwaerdere (2003) asserts that, sustainable use of natural resources and conservation of the environment is a noble responsibility of a government in ensuring that future generation receives maximum benefits from the current environment (p.6). Hence, to enable the government to continue with conservation of environment, benefits obtained from commercialization of natural resources should aid in conservation of the environment. Thus, government should be another beneficiary of commercialized natural resources.

Worth of Costa Rica Biodiversity

Costa Rican biodiversity is more worth than just a million dollars and royalties from manufactured drugs; it has cost historical efforts of many generations to maintain biodiversity. Merck pharmaceutical company had an advantage because many generations have been conserving biodiversity until this generation for the company to value it at a million dollar. The value of Costa Rican biodiversity is worth many generations because once destroyed, no value of money can restore extinct species of plants and animals. The commercial value of natural resources cannot have comparative value with natural ecosystems that cumulatively form part of the earth’s ecosystem, which is critical in sustaining lives on the universe. According to Blum (2003), the value of biodiversity lies in ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity in which all are interrelated in that, loss of one results into loss of others (p.2). Real value of Costa Rican natural resources is concomitant to historical efforts that have maintained biodiversity through all centuries since the beginning of life and thus invaluable.

The valuation of Costa Rican natural resources at one million dollars by Merck pharmaceutical company is extremely negligible. Compared to knowledge and profits obtained from manufactured drugs, the valuation ought to be higher. A pharmaceutical company can obtain a single sample of plant, insect, or microorganism and carry out medicinal analysis to obtain a compound of choice. The obtained compound has more value than the samples of organisms collected because, through synthetic chemistry, scientists are able to manufacture the same compound. Chichilnisky (1993) argues that, economic value of biodiversity encompasses value of extracted medicinal compound and perpetual knowledge employed in synthetic production of medicinal compounds (p.4). This means that scientists do not only extract medicinal compounds from organisms that are essential in the manufacture of drugs, but also derive structural formulas of compounds so that they can manufacture them synthetically. Therefore, perpetual knowledge derived from organisms has immense value, worth future generations, because it contributes significantly in the manufacture of drugs in the future.

Ethical Obligation of pharmaceutical Companies

Pharmaceutical companies have an ethical obligation to share profits with countries that they obtain natural resources from, since they should compensate for the loss of biodiversity and conservation measures to ensure sustainable use of natural resources. Samples of the organisms that pharmaceutical companies obtain from various countries are part of natural resources of the respective countries. Such natural resources have great value in that they do not only benefit current generations, but also future generations. Axt and Corn (1993) explain that, biodiversity is beneficial because it maintains favorable interaction within ecosystems, which have played a critical role in agriculture as a wide range of gene pools have enabled the creation of pest, disease, and drought resistant crops that guarantee food production and security (p.7). Natural resources provide a wide range of gene pools in the past. These gene pools have saved agricultural production of food due to climate change and increased incidences of pests and diseases that develop resistance with current pesticides and herbicides. Thus, natural resources are of great value to the country endowed with them, and pharmaceutical companies have an ethical responsibility to compensate for the samples that they extract from various ecosystems.

Moreover, since pharmaceutical companies explore and exploit natural resources for profit gain, it is unethical for them to generate millions of dollars from samples of organisms they use in the manufacture of drugs without compensating countries that own the exploited resources. Natural resources, in terms of biodiversity, have significant value to pharmaceutical companies because a single species of organisms among millions of species can generate a significant deal of money that is worth millions of dollars. For example, according to Chichilnisky (1993), pharmaceutical companies use ginko tree in production of drugs that promote blood circulation, which generate approximately $300 million per year in Europe alone (p.5). Moreover, statistics show that in the United States, about a third of medical prescriptions offered annually emanate from compounds derived from organisms or synthetically produced to imitate natural compounds. Therefore, given the amount of money that pharmaceutical companies generate from elementary organisms, it is ethical and justifiable for them to give due compensation to various countries that own the natural resources.

Justification of Agreement

The agreement between Merck pharmaceutical company and the National Institute of Biodiversity of Costa Rica was ethically justifiable in part; its main objective was to enhance conservation of natural resources and biodiversity. The agreement provided a model of how pharmaceutical companies can collaborate with various organizations in ensuring that there is sustainable utilization of natural resources in developing countries. When viewed from the perspective that developing countries do not have enough technology and inputs to exploit untapped natural resources or do not have sufficient funds to conserve their environment, then it becomes ethically justifiable for them to enter in contractual agreements that lead to sustainable exploitation of natural resources and conservation of the environment. According to Zebich-Knos (1997), since pharmaceutical companies have many resources and are willing to conserve environment, contractual agreement like the one of Merck pharmaceutical company and Costa Rica National Institute of Biodiversity, provides an effective collaboration platform that promotes sustainable development of natural resources and preservation of environment (p.184). Hence, the agreement was ethically justifiable since conservation of natural resources was the objective.

However, the agreement was also not ethically justifiable in part because the Merck pharmaceutical company had an objective of unduly exploiting natural resources in Costa Rica forests. The Merck pharmaceutical company wanted to exploit natural resources excessively; they undervalued compensation and demanded exclusive rights and freedom to evaluate and analyze about 10,000 samples of organisms without any interference from the authorities. If statistics have shown that a sample of organisms can generate millions of dollars per year, what would 10,000 samples of organisms generate? From that perspective, the agreement favored Merck pharmaceutical company while Costa Ricans only benefited from conservation measures, which are incomparable. Moreover, according to Blum (2003), the agreement gave exclusive rights to the National Institute of Biodiversity, which is a nongovernmental organization, to commercialize natural resources and use proceeds at their own discretion yet natural resources are the property of Costa Ricans (p.4). In the agreement, Merck pharmaceutical company was to pay one million dollars to the National Institute of Biodiversity, which consequently received additional royalties from the drugs discovered. Hence, the agreement was ethically unjustifiable because it led to excessive exploitation of natural resources without due compensation of Costa Ricans.

