The problem of biodiversity conservation has been on the environmental agenda for quite long due to the unceasingly bad impact, which industries have on the environment. However, when it comes to defining the issue that causes the most concern and debates at present, one must mention the marine biodiversity and the possible positive effects that impure public goods may have on it. The biodiversity rates in the World Ocean in general and every single sea, in particular, are shrinking down rapidly, and unless adequate measures are taken to handle the issue, an environmental catastrophe is unavoidable.
According to the recent report, impressive shrinking of fishes has been noticed recently (Arriagada, and Perrings 802). Therefore, the problem of marine biodiversity conservation exists, and, more importantly, it is growing out of proportions extremely fast due to overconsumption and pollution. Unless the use of impure public goods is introduced into the process of public-goods supply, the marine biodiversity rates are going to drop to a shockingly low level.
Before going any further, it will be necessary to shed some light on the nature and definition of impure public goods. According to the existing sources, impure public goods are traditionally defined as the goods that are either partially excludable or partially rival (Arriagada, and Perrings 799).
In fact, Biodiversity conservation, like many other IEPGs, is an impure global public good (Arriagada and Perrings 801), as recent researches state. One might argue that the issue of biodiversity conservation does not quite fit into the range of phenomena that the concept of impure public goods embraces. However, it should also be kept in mind that the definition of impure public goods is rather loose and that, to comply with the basic definition, a phenomenon in question must meet two key requirements, i.e., being non-rivalrous and non-excludable. The concept of impure global goods seems to suit the given definition since impure global goods do not presuppose competition and, at the same time, can be accessed by the customers without the latter actually having to pay for it.
The fact that the issue concerning the global marine biodiversity and the effects that impure public goods may possibly have on these rates can lead to the development of a range of externalities that should also be born in mind. Indeed, according to what Arriagada and Perrings say, The costs and benets associated with many human activities spill over jurisdictional boundaries, thereby generating externalities that are often reciprocal and quantitatively significant (Arriagada, and Perrings 803).
In other words, the failure of the wildlife products to consider the decline of wildlife population in the process of decision making because there do not exist appropriate economic institutions and incentives to get consumers of wildlife to regard the costs they impose on those deriving utility from conservation (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 7) is often regarded as an externality in the production of impure public goods. As a rule, several key types of externalities are traditionally associated with the concept of impure public goods. Among these externalities, the inability of the consumers of the above-mentioned products to realize that their excessive consumption affects the wildlife in a very negative way and the failure to carry out a private provision of a specific product (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 7) are usually mentioned.
The technological issues of the public goods supply are also worth mentioning. As Bulte, Kooten and Swanson explain, the development of the technological advances for the changes in environmental issues to occur is the point at which the process of addressing the problem is thrown from one extreme to another. To be more exact, the legal person in question may either be provided with the rights to shape the environmental management standards in the manner that the given party finds the most suitable, or, on the contrary, to be prohibited from making a single step without consulting the corresponding authorities first (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 8).
Therefore, a thorough reconsideration of the existing regulations must be carried out so that the execution of the new principles should be more efficient. Given the scale of the threat, it is necessary to create a single set of principles to comply with when dealing with the issue.
Finally, the issue of economic incentives should be touched upon. There is no secret that the impact of wildlife on the community is very high. The environment in which people live shapes their health, habits, traditions, and life altogether. As a result, the effect of wildlife on society cannot be neglected and certainly should not be underestimated. More to the point, the process of a continuous wildlife exploration leads to the discovery of a range of factors, most of which are most likely to affect the current flow of the economy and introduce a range of changes into the balance between demand and supply. As a result, it is important to consider the types of economic incentives, which may stir the environmental concern and, at the very least, spread awareness regarding the threat that wildlife in general and marine biodiversity in particular.
Speaking of the existing types of incentives, Bulte, Kooten and Swanson offer a very decent account of the incentives classification, which is currently adopted in economy: these are common values and norms, or, speaking in economic terms, threats or moral suasion (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 2); command and control (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 2); and market incentives (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 2). As far as the concept of impure goods and environment conservation are concerned, the incentives for impure public goods can be identified as homogenous harvesting (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 3), efficient resources management (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 3) and spillover effects (Bulte, Kooten and Swanson 4). It should be noted that not all of the incentives are regarded as positive; the last one, i.e., the spillover effect, is traditionally viewed as a drawback of the economic incentives application.
With a focus on the impure public goods, a range of improvements can be done to the current state of the environment in general and marine biodiversity in particular. Unless the required measures are undertaken, and the safety rules are enhanced for the transportation of potentially hazardous materials, marine biodiversity will be threatened greatly and may face complete extinction in several decades. Recent researches have sown that the biodiversity rates are dropping at present and have proven that urgent steps must be taken to promote a sustainable economy; the enhancement of the impure public goods concept may contribute to the promotion of sustainable economy. Thus, economic strategies affect current environmental issues. It is in peoples power to change the course of the events, and the required measures must be taken to address the issue of the shrinking marine biodiversity.
Works Cited
Arriagada, Rodrigo and Charles Perrings. Paying for International Environmental Public Goods. AMBIO 40, (2011), 798806. Web.
Bulte, Erwin H., G. Cornelis van Kooten and Timothy Swanson. Economic Incentives and Wildlife Conservation. The Netherlands: Tilburg University. 2003. Print.
Rewilding our cities: beauty, biodiversity and the biophilic cities movement
Date published
April 4, 2021.
To which module from class does the news item connect?
Module 10.2 Climate Change.
Summary of article
This article discusses how plant-covered buildings benefit human well-being and biodiversity and help avert climate change. While contemporary cities primarily have glass-faced buildings that overheat and require energy to cool down, an alternative supporting the human-nature connection would be more efficient and environmentally friendly. Such a tactic suggests that buildings should be aligned with living systems that continuously evolve. As cities and urban areas grow, establishing and maintaining the connection with nature is essential not only to bring beauty into human life but also to improve health and well-being. As research shows, areas that have street trees are characterized by lower crime rates and increased property value.
The article claims that engineering systems could improve by learning from nature which manages flooding and weather in a masterly and adaptable manner. In particular, as humanity fights climate change to avoid the dangerous consequences, natural systems and native cultures can provide a basis for managing and protecting biodiversity. According to a green government architects Greener Places framework, green infrastructure offers various benefits, such as increased social interaction, lower flood risk, and improved biodiversity. At the same time, people still observe designs that do not consider natural principles or habitats created to help maintain biodiversity. In this regard, a design approach based on regeneration creates more opportunities for nature and people to benefit each other mutually.
The author focuses on Australian practices and possibilities for the biophilic cities movement; however, the article emphasizes that rewilding is possible everywhere, even in dense city centers. Providing habitats for native speakers would also support engaging community spaces for citizens. It is worth noting that even small urban green areas are enough to create important habitats for a variety of species. By linking such areas into a larger space, one can increase the potential of benefiting biodiversity and connecting people and nature. This idea is supported by emerging projects around the world demonstrating vast opportunities. For example, Highline of New York is an example of using leftover spaces to unite people with natural elements through rewilding. Rewilding approach suggests using green infrastructure no the streets, in and in buildings, as well as in leftover spaces. The article argues that nature-based solutions can bring a healthy balance in the connection between nature and people. To do so, infrastructure and developments should be seen as initial areas for nature which humankind occupies instead of thinking that such space is for people to use and occasionally add greenery.
Using leftover spaces such as car parks, railway cuttings, or abandoned sites is an efficient approach to help prevent climate change. Roads, buildings, plazas, and rooftops increase heat and pollute water runoff as hard surfaces. The green approach does not simply involve the use of trees; instead, projects like Melbournes SkyFarm, Sydneys Camperdown Commons, or Perth City Farm show how food can be grown in cities while improving community engagement. Acknowledging the benefits is the first step towards increasing the number of sustainable and green projects that prevent biodiversity loss and climate change.
The article highlights that there is no need to wait until more species extinction, bushfires, or floods occur to show that action is needed to prevent catastrophic consequences. A loss of 75% of Australian rainforests and koala extinction threats are some of the numerous examples of harmful effects that endanger all living beings. Biodiversity objectives set by the UN convention a decade ago were not accomplished, which indicates how alarming the situation is. Therefore, people must take responsibility for their actions and do their best to support nature and other species, especially since the survival of humanity depends on them. Seeing nature as an integral part of humankind is the only way to make a change, and so far, not enough action is taken. To summarize, rewilding cities is an efficient way to make peoples habitat beautiful, increase biodiversity, and help prevent climate change.
Why did you pick this news item? Why did you think it was interesting?
I picked this news item because it is related to the subject of climate change, as the article studies how rewilding of cities and green design can help prevent global warming. I thought this article was interesting because it focused on the benefits of green infrastructure and offered opportunities of making peoples life more sustainable and closer to nature. For example, leftover space can be used to bring nature not only to parks but also to built areas. The author explains that beauty and improved well-being are not the only advantages of rewilding but argues that biodiversity and climate situations can be enhanced with nature-based solutions.
What bias or agenda might the source of your news item have?
The Guardian newspaper is considered to be a reliable source of information that has a reputation for quality journalism. The newspaper claims to be the worlds leading liberal voice. Therefore, it is generally regarded as a credible source of information.
Provide at least one question you have after learning from your news item.
After reading this article, I wondered what other nature-based solutions are available to improve the connection of people and nature. Besides, I would like to know what countries are leading in rewilding and what practices they use to achieve this goal.