Conclusion

Biodiversities are valuable natural resources given the integral role they play in regulating various processes in an ecosystem. For an ecosystem to function optimally, it must have diverse species of organisms that cooperatively work together in sustaining biological and physical processes of an environment. However, increasing human population has led to over-exploitation of natural resources, which subsequently lead to decline in biodiversity. Declining biodiversity does not only threaten the existence of plants and animals in a certain environment, but also existence of humanity because there is an interdependent relationship in an ecosystem. Therefore, since developing countries lack the technology to exploit natural resources and have insufficient funds to conserve their environment, contractual agreement like the one of Merck pharmaceutical company and National Institute of Biodiversity provides an example of how pharmaceutical companies can contribute towards sustainable exploitation and conservation of natural resources. However, future agreements should not offer an opportunity for pharmaceutical companies and nongovernmental organizations to exploit natural resources excessively without giving due compensation to native communities.

In the case of risk adverse situations, it is possible to make contradictory preferences when the problem comes in different forms. In other words, choices are made depending on the circumstances. The risk aversion occurs when the positive outcome is smaller, though with greater certainty. The situation is different when the reward is greater with less uncertainty. On the other hand, the risk adverse situation is when the reward is greater with little uncertainty. The preferences and the situations of the outcome determine its desirability. Moreover, the risk adverse situation is where the cost or the failure of obtaining the positive outcome is unacceptable. However, the outcome is influenced by the presentation, circumstances or framing. In other words, a person making decisions would be influenced by the choice of behaviors depending on the circumstances or the framing, even when the outcome is not changed.

The approaches presented in biodiversity presents a situation in adverse risk cases. Majority perceive such risks as known, controllable and not immediate. In most cases, it is easier to determine the outcome of such risks. The risk adverse scenarios present the conservationists with tough decisions when faced with different situations. The risk adverse situations can be modified by the frames as well as the emotional motivations. Therefore, when used to assess the environmental outcomes, the decisions are likely to be different depending on the situation as well as the emotional perception. In other words, the decision outcome depends on the manner in which the observers perceive the situation.

Risk adverse scenario can be applied to assess the consequences of the situations that involve the biodiversity outcomes. Drake, Mercader, Dobson and Mandrak used the risk aversion to predict the risky human behavior patterns concerning the invasive species1. Risk adverse assessments utilize the perceptions or are emotionally driven depending on the situations presented. Therefore, it is easier for researchers to identify behavior patterns depending on the manner in which the environmental issue is presented. In determining the type of aspects that increases probability of risky behaviors, Drake, Mercader, Dobson and Mandrak analyzed the social discernment concerning the insidious genus, the perceptions on the natural resources management, the belief systems as well as the outreach program for live bait anglers in Ontario. The researchers predicted the risky behavior depending on the variation observed in social perceptions. Irrespective of all the circumstances, the responded exhibited the willingness to contribute to the prevention management, despite a reasonable agreement that the invasive species creates negative impact on the natural resources.

Similarly, Hulme utilized the risk adverse to assess the impact of alien species introduced intentionally or unintentionally in new areas round the globe by the human activities2. Hulme described different situations in which alien species could be introduced particularly, through transportation means and globalization. Hulme’s study explored the diverse critical situations reinforcing pathway risk assessment.

Both the studies indicated how risk adverse could be used to assess risk behavioral patterns involving approaches in biodiversity. In both study frames, the decisions by individuals involved depended on their perception of the outcomes and the certainty of the risks. However, the perception may change depending on how it is presented. In both cases, the outcome is presented as greater compared with certainty of the risks involved3. The perception of the individuals has been persuaded by the manner in which the situation is presented. As a result, the decisions are made depending on the circumstances.

In risk tolerance, the sensitivity of the outcomes is linked to its magnitude and consequences. Other factors would depend on the individual perceptions and used as a mitigating factors. In the situations where majority of individuals feel that they are in control of the situation, there is increased risk tolerance4. Besides, there will be increased risk tolerance when many choices are presented. On the other hand, risk intolerance would come about when there is fear of uncertainty. Moreover, when the consequences are uncertain, the intolerability of the risk increases.

The reactions and the attributes of climate change is an example of risk tolerance situation. As indicated, tolerance to the risk will depend on the certainty of the consequences. The problems with climate change present a situation where the future generations are at greater risk5. Besides, the consequences are uncertain. Moreover, the degree of the consequences of the climate change makes it even more intolerable risk. In other words, the outcome of the climate change is even more dreadful. The climate change presents a situation where tolerable risk can be applied to assess the outcome. The approaches to issues associated with environment can be assessed through the application of both risk adverse and risk tolerance.

Conclusion

Risk adverse can be utilized to assess the risk behaviors in biodiversity depending on the goal of the program. In most cases people will react to the situation depending on how it is presented. For instance, in the circumstances of conserving the endangered species, the conservationist can present the situation to create the immediate need and increase concern to the immediate communities. On the other hand, risk tolerance can be applied to assess the risk behaviors in serious issues that involve environment such as climate change.