The selected issue is centered around the problem of biodiversity in the UAE. Biodiversity is among the most important aspects of the environment, and thus, it is important to ensure that any ecosystem has high levels of it. The main problem with biodiversity preservation revolves around the fact that human activity generally shrinks the human-free territory available for other animal species. Therefore, it is evident that many members of flora and fauna experience a decline in their population rate and even extinction. Such processes lead to the notion that only a small subset of animals and plant life are capable of adapting to the new changing environment driven by human activity, which leads to the state where wildlife of certain territories is represented by only a handful of species of animals and plants. This can be called a decline in biodiversity, where only a few populations can survive in such conditions, and many others are either driven to extinction or become endangered.
By the decision of the United Nations, 2010 was declared the International Year of Biodiversity. By this decision, the UN seeks to draw the attention of the world community and the leaders of all countries to the protection and rational use of natural resources ( 2010 Biodiversity Target, 2010). The global policy was in tune with UAEs stance on the issue. Overuse of freshwater, energy resources, massive deforestation, modern agricultural practices, and other human activities have a devastating impact on the natural environment, leading to a reduction in biodiversity on the planet. Today, more than 7 thousand species of animals and almost 60 thousand species of plants are under threat of extinction (Tilman et al., 2017). The work was carried out to disseminate knowledge about the importance of biodiversity conservation among the general population: schoolchildren and students, workers and leaders of various industries and agriculture, politicians, and pensioners. The fact is that ecosystems and populations of living organisms inhabiting the planet cannot exist when the lower threshold or limit of biodiversity is reached.
The danger of a decrease in biodiversity also lies in the fact that in this case, there is a significant reduction in the production of eco-system services, which include climate regulation, a decrease in the frequency and power of natural hazards, soil formation, natural waste disposal, water, and atmospheric air purification, creation of ecological niches for various animals, fungi, plants, microorganisms and some others (Marselle et al., 2019). Today, the cost of ecosystem services is not included in financial and economic calculations. This leads to the fact that the political leadership and the population of many countries, including the United Arab Emirates, do not have a true understanding of the state of the economy and ecosystems. An increase in the frequency of anomalous natural phenomena leads, in general, to a decrease in the possibility of self-regulation of the biosphere of the entire planet. With a high frequency of anomalous phenomena, the biota of the planet can pass into another state that is not entirely acceptable for humanity.
The policy is the National Biodiversity Strategy of UAE, which focuses on biodiversity preservation and protection. It is stated that this strategy is primarily aimed at addressing the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by integrating biodiversity values across all sectors of the country, reducing direct pressures on biodiversity and promoting sustainable use ( National Biodiversity Strategy, 2021). In other words, it is a systematic and comprehensive approach to eliminating or reducing the direct causal factor of biodiversity loss in the key regions of the UAE.
The core statement of the policy is centered around addressing underlying biodiversity pressures through several strategic objectives. The five key elements of the National Biodiversity Strategy include the integration of biodiversity concepts into all sectors and society segments, strengthening the knowledge base and capacity-building for the conservation and management of biodiversity, and improving the state of biodiversity by protecting habitats, species, and genetic diversity, and rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems, decreasing pressures on land and marine environments and strengthening cooperation and coordination at the local, regional and international levels in biodiversity-related areas ( National Biodiversity Strategy, 2021).
The first rule to support the policy is based on raising awareness of the majority of UAE citizens. It is stated that by 2021, the objective is to ensure that the message is reached by at least 75% of the nations population ( National Biodiversity Strategy, 2021). Any new regulation or policy is assessed in its impact on biodiversity. Critically important ecosystems and coastal lines are becoming managed effectively through budgetary and human resource allocations. It is stated that to support the policy, important programs are integrated to improve the status of 70% of threatened species ( National Biodiversity Strategy, 2021).
Historically, the issue of biodiversity is tightly tied with the idea of cultural heritage. It is stated that it became one of the most priority issues that received early and personal attention by the late father of Nation, Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyan ( National Biodiversity Strategy, 2021). In other words, there were no debates over the issue since it was prioritized since the UAEs origins. The most impacted by the policy is comprised wildlife inhabiting various regions of UAE. Although there is no information on precise budgetary allocations in regards to biodiversity programs, it is estimated to be within AED 8.46 billion range expense ( The federal budget for the fiscal year 2020 amounts to AED 61.35 billion, 2021). In other words, the efforts undertaken have an economic impact, but the main reasons are more focused on cultural heritage.
Sustainable development of the country largely depends on the level of conservation of biological resources, which are the basis for the existence and development of human society. As a result of the constantly increasing anthropogenic impact on the environment, the stocks and populations of many plant and animal species are rapidly decreasing. The UAE and developed countries have a different experiences in the theoretical substantiation and implementation of environmental monitoring of biological resources. The strong point of the UAEs experience in the field of environmental monitoring is a systematic approach to assessing the state of biological resources, which was reflected in the development of documentation for the creation of a unified state system of environmental monitoring.
However, the existing UAEs National Biodiversity Strategy policy is not focused on monitoring the environmental and economic efficiency of ongoing environmental projects and programs, which will also have an economic impact. Analysis of the current situation shows that in the country, as in many other countries, there is still no systemic, objective, and reliable data on the state, protection, and reproduction of natural resources, and their ecological and economic potential. There is no necessary and relevant information about the objects and subjects of biological resource management. The process of development and implementation of monitoring works in UAEs National Biodiversity Strategy is only included in generally accepted practice as a means of environmental protection management and rational use of natural resources. In this direction, there are many problems, both theoretical, methodological, and practical, since the main focus of environmental monitoring work is to use their results in social production, nature management, environmental protection, and other areas (Maiti & Maiti, 2017). As a result, such efforts should give the opportunity to purposefully manage natural resources, including biological, taking into account the economic interests of the development of society.
However, such a mechanism has not yet been developed in the case of the National Biodiversity Strategy, except for improving legislative norms and general recommendations. It follows from this that certain indicators of environmental monitoring should be assessed by economic parameters. The combination of environmental and economic indicators is the very management mechanism that should fit into monitoring systems when assessing the state of environmental parameters of biodiversity. Ecological and economic monitoring is an information system for observing, assessing, and forecasting changes in the state of the environment using environmental and socio-economic parameters, created to highlight the anthropogenic component of these changes against the background of natural processes. It should be aimed at systemic assessment, analysis, management decisions, and forecasting (Maiti & Maiti, 2017). Only a coupled analysis of the dynamics of natural biological components and anthropogenic impacts of an ecological and economic nature can provide objective information about the state and possible negative or positive changes, manage these processes and improve the nature management strategy.
Each and every country has something unique that differentiates it from others. These are special areas that do require special protection because of the different roles they play. These biodiversity hotspots in certain countries act as tourist attraction sites. In so doing, these regions earn the country foreign exchange that is vital in the growth of different sectors of a country. In many countries, these areas are under serious destruction from human activities.
As a result, there is a need for protection of these biodiversity hotspots. This paper explores biodiversity hotspots, the case of Philippines. This entails defining the term biodiversity hotspot and offer solutions on the global efforts aimed at curbing biodiversity loss. The solutions are based on the latest developments in the protection of endangered areas.
Hotspots definition
A biodiversity hotspot refers to one of the 34 areas that have been designated world wide. These areas are rich biologically and are normally characterized by high levels of plant endemism. Here, cases of high loss of habitat are of serious concern. Consequently, such regions are the most endangered hence they require conservation actions to be directed towards them.
For any region in the world to be considered as a biodiversity hotspot, it has to contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants which have to be endemics. Additionally, such a region should have endured a high level of habitat loss. Normally, a hotspot must have experienced 70% loss in the original habitat. In many cases, there is only 1.4% of land that remains whereas this is to support 60% of the worlds reptiles, plants, amphibians, birds and mammals (Conservation International, 2005).
According to the Australian Governments Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (2009), these areas do support natural ecosystems which are mainly in their natural state with a well representation of native species, as well as communities. Biodiversity hotspots, thus, have a diverse range of endemic species which are local and are not easily found in those areas that are outside the specific hotspot.
In case there are no any conservation management strategies put in place to control continued destruction of the diversity, then any current, as well as planned human activities risk these areas. However, natural values of hotspots are mainly intact. This essentially means that all efforts directed at maintaining the values ought to provider value for money. This is in the contribution of efforts aimed at biodiversity conservation in the biodiversity hotspots.
The International Conservation has classified the Philippines as one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world. The country is made up of over 7,100 islands making it a biologically rich country. In Philippines, many of the endemic species are found in forest fragments that currently cover 7% of the original hotspot that existed hitherto.
The remaining species here are more than 6,000 plants plus various bird species like the Philippine cockatoo, wrinkled hornbill, the enormous Philippine eagle, the Cebu flowerpecker and the Visayan. Further more, there is a high amphibian endemism that boosts of species like the panther flying frog. Additionally, the country is said to be one of the areas that are endangered in the world.
This is essentially due to the fact that over time, there have been many cases of logging reported in the country. Currently, there is deforestation as people forests for agricultural purposes. Moreover, these forests are being cleared in order to pave the way for accommodation facilities to cater for the high population in the country (Conservation International, 2007).
According to the US Department of State (2011), Philippines measure an area of 300,000km2 (117,187sq. mi.). Its capital city is Manila with a population of 11.55 million people. The country has a mountainous terrain with 65% of the surface being mountainous. It also has narrow coastal lowlands. Additionally, the Philippines has a tropical climate characterized by astride typhoon belt. In the Philippines, more than 40% of total land area is under arable farming.