Ruscha’s rat (Abrawayaomys ruschii) and giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) were selected for the analysis of mammals. First of all, it should be stated that the similar features of all the mammals are shared among all the species, and the two selected are not an exception. The common features, which Ruscha’s rat and giant panda share as mammals are the three middle ear bones, hair, and the ability to produce milk for the feeding of newborn litter with the sweat glands, which are also called mammary glands.

The differences between these species are covered in the sizes of the animals (15 cm in length of Ruscha’s rat, and up to 80 cm high for pandas). These animals differ in their natural environment and position in the food chain.

As for the issues of order, it should be stated that the giant panda belongs to the order Carnivora (coyotes, dogs, and foxes), and has a diet that is 99% bamboo. It may also eat other foods such as honey, eggs, fish, shrub leaves, and fruits when available. Ruscha’s rat belongs to the order Rodentia (squirrels and capybaras), as its ration includes corns, insects, eggs, and roots.

The next two species are the representatives of Insects. These are Pipevine Swallowtail (Battus philenor) and Camberwell Beauty (Nymphalis antiopa).

As for the common features, all the insects have a complete and rather complex digestive tract. As Agassiz (2001, p. 76) states, all the insects are dioecious: “fertilization is internal in most. How mating is accomplished, however, is incredibly variable; study of this variability by evolutionary biologists has greatly advanced our understanding of the evolution of behavior, social evolution, and traits such as number, size of young, and patterns of investment in them.” Both species are completely different in the young stages of life from the mature form of the insect.

The selected species differ with the coloring (iridescent metallic blue sheen of Pipevine Swallowtail and very dark red, with a bright, yellowish border around the wings of Camberwell Beauty). The young specimen differs in appearance, however, they are almost similar in coloring.

As for the orders, Camberwell Beauty (Nymphalis antiopa) belongs to Lepidoptera, also sharing this order with Pipevine Swallowtail (Eriocraniid Moths, Ghost Moths and Swifts and Mandibulate Moths). The representatives of this order undergo essential metamorphoses during a four-stage life cycle: egg, larva/caterpillar, pupa/chrysalis, and imago/adult. Moreover, the life cycle may also entail inactive periods, or diapauses, aimed at overcoming unsuitable environmental conditions.

The following species, which should be analyzed are from the class of Aves (Birds) Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperii), and chukar (Alectoris chukar). The key features which define birds from other animals are the following:

First of all, feather covering should be mentioned. This gives them perfect aerodynamic characteristics, as well as simplicity and lightness of body constitution. The bones of the birds are hollow inside, nevertheless, durable enough for overcoming extreme g-forces (especially for birds of prey). A horny beak without teeth is another feature, which defines birds. The beak is aimed at consuming corns, insects, or tearing the fleshes of the victims (for birds of prey)

The differences between these two species are covered in the fact that Cooper’s hawk is a bird of prey, and has the corresponding body constitution. Chukar is the bird of flock (5 to 40 species in a flock), while hawks and similar birds prefer living single, covering huge territories for hunting.

Chukar belongs to the order Galliformes (fowls, gallinaceous birds, or galliforms) and Cooper’s hawk is the representative of Falconiformes (Falcons, Eagles). Galliformes are birds that are chicken-like in appearance, with small to large bodies and blunt wings. Falconiformes are the birds of prey, created for killing and enduring extreme speeds, g-forces, and hights.

The final part of the analysis is dedicated to Echinoderms. Sea stars and starfishes (Asteroidea), sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea) are selected for the comparison. Haldane and Huxley (2005, p. 391) in their zoological review give the following classification of echinoderms: “An internal skeleton is present throughout members of the phylum. Ossicles, which make up the skeleton, are below an outer dermal layer. The skeletal and muscular arrangement varies among groups. Pedicellariae produced by the skeleton, are pincer-like structures. Found mainly in echinoids and asteroids, their function is debatable. They may be used to capture prey, clean, or hold items to disguise from predators.” Originally, these are the main features, which unite Sea stars and Sea Cucumbers. As for the matters of differences, it should be stated that these two species are different in form and have a place in the food chain.

The mouth of the sea stars is located underneath the star itself, while the cucumber has its mouth in front of the body. The spiny upper surface of the star differs essentially from the covering of Sea Cucumber. Moreover, the Holothuroidea is also featured with the sticky civilian tubules (enlargements of the respiratory tree that float freely in the coelom) to entangle potential predators. (Scientific American, 2003). Sea Cucumbers represent the order Aspidochirotida (Parastichopus californicus and Parastichopus parvimensis), and Sea stars are the representatives of Forcipulatida (Ampheraster, Anteliaster, and Aphanasterias).

It has been acknowledged that people have had a substantial impact on the environment and biodiversity. Deforestation and pollution are regarded as some of the primary negative effects that influence the planet (Tomalty & Mallach, 2016). At the same type, other factors related to human activity are significant factors contributing to the destruction of ecosystems. One of the ways humans affect the diversity of species is urban sprawl. This paper includes a brief description of the negative impact of urban sprawl on biodiversity.

The urbanization of the United States, as well as other countries, is one of the major trends as people are moving to cities and their suburbs. It has been estimated that by 2030, 71 million Millennials (both American born and immigrants) will revolutionize the U.S. housing market as the majority of this cohort will try to settle in big cities (Tomalty & Mallach, 2016). Such demographic trends tend to have an impact on the development of urban areas, which is often associated with quite unsustainable practices.