Despite the country being a rich agricultural land, a number of factors do limit the productivity gains in the country. These include poor infrastructural facilities, financial constraints and government policies. However, agricultural products are used for consumption, as well as export. Only a third of the population is employed in the agricultural sector. It is worthy noting that agricultural productivity does not even contribute a fifth of the countrys GDP.
The country has experienced deforestation in many parts. Over years, there has been continued uncontrolled logging, as well as farm clearing for agricultural purposes.
This has resulted into serious implications in terms of the ecological balance. Government efforts aimed at reducing deforestation have not been effective. Essentially, cases of deforestation are still a serious problem in Philippines. Global warming has been said to represent a major threat to the biodiversity in Philippines.
An increase in the concentrations of carbon dioxide affects both plants and animals. The carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere a result of numerous human activities. Studies undertaken show that many unique habitats are likely to be lost, as a result of changes brought about by climate. An increase in the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere results into the rise in temperatures.
Consequently, it is estimated that the rise in temperature is likely to eliminate over 56,000 plants and 3,700 endemic animal species in the biodiversity hotspots in the world, the Philippines included. Geographical limitations restrict migration options for many of the endangered species in the Philippines. As a result, many species in this region become vulnerable to effects of climate change (Alave, 2011).
Causes of extinction
Philippines is one the major threatened hotspots in the world. The country has remarkable levels of species endemism. However, only seven percent of its original forest still exists as a result of massive destruction. In the lowland regions, only three percent of the forests do exist.
In case conservation measures would have been instituted, then many areas would have been able to experience regeneration in the long run. Thus, the major cause of extinction in the tree species in the Philippines is high deforestation rates (The Utrecht Faculty of Education, 2011).
A number of factors have contributed to the high rates of deforestation experienced in the Philippines currently. The principal issue here is the high population in the country. Currently, according to the BBC (2011), the Philippines has a population of 93.6 million people. This was from the 2010 UN estimate. The annual population growth rate as per 2007 was estimated to be at 2.04%. The livelihoods of all these people are dependent on natural resources in the country.
Rural areas are said to experience severe poverty. Further more, a high population density estimated at more than 273 people per km2 has been a burden on the only remaining forests in the country. People began using timber a long time ago, for instance the Spanish who used the timber in constructing their fleet. By the year 1945, forest cover was estimated at two-thirds of the country (Australian Government, 2009).
Contrary, proceeding years saw acceleration in the logging rates in the Philippines. The Conservation International (2007), states that about 2,000km2 of trees that constituted the countrys natural forest cover were logged on an annual basis. The rate at which the logging occurred was three times the rate at which tropical forests were being converted in the rest of the world.
However, there has been a reduction in logging in the country due to the current state of forests. Many of the forests have been depleted meaning people cannot undertake such activities again. More so, there has been increased community awareness. This is in an effort to teach communities involved in logging on the importance of forests.
This has been done by government agencies, as well as non-governmental organizations involved in environmental conservation efforts. Despite what has been witnessed and achieved so far, it has not been rosy. As it was witnessed in 2004 when landslides occurred in Philippines, there are still numerous logging activities which are going on in the countrys forests that still remain (Guerero, 2007).
Forests, which are part of Philippines biodiversity hotspots, have been on the decline due to land conversion and mining. As per the Conservation International (2007), by 1997, one-quarter of the Philippines was under mining activities.
To make the destruction case serious, these mining activities were taking place in more than half of the primary forests that were remaining in the country. Land conversion has seen construction of infrastructural facilities which are not in harmony with the countrys set goals on biodiversity conservation.
These infrastructural facilities include irrigation projects, ports and harbors, development of road networks, energy and power projects. During the construction of these facilities, there is massive clearing of vegetation cover in order to create space (U.S Department of State, 2011).
Campaigns for rectifying this trend have included the introduction of exotic species to what already existed. This has not been working especially in the wetlands, with lots of negative impacts experienced. Some of the species which include fish like the giant catfish and black bass, water fern, toads, water hyacinth and frogs. However, immediate action is needed in order to avoid a looming crisis in the Philippines region.
Without intervention measures in place, then the whole region would most likely become extinct. The government has been issuing conservation concessions but these are yet to take effect. Logging has continued especially in the lowland forests. This has reduced these forests to a very tiny fraction of what existed initially.
Despite protected areas and national parks being very crucial in the conservation efforts in the Philippines biodiversity, only 11 percent of the countrys total land area is currently protected. This is approximated to be around 32,000km2 out of the total land area of the whole country (300,000km2) (Conservation International, 2007).
Currently, there is no clear demarcation of the national park boundaries. Further more, government agencies involved in enforcement are doing little when it comes to matters of conservation. As a result, there is even a raging debate on the number of national parks existing in the country at the moment.
Already two-thirds of the national parks have been converted into human settlements whereas one-quarter of the national parks lands have been disturbed in one way or the other. For instance, many of the land areas have been converted and are being used for agricultural activities in the country. Other land areas supposed to be for national parks have been cleared for creating space to accommodate the ever increasing human population in the country (Conservation International, 2007).
On the other hand, a number of positives can be drawn from the conservation measures being undertaken in the Philippines. In the year 2002, the government of Philippines managed to reclaim five new protected areas. More over, the expansion of the Penablanca Protected Landscape and Seascape in the year 2003 was a big step towards concerted conservation measures in the country.
The expansion programme saw the area increase from 4,136 hectares to 118,108 hectares. In the recent past, the president issued a decree that saw the establishment of the Quirino Protected Landscape that covers 206,875 hectares in the northern Luzon area of Philippines (Conservation International, 2007).
There is a need to ensure that the already existing network of protected areas is able to conserve biodiversity in an adequate manner. This can be achieved through the government, as well as other stakeholders ensuring that Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are conserved in an adequate way.
Other areas that do require intervention in terms of conservation include those with populations which are globally threatened by human activities. Further more, areas that have species which are geographically restricted should be conserved to protect these species.
In this case, KBAs are special biological areas set aside for endangered species. By so doing, these species of global conservation concern are able to be managed as a single unit within a given location. It is commendable that something is being done to conserve KBAs in the Philippines. For instance, a number of organizations are collaborating in an effort to identify and delineate all the KBAs found in Philippines.
These organizations are the Field Museum from Chicago, Conservation International-Philippines, Haribon Foundation, as well as other partners involved in the conservation of biodiversity hotspots in Philippines. The work of conservation undertaken by these organizations is to refine a number of broad-scale priorities that had been identified during the Biodiversity Conservation Priority-Setting Process held in the Philippines in the year 2000.
This work of biodiversity conservation receives much of support from CEPF. The Haribon Foundation had earlier identified 117 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in 2001 where most of the conservation efforts are directed. Normally, IBAs are areas that contain congregatory species which are threatened world wide with a restricted-range. Consequently, they offer these organizations a starting point when it comes to the collection of vital data that is used in the identification of KBAs.
Research is being undertaken on ways of conserving these biodiversity hotspots in Philippines. This research is vital in supporting efforts already underway in the creation of protected areas and support conservation activities.
The research has resulted into the discovery of new endemic species providing information that has to be directly fed into the refining and prioritization of KBAs. In addition, numerous activities are also being carried out concerning conservation in Philippines.
One of the organizations that is fully involved in conservation is the Philippine Cockatoo Conservation Program on Palawan. This organization has been involved in efforts aimed at reducing theft of eggs of the endangered species. The Cebu Biodiversity Conservation Foundation Program is involved in the protection of the last areas of forests that remain in the country.
The activities of this organization have been more pronounced especially after the rediscovery of species of the Cebu flowerpecker that had earlier been assumed to be extinct. By providing grants, organizations do support the conservation efforts that are on-going in the Philippines (The Utrecht Faculty of Education, 2011).
Some of the organizations which have been on the forefront in providing funds to conservation efforts include the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund and the Haribon Foundation. These organizations provide grants through organizing special programs, for instance, the Threatened Species Program.
However, long term measures are vital in the Philippines in order to include the conservation of landscape and the seascape. This ensures that there is complete conservation of the biodiversity hotspots in Philippines. Efforts have been on-going to ensure long term conservation of the endangered species in Philippines. Collaborations between organizations have been evident to this end.
Some of the targeted areas in these efforts include Palawan, Eastern Mindanao and Sierra Madre regions. Work in these regions has been coordinated by Conservation International in collaboration with the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. Additionally, there has been the establishment of the Philippine Eagle Alliance charged with coordinating works undertaken by conservation groups operating in the country (The Utrecht Faculty of Education, 2011).
Philippines as a hotspot
Philippines is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of diversity and hence biodiversity hotspot. In 2000, the country was considered to have 52,177 species of flora and fauna. Out of this, 418 were listed as being endangered, a third of 9,000 species of flora are said to be endemic. Of the 165 mammal species, 121 are only found in this region of the world. From this data, it is therefore clear that many of the species in the country are threatened. There are a number of species which have been lost in the Philippines over time.
Rhinoceros and Elephants
In the past few years, different animal fossils have been discovered in the Philippines. These fossils have made scientists believe that animals like rhinoceros and elephants used to live in Philippines. Additionally, the scientists have been able to identify two species of elephants and one of rhinoceros that live during yesteryears. The elephant species were Elaphas beyeri and Elaphas cf. namadicus whereas the rhinoceros was called Rhinoceros philippinensis (Conservation International, 2007).