Urban sprawl is the major effect of this tendency since large cities are often expanded at the expense of suburbs that are not easily transformed in sustainable urban areas. Urban sprawl is characterized by “uncontrolled and inefficient dispersion accompanied by low building and population density” (Barrico & Castro, 2016, p. 35). Such new districts require a considerable number of resources such as energy, land, and water.

Some of the central environmental concerns linked to urban sprawl include the destruction of species’ habitat, introduction of new species, as well as fragmentation of habitats and migration routes. New urban areas are built, and the environment is changed tremendously, making it inappropriate for numerous species (Concepción et al., 2016). In addition to the physical change of the landscape, people bring new species to certain areas (Barrico & Castro, 2016).

These new dwellers force out local plants and animals from urban and suburban areas. Pollution associated with urbanization also has various adverse effects on the environment. The growth and emergence of cities are also closely linked to the construction of more roads and infrastructure facilities, which also destroys habitats. For instance, animal migration is often affected, and the lifecycle of many species is destroyed or interrupted (Concepción et al., 2016). Various species are unable to adjust to new conditions and disappear. Wildlife habitats are shrinking at an unprecedented pace in all parts of the globe, which has an irreversible impact on biodiversity.

It is necessary to note that some steps to minimize the adverse effects of urban sprawl have been undertaken. People try to employ sustainable strategies when constructing new urban areas or reshaping suburban zones (Tomalty & Mallach, 2016). However, even industrial countries find it difficult to eliminate or significantly minimize the impact of urbanization. The growth of the world population is likely to bring more challenges to be addressed.

In conclusion, urban sprawl is one of the influential factors that have an adverse impact on biodiversity. People’s irresponsible use of natural resources (primarily land) leads to the destruction of habitats forcing numerous species out of their habitats. Some species try to adapt to new habitats, but many fail to do so, and biodiversity in many areas is in danger. Although some countries and communities try to minimize their footprint on the environment, these measures are far from being sufficient, as numerous species disappear each year.

Essay on Biodiversity: Biodiversity is the presence of different species of plants and animals on the earth, which means it’s crucial that we take care of these precious creatures and preserve their habitats so they can thrive in today’s world.

This Essay on Biodiversity on the importance of biodiversity will teach you about the vital role biodiversity plays in our everyday lives, so you can help protect the beautiful planet we live on!

The term biodiversity was coined by Dr. Ernst Mayr in 1985, who originally defined it as the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems.

However, today we generally refer to biodiversity more generally as the variety and variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part;

this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. Another way to think about biodiversity is that it is a measure of how many distinct genomes exist for each type of organism.

Each plant or animal species has its own genome that distinguishes it from others, but there are also genetic differences even within a single population, especially when comparing individuals with greater geographical separation.

These variations provide important information about adaptation to local conditions and reproductive isolation—they often lead evolution toward new species (speciation). Protecting biodiversity helps ensure that we maintain enough genetic material for evolution’s process to occur.

Threats to the Existence of Biological Diversity

Habitat loss, hunting, and poaching: The biggest threat to biodiversity today is habitat loss. Humans are destroying forests, grasslands, reefs and other natural habitats at an alarming rate.

As a result, hundreds of species that call these areas home are also disappearing every year. Illegal hunting and poaching add even more pressure to certain species by reducing their numbers even further.

All of these factors have led some experts to predict that within as little as 100 years humans could kill off as much as half of all living organisms on Earth. We do not want a world without life in it! What can be done? Read on!

In order to reverse its course, we need leadership from government agencies and private conservation groups.

These organizations need to work together across borders and continents to preserve as many unique ecosystems as possible for as long as possible—while respecting cultural differences and providing communities with clear economic incentives for preserving their environments.

In addition, individuals must commit themselves both mentally and financially to stopping the disappearance of these vital plants and animals.

Need for Protection and Conservation

With a wide variety of animals and plants as well as different ecosystems and habitats, biodiversity is essential to support healthy ecosystems. However, human activities have led to an enormous loss in biodiversity due to deforestation, over-hunting or over-fishing, pollution and global warming.

Thus there is an immediate need for protection and conservation of biodiversity around us. With a huge number of species becoming extinct every year we need better efforts towards conserving biodiversity than ever before.

This Essay on Biodiversity will explore some ways to promote biodiversity protection and help save existing flora and fauna from becoming extinct. All life on earth forms part of a complex network of interrelationships – each living organism is dependent upon others for survival.

The diversity found within these interrelationships provides important ecological services that underpin human existence.

Most people would agree that it would be irresponsible not to protect all living things which form such an important part of our ecosystem.

Importance of biodiversity

In today’s world, it is easy to focus almost solely on ourselves and forget about everything else that we share our planet with. It can be hard to imagine how things could possibly continue to function if our entire ecosystem was suddenly wiped out.

However, biodiversity plays a critical role in our survival, not only as humans but also as part of Earth’s intricate web of life. If you have ever wondered why biodiversity is so important, you will find answers here.

Here are just a few reasons why preserving biological diversity is necessary for us all. It preserves ecosystems: Biodiversity keeps ecosystems intact by keeping every niche filled.

By making sure that all aspects of an ecosystem remain stable and thriving, biodiversity helps prevent organisms from being squeezed out or becoming endangered.

This makes it possible for species to share resources and adapt to new challenges together instead of falling into competition over limited resources.

Conclusion

The essay’s conclusion is a short summary of all you’ve said in your essay. You might want to think about how you can end with a powerful or interesting statement that ties in with your introduction, giving it a sense of unity.