Monkey-eating eagles
Scientists believe these are some of the largest eagles ever to live on earth. Its scientific name is Pithecophaga jefferyi and is believed to be living in the rainforests of Samar, Mindanao, Isabela and Leyte.
The eagle feeds on hornbills, large snakes, civet cats, monkeys, and flying lemurs. The eagle creates nests over 39 meters the ground. Currently, scientists estimate that there are about 100 to 300 meaning that they are like to be extinct.
Philippines hence has to protect these remaining species so that they do not become extinct. These eagles included Sulu hornbill, Philippine cockatoo, Palawan peasant pheasant, Cebu black shama and the Mindoro imperial pigeon. However, the Philippine Eagle is a symbol of the efforts by Egyptians in environmental conservation. It represents the decision of the people regarding the conversation of forests and country (Conservation International, 2007).
Flying Lemur
The Flying Lemur is the most distinct creatures which still exist in Philippines. In a single leap, this creature can glide around 100 meters. This creature only moves around at night, just like the lemurs of Asia. The creature has a head that resembles a frog. On the other hand, the body of the Lemur is like that of a Canadian flying squirrel.
The creature is called kagwang in the Mindanao region. World wide, the creature is referred to as the flying lemur (colugo). The creature consists of two species namely the Cynocephalus variegates. A mature lemur is 1 to 1.7 kilograms whereas its length ranges from 14 to 17 inches. Additionally, the species which has small ears, wide flat head with big eyes has its 12-inch tail connected by way of a patagium.
The continuous destruction of tropical forests in Philippines is such a big threat to the existence of kagwang. Some of the common areas for this creature were Leyte, Mindanao, Samar, Basilan and Bohol. Currently, there are no records which can tell the exact number of kagwang remaining in the country (Conservation International, 2007).
Bats
It is said that there are at least 56 bat species in Philippines. The smallest and largest bat species out f the 1,000 species available are found in Philippines. In the world, the smallest bat species is the Philippine bamboo bat (vespertilionid). The bat, found in Philippines, belongs to the family of vespertilionid. Its length is about 4 centimeters whereas its widespan is 15 centimeters. Its weight is expected to be around 1.5 grams.
On the other hand, the largest bat species stays mostly in the thick forest around Bataan and Subic Bay. The largest bats are the golden crown flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus) and the giant flying fox (Acerodon jubatus). These bats have for years been living in the Subic Forest National Protected Area.
This is 10,000 hectare area acting as the biggest roosting site for bats world wide. However, a giant flying fox weighs 1.1 kilograms, making it heavier than the golden crown flying fox. The golden crown has a wingspan of six feet, hence making it the largest among all bats. It is worthy noting that the two species are just among the 15 bats species that exist in the Philippines.
On the other hand, bat species that used to inhabit other parts of the Philippines are believed to be extinct. These species include the Panay fruit bat or Acerodon Lucifer and bare-backed fruit bat or Dobsonia chapmani. The only highly endangered bat species in the country currently the Nyctimene rabori, also known as the Philippine tube-nosed bat. There have been warnings that this species has to be protected (Conservation International, 2007).
Last Remnants of Dinosaur Age
The only living remnants of the dinosaur age are said to sea turtles. However, if there are no efforts to protect these turtles, they are likely to follow the dinosaurs into extinction. In the world, there are over 220 species of turtles. Of these species, seven species are considered marine.
There are five species of turtles in the Philippines. These include Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea), Green (Chelonia mydas), Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea). Typically, a Philippine Sea Turtles weight ranges between 180-210 kilograms, making it hard for it to retract its head, as well as limbs under its streamlined shell.
The Green Sea Turtle is the most common species in Philippines growing to upto 1.5 meters long and weighing 185 kilograms. Further more, growing to more than two meters in length, the Leatherback Turtle is thus the largest species in the world (Conservation International, 2007).
Smallest Hoofed Mammal
The Philippine mouse deer (Tragalus nigricans) is the smallest hoofed mammal in the world. This mammal resides in the South of Palawan on the Balabac Island. The mammal is only 40 centimeters. However, in the other countries, the mammal is referred to as Chevrotain.
Contrary to the real deer, the male species does not have antlers. In self-defence, the mammal, therefore, uses its canine teeth. Other mouse deer species in the world include the African water chevrotain and the Malay mouse deer (napu). These species are can be found in India, Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.
The World Conservation Union is worried because of the alarming rate at which these mouse deer species were disappearing. Consequently, the organization, in the year 1996, did declare these mouse deer species as an endangered species (Conservation International, 2007).
Most Endangered Deer
In the dwindling forest of Panay Island in the Philippines, there lives one of the mammals considered the worlds rarest. Considered the most endangered deer in the world, this mammal is the Philippine spotted deer (Cervus alfredi). This mammal is 80 centimeters. Over years, these species have been reducing in number making them to be declared endangered.