For example, if you wrote that local communities depend on biodiversity for their survival, you could end by saying ‘We cannot exist without biodiversity.’

Remember not to simply restate what you have already written—keep it punchy and try not to use cliches! Think back over what you have said, and pull out some key points to support your viewpoint.

If they were mentioned at some point during your essay, then they should feature here as well. Don’t leave them hanging loose!

Also make sure you don’t waffle too much – get straight to the point! Leave no room for doubt that you are writing an essay on biodiversity and how important it is.Essay on Biodiversity: Biodiversity is the presence of different species of plants and animals on the earth, which means it’s crucial that we take care of these precious creatures and preserve their habitats so they can thrive in today’s world.

This Essay on Biodiversity on the importance of biodiversity will teach you about the vital role biodiversity plays in our everyday lives, so you can help protect the beautiful planet we live on!

Introduction

The aspects of biology conservation, and preservation of the biodiversity on the planet are becoming increasingly important for the humanity. Originally, there are numerous ways of coping with this problem, and this paper is aimed at analyzing the results of a survey, which was offered to random people. The questionnaire included questions mainly on the aspects of preserving the bio diversity of Louisiana and national parks of the USA. People were asked on the matters of protection of the wildlife, and how they are ready to promote this process. In general, the survey is aimed at analyzing the opinions of various people on the matters of biodiversity protection and the values of biology conservation. It will be able to provide the solid basis for the further sociological research on the issue of readiness of the people to sacrifice some commodities for preserving the flora and fauna of the particular regions. Originally, it should be emphasized that the traditional aspects of biodiversity preservation are closely associated with the human activity within every particular region, consequently, this study is of extreme importance for the ecological studies and for defining the key aspects of biodiversity preservations, which may be implemented immediately, with the assistance of people, who are interested in ecology. Thus, the relevance and importance of the collected information will be helpful for the ecological communities and traditional aspects of biological conservation, associated with the necessity to implement the particular measures for keeping the biodiversity on the existing level.

Originally, surveys are required for the ecological studies in order to define the possible public maintenance of the ecological protection measures and the awareness of the community on the matters of biodiversity protection. The real value of such surveys is expressed by the fact that bio conservation of the surrounding nature requires the common efforts, as whereas some people are ignorant, and the others does not wish to sacrifice their interests for the conservation of the natural treasures, the efforts by the restricted groups of people and alliances will not be helpful. As for the matters of theoretical background of the surveys, and bio protection the statement by Peterson and Peterson (1243) should be emphasized:

Extinction rates are measured in a variety of ways. Conservation biologists measure and apply statistical measures of rates of habitat loss, and a multitude of other variables such as loss of biodiversity as a function of the rate of habitat loss and site occupancy to obtain such estimates. The Theory of Island Biogeography is possibly the most significant contribution toward the scientific understanding of both the process and how to measure the rate of species extinction. The current background extinction rate is estimated to be one species every few years.

In the light of this statement, it should be emphasized that surveys are also required for emphasizing the importance of bio protection, and theoretical background provides the solid basis for explaining this importance.

Materials and Methods

The questionnaire is designed for defining several aspects of bio diversity protection and the awareness of the inhabitants on the matters of biodiversity, and the ways of protection the existing environmental diversity and preservation of the rare species from the complete disappearing from the biological maps of the region. Additionally, the readiness of the people in protecting the existing bio diversity was estimated, as some people do not wish to know haw it may be protected, and are absolutely ignorant on the means of protection and the dramatic statistics of flora and fauna disappearing. The questions were developed basing on the experience of previous researches and studies, aimed at researching the aspects of biodiversity in other regions of the world. Thus, as it had been previously discovered that numerous people are not worried with the ecological aspects of biodiversity, it was decided that inhabitants of Louisiana should be informed on the means and tools of bio diversity protection. Moreover, the real values of the survey are explained by the factor of conservation planning, as considering all the ecological strategies of bio conservation, the proper planning of the entire process is required for the proper implementation of the selected means. Thus, as it is stated by Pullin and Knight (1990):

Systematic conservation planning is an effective way to seek and identify efficient and effective types of reserve design to capture or sustain the highest priority biodiversity values and to work with communities in support of local ecosystems. Margules and Pressey identify six interlinked stages in the systematic planning approach, which are aimed at creating the precise outline of bio diversity protection measures.

Considering the existing aspects of the environmental protection and the values of preserving the existing biodiversity may be evaluated in accordance with the joined results of the survey. Thus, considering the fact that few of the respondents are the participants of the World Wildlife Fund or The Nature Conservancy organizations, the entire tendency for the bio diversity protection will be close to failure, as if people are not anxious about the aspects of preserving the environment, they will be either ignorant or against the preservation means. Moreover, people will not wish to pay additional taxes for the development of the environmental protection issues. Considering the fact that, the necessity to participate in the environmental protection activities is of high importance for the ecological community of the region, the special system should be elaborated, basing on the results of the survey. Appendix A may be regarded as the universal chart for outlining the Bio Conservation processes. Thus, some people are ready to pay, whereas the others are absolutely ignorant, and do not wish to donate for the sake of biodiversity protection. Originally, this concept is clearly defined by Pullin and Knight (1991). Thus, the attitude of people towards the environmental protection measures is closely associated with the aspects of ethics:

Conservation biologists are interdisciplinary researchers that practice ethics in the biological and social sciences. It is stated that conservationists must advocate for biodiversity and can do so in an ethical manner by not promoting simultaneous advocacy against other competing values. Intrinsic value advocates that a gene, or species, be valued because they have a utility for the ecosystems they sustain. (Pullin and Knight, 1991)

In the light of this statement, it should be emphasized that conservative approaches towards environmental protection are the most effective from the ethical point of view, and the fact, that people generally do not wish to participate in environmental protection measures, defines the lack of ethical approaches in the bio conservation practices.

Additionally, it should be emphasized that the traditional aspects of bio conservation are closely associated with the matters of the activity of the population. Thus, the Green parties are often rather popular; nevertheless, they do not have the influencing majority in governments. The policy structure, which is generally implemented by these organizations is outlined in Appendix C. This structure outlines the informational and process hierarchy of information flow, and reallocation of the policies.

Considering the importance of the scientific approaches and the values of biodiversity protection flows, it should be emphasized that biodiversity protection is the system, which incorporates several closely linked and mutually dependent aspects. Appendix D clearly defines the relations between scientific approaches and aspects of the biodiversity protection, and clarifies all the necessary links and flows of the bio conservation processes. Considering the results of the survey, people do not know even the basic aspects of bio conservation, let alone the process flow. Thus, the further research should consider this gap.

Another aspect, which should be discussed, is the most crucial from the perspective of biodiversity conservation. Appendix B represents the pie-chart of the biodiversity in Louisiana State. This char may be used as the starting point for defining the aims and goals of the bio conservation practices. In the light of this statement it should be emphasized that some people even do not have an opportunity to enjoy the wildlife, and visit a National Park. Thus, in accordance with the chart E, which represents the results of the survey, up to 10% of the people have never been to a wildlife refuge. The main part (32%) had been there within the latest year. Thus, this is the potential audience, which should be targeted by the advertisement programs.

Discussion

In the light of the fact that the necessity to promote the educational means and attract the attention of the community towards the problems of the bio diversity conservation is rather high, it should be emphasized that the awareness of the community on the aspects of the environmental protection requires deeper study. The offered questionnaire offers the basic representation on the matters of awareness and participation of the citizens in the processes of bio conservation, nevertheless, in order to encourage people to participate in planting cypresses, participating in nature protection, lobbying the stricter fishing and hunting restrictions and regulations, the origins of negligence and ignorance should be studied deeper. Nevertheless, in accordance with the survey, there is no necessity to make the laws stricter, as the majority of the respondents consider them appropriate (Appendix F). Thus, the questions related with the participation of the respondents in nature protection communities, should be extended for understanding the motivation and willingness of the people to participate. As for those who are not members, it will be useful to define, what should make them enter such organizations. Thus, the system of priorities should be implemented, for people could really evaluate the necessity to participate in environmental protection activities. In accordance with Sauer, Fallon and Johnson (375), the importance of system of priorities is closely associated with the motivation of people, moreover, the directions and preferences will be strictly outlined:

Those arguing in favor of setting priorities for cold spot points out that there are other measures to consider beyond biodiversity. They point out that emphasizing hotspots downplays the importance of the social and ecological connections to vast areas of the Earth’s ecosystems where biomass, not biodiversity, reigns supreme. It is estimated that 36% of the Earth’s surface, encompassing 38.9% of the worlds vertebrates, lacks the endemic species to qualify as biodiversity hotspot.

Consequently, the traditions and aspects of the biodiversity protection should be essentially structured, and classified in accordance with the preferences and aims of the bio conservation process. Nevertheless, the values of the traditional approaches towards conservation should not be neglected, as advertisement, agitation, and promo actions, aimed at increasing the motivation level of the Louisiana community.

Additionally, the fact that people do not know the basics of the environmental protection, and are not aware of the issues of the legislation within the sphere of bio diversity protection and restrictions of fishing and hunting. Some people consider them too strict, nevertheless, if the rare species are still disappearing, it means that the legislation is too lenient. The fact is that, the necessity to consider the aspects of legislative system is the task of the highest priority, as laws may be regarded as the most powerful lever for influencing the entire aspect of bio diversity protection within the region. Additionally, some related aspects of legislative regulation should be regarded. In accordance with Sauer, Fallon and Johnson (380) the following aspect should be emphasized:

Regulating net household proliferation does ultimately end in questions about rights, but not inalienable rights. For example, in both Western Europe and the United States, the rule of law protects private property, but, when necessary to provide a public use, allows environmental statutes and regulations that remove rights associated with ownership.

From the perspective of this statement, the property laws may be changed in order to make the environmental protection more effective. Nevertheless, in accordance with the results of the survey, this aspect of bio diversity protection should not be regarded as a crucial one, as the necessity to change the legislation strongly depends on the awareness of the people, and their activity in the processes of environmental protection.

The format of the questions, used in the survey was closed, nevertheless, some of them presuppose quite open answers, and the necessity to use the close format is closely associated with the necessity to make people aware on the matters of environmental protections, and the means of improving the entire system. The discussion of the question format strongly depends on the real necessities and requirements of the study. Thus, it should be emphasized that the format of the offered survey is defined by the strong necessity to give the variants of answers, as people do not know the species, which should be protected, they are not aware of the possible means, which may be arranged, and they do not wish to discuss the aspects, which are closely related with the environmental protection.

The economic aspects, which are generally placed after the legislation in accordance with the influence rate, should also be discussed more seriously. Thus, in accordance with Sauer, Fallon and Johnson (379), the necessity to consider the values of economic regulation of the environmental protection depends on the activity of the community, and the width of the advertising campaign.

Conclusion

Finally, it should be emphasized that the traditional approaches towards the conservation of biodiversity have not been touched upon in the survey. Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that the respondents did not have an opportunity to be insincere, as the questionnaire was composed in order to minimize the insincerity level and make the results of the survey more valuable for the environmental protection strategy. In spite of the fact that some aspects were not considered in the survey, the main aim of the questionnaire was achieved. Thus, it should be emphasized that the values of the traditional approaches towards surveys are closely linked with the simplicity and comfort for respondents. Thus, they were liberated from the necessity to consider the complex aspects of the environmental protection, and had an opportunity to select the most suitable answer from several variants, thus, emphasizing their interest or readiness for participating in bio diversity conservation processes.

Introduction

Living things encompass the vast array of organisms that populate our planet, ranging from microscopic bacteria to majestic forests and complex human beings. This informative essay explores the characteristics and diversity of living things, highlighting their remarkable adaptations, the interconnectedness of ecosystems, and the essential role they play in sustaining life on Earth. By delving into the fascinating world of living things, we gain a deeper appreciation for the complexity, beauty, and resilience of the natural world.

Characteristics of Living Things

Living things possess several key characteristics that distinguish them from non-living entities. They are composed of cells, which are the building blocks of life. They exhibit growth and development, often through stages of maturation and reproduction. Living organisms also have the ability to respond to stimuli from their environment, allowing them to adapt and survive. Furthermore, they require energy to carry out their metabolic processes, such as obtaining nutrients and eliminating waste. These fundamental characteristics, along with others, form the foundation of life and enable living things to thrive in diverse habitats.

Diversity of Living Things

The diversity of living things is awe-inspiring. From the rich variety of plants and animals found in ecosystems around the world to the microscopic organisms inhabiting even the most extreme environments, every corner of the planet teems with life. Biodiversity encompasses the incredible range of species, genetic variation, and ecosystems present on Earth. It contributes to the resilience and stability of ecosystems, providing crucial ecological services such as pollination, nutrient cycling, and climate regulation.

Adaptations and Survival Strategies

Living things have evolved remarkable adaptations to thrive in their respective environments. These adaptations enable organisms to obtain food, escape predators, reproduce successfully, and withstand environmental challenges. Physical adaptations, such as camouflage, protective structures, or specialized appendages, help organisms survive in their specific habitats. Behavioral adaptations, such as migration, hibernation, or cooperative social structures, enhance an organism’s chances of survival. The process of natural selection drives these adaptations, with individuals possessing advantageous traits more likely to survive and pass on their genes to future generations.

Interconnectedness of Living Things

Living things are intricately connected in complex ecosystems. Each organism, from the smallest microbe to the largest predator, plays a role in the web of life. Every action and interaction has consequences, creating a delicate balance within ecosystems. For example, plants convert sunlight into energy through photosynthesis, sustaining the entire food chain. Predators help regulate populations of prey species, ensuring the health of the ecosystem. When one species is affected by environmental changes or human activities, the ripple effects can be felt throughout the ecosystem. Recognizing the interconnectedness of living things emphasizes the importance of conservation and sustainable practices to preserve biodiversity and the health of our planet.

Conclusion

Living things encompass a remarkable array of organisms, displaying incredible adaptations, diversity, and interconnectedness. Understanding the characteristics and significance of living things deepens our appreciation for the wonders of the natural world and underscores the need for conservation and responsible stewardship to ensure the continued existence of life on Earth.

rotecting forests and restoring wetlands are some of the actions companies and governments are taking to make up for biodiversity lost as a result of their development activities. These measurable conservation actions – designed to compensate for unavoidable impacts, on top of prevention and mitigation measures already implemented – are known as biodiversity offsets. The goal of offsets is to achieve no net loss and preferably a net gain of biodiversity on the ground in relation to species’ numbers, habitat and ecosystem function.

Some of IUCN’s member organisations have been involved in advising government and industry on offsets for several years. But with the rapid emergence of offsets, both voluntary and regulatory, there is lack of clarity on what they mean, how to design and implement them, and what mechanisms can be put in place to ensure they are used properly, and even more importantly, when offsets cannot or should not be used.

In response, IUCN has developed a draft policy on biodiversity offsets and is conducting a global consultation process seeking input. The deadline is 15 September.

Ariel Brunner, head of European Union Policy for BirdLife Europe, serves on the IUCN Biodiversity Offsets policy drafting committee. He shares his organisation’s views on the issue.

BirdLife is dedicated to the conservation of biodiversity, and offsets have become a very contentious and popular aspect of biodiversity conservation in many parts of the world. If done right, offsets can play a useful role in conservation, but if done wrong, they can undermine conservation efforts.

Are BirdLife’s programmes affected by biodiversity offsets in countries where it works?

Yes, of course. For example, in recent years, there has been a lively debate around the EU No Net Loss Initiative and offsets are part of that discussion. In the EU, legislation around the Natura 2000 sites – which are often important bird areas – includes offsets, or rather compensation of any damage remaining when development projects are authorised for reasons of overriding public interest. In other areas of the world, countries and companies are already implementing offsets, so this impacts a lot of places where we work.

What is the relationship between biodiversity offsets and the mitigation hierarchy in important bird areas?

It is really important to understand that a stand-alone discussion about biodiversity offsets does not make any sense. If you are trying to undertake a new development project, and there is strict legislation that says you cannot destroy certain habitats, you might be stopped right there. Or under certain circumstances and conditions, you might be allowed to compensate for any damage caused by using offsets, in other words, restoring and/or conserving biodiversity elsewhere.

But it makes no sense to approach biodiversity offsets from outside the mitigation hierarchy. The mitigation hierarchy is a sound framework to any form of planning that says, first of all, you should try to avoid any damage. Then, if you can’t avoid, you should at least mitigate the damage and build the project in a way that creates the minimal amount of disruption.

For example, if you are trying to build a railway though a biologically important area that could prevent animals from migrating, then you might need to build an overpass so the animals can still use the land with minimal disruption.

After thoroughly applying all the steps of the mitigation hierarchy – which is an established tool used to help manage biodiversity risk – there may still be a decision to develop based on public interest or the needs of society. Then, even if the development is in the best place and built in the best way, but will still cause damage, you need to reduce the overall damage by taking conservation action and ensuring the development will improve similar habitats and species and maintain ecological functionality.

What is the general feeling across the BirdLife network about offsets?

BirdLife is quite wary of offsets in general. We recognise that offsets can play a role within the mitigation hierarchy, in some cases. But I think there is widespread worry in the biodiversity family about this current ‘fashion’ for offsets, which tries to present offsets as a stand-alone solution and this takes away the emphasis on avoidance. This is dangerous because it risks facilitating inappropriate development that should not happen in certain places. So, many BirdLife partners are engaging in offsets schemes, but only when they believe it can play a positive role and only when they are an integral part of a sound avoidance framework.

Given your experience working on policy issues across Europe, what are some of the current discussions on biodiversity offsets and a ‘no net loss’ approach?

The biodiversity offsets discussion is controversial because some governments are pushing for offsets as a way to “speed up development”, so basically as a way to undermine overall land planning and allow harmful development on protected land. This has generated a lot of opposition.

On the other hand, certain forms of offsets, such as compensation enshrined in the EU Habitats Directive, are clearly framed in a solid mitigation hierarchy process, which means certain species and sites of concern cannot be damaged. There are also very variable experiences with offsets as part of national legislation.

Some European countries have biodiversity offsets written into their legislation. One thing that is clearly important in the European context is the level of governance in a country or region. Where you have strong land planning and regional authorities, who can assess plans, monitor and refuse applications if necessary, offsets can play a positive role because this type of oversight can ensure residual damage is compensated.

Where governance is weak and dubious, and development projects get approved because of corruption or incompetence, offsets might be environmentally damaging.

What could IUCN learn from biodiversity offset experiences to date and what pitfalls should it try to avoid in regards to this policy?

The most important thing from my point of view is for IUCN to take away the specific focus on biodiversity offsets and put it on avoidance and mitigation. As long as we consider offsets as a stand-alone policy, we risk being misunderstood or even manipulated.

As a world authority on conservation, IUCN needs to promote sound land planning and licensing procedures that are based on the mitigation hierarchy. This would be a service to the conservation community. Then, all of the technical advice on how to handle offsets would be useful because it would sit within a sound framework.

One of the sensitivities around the offsets debate, which is less of an issue in Europe than in other parts of the world, concerns the potential social implications. One of the fears is that offsets could trample over the rights of local communities and be used to remove people from their land. The IUCN Biodiversity Offsets policy needs to recommend that offsets are developed following a Rights-based Approach.

If and when this policy is approved, what should IUCN do with it?

It will be important to share the new policy with both governments and investors, and ask them to bring their legislation, policies and codes of conduct into line with the policy. This means they should adhere to sound land planning and the mitigation hierarchy in the development and licensing of large-scale projects that are damaging to biodiversity. Decision makers will take notice of an IUCN global standard and this is why IUCN has a big responsibility.

Biodiversity is important for many reasons, including ecological services, such as pollution breakdown and absorption, soil formation, and social services, for example, recreation and tourism. According to Roe (2019), the loss of biodiversity is an environmental problem that needs urgent intervention since it threatens livelihoods. The article “Biodiversity Loss—More Than An Environmental Emergency” provides a comprehensive analysis to illustrate why this issue is an ecological emergency. The United Nations declared the year 2010 as the International Biodiversity Year (Roe, 2019). However, around this time, people did not understand the significance of ensuring environmental continuity. Roe (2019) defines biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, among other things, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems” (p. 287). Whenever biodiversity is reported in media outlets, the coverage always contains disturbing news as the poaching of such rare species like elephants, polar bears, rhinos, and tigers.

Different environmental issues have varying significance, but biodiversity loss deserves further discussion and research for many reasons. The first one is that it notably affects the stability and productivity of natural ecosystems. Thus, this issue undermines the effective functioning of the ecological systems. This way, it deters nature’s ability to support a healthy environmental system (Roe, 2019). Furthermore, communities, especially those from low socioeconomic backgrounds, benefit much from the abundance of animal and plant species. For example, the ecosystem helps people in many ways, including the absorption of air pollution, providing food, and being a natural barrier against adverse weather, such as storm surges.

Moreover, biodiversity loss ruins the resilience of nature to climate change and threatens livelihoods. Poverty-stricken people depend on balanced biodiversity to cushion themselves from the obvious adverse consequences of global warming. Besides, the destruction of the natural environment impedes food security and health. For example, crop yields significantly reduce when genetic multiplicity is lost, thereby causing famine. Additionally, since food production and wellbeing are directly related, the overreliance on agrochemicals in farming, due to climate change, exposes people to pollutants, leading to adverse health outcomes. Therefore, biodiversity loss needs to be treated as an environmental emergency and should be prioritized for further discussion and research.