In many cases, these deer species have had their habitats damaged, reduced or altered hence risking their existence. A survey done in 1985 showed that only a small population of the original number of the Philippine spotted deer was found (Conservation International, 2007).
Calamian Deer
In the Calamian Islands, there lives a deer species that is not found anywhere else in the world. Consequently, scientists decided to refer to it as the Calamian deer in order to distinguish it from all other hog deer species in the world. Ordinarily, one Calamian deer measures 105 to 115 centimeters long and 60 to 65 centimeters high.
Additionally, they weigh 36 to 50 kilograms. Compared to other hog deer species, the Calamian deer has longer and darker legs. Their populations have been dropping since the early 1940s to levels described as being dangerously low in the 1970s. For instance, by 1996, the population had dropped to only 900. This prompted conservationists to declare the Calamian deer as an endangered species (Conservation International, 2007).
Largest Endangered Animal
In the early 1900s, there used to be about 10,000 heads of pygmy water buffalos that were unique in the island of Mindoro, in the Philippines. Currently, these water buffalos are not anymore. There are fears that these water buffalos may be extinct meaning that Mindoro might lose its only symbol of pride.
These water buffalos (Bubalus mindorensis), also known as the Tamaraws are believed to be the largest land animal that is endangered in the Philippines at the moment. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) declared the Tamaraws as one of the ten most endangered species world wide in the year 1996. Currently, there are only about 20 heads of Tamaraws still existing from the 10,000 heads that were there in the early 1900s (Conservation International, 2007).
Endangered Cockatoos
Some of the most exotic birds in the world are found in the Philippines. Scientists have been able to document 577 bird species that live in the Philippine archipelago. 185 of these species are endemic to the Philippines. Consequently, the Bird Life International has listed 116 of these bird species as being threatened.
The most endangered species of them all is the Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia). This bird species belong to the parrots family with a capacity to live for over 50 years. Known for mimicking human voices, they are 33 centimeters long weighing 0.29 kilograms. Only about 1,000 to 4,000 of this species remain and is restricted to the Pandanan Island and El Nido Marine Reserve (Conservation International, 2007).
Worlds Largest Fish
In the town of Sorsogon in the Philipines, there is a group of 40 whale sharks (Rhincodon typus). This fish species is considered as being the largest fish in the world. They are 18 to 35 feet long weighing 20 tons.
Given their special features, the Philippine government declared this shark species as being endangered in 1998. This meant that it was illegal to exploit them. Responsibility for promoting eco-tourism aimed at protecting the shark species has been transferred to the Department of Tourism in the region of Donsol (Conservation International, 2007).
Worlds Smallest Fish
The smallest freshwater fish in the world is found in the Philippines. Measuring 1.2 centimeters, the dwarf goby (Pandaka pygmaea) is said to be the tiniest vertebrate alive on earth. It was discovered by American Ichthyologist Albert Herre in 1925 in the Malabon River. Additionally, there is the sinarapan (Mistichthys luzonensis) which is said to be the smallest commercial fish in the world. The Sinarapan is 1.25 centimeters. Uncontrolled fishing in the Philippines threatens the survival of this species (Conservation International, 2007).
Worlds Smallest Monkey
Measuring only 12 centimeters, the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) is said to be the smallest primate in the world. The monkey has two big eyes which cannot move and it has no protective cover for the eyes. In order to survive, the monkey has learned to turn its head 180 degrees. It weighs between 117 and 134 grams.
These monkey species are found in the islands of Bohol, Samar, Mindanao and Leyte. Currently, only 1,000 species of the monkey exist in the Philippines. The government has formed the Philippine Tarsier Foundation Inc. which is mandated to ensure that these monkeys are conserved (Conservation International, 2007).
Endemic Plants
There are over 9,000 tree species in the Philippines. Out of these, 200 are fruit trees. Some of the endemic fruit trees found in the Philippines include the mabolo, durian, bignay and pili. The Bignay tree (Antidesa bunius) grows upto a height of 10.6 meters. The fruit diameter ranges between 8 and 10 millimeters. The tree has medicinal value in that its leaves are used in the treatment of snakebite.
Summary and Conclusion
Biodiversity hotspots are vital as they support the livelihoods of plant and animal species that are endangered. In this case, conservation of such areas is critical as they provide habitats to some species that are of benefit to human beings. Students who may be far ought to be concerned about hotspots as these are areas that support lives of interesting species in the world. It is, therefore, crucial that international support be provided to conservation efforts. These areas are vital in scientific research and, therefore, should be conserved at all times.
This support from the international community should be in the form of grants directed towards conservation efforts. Laws and regulations should be instituted to guard exploitation of these species. Poachers and those engaged in overfishing ought to be prosecuted. Policies to control population growth rates should be formulated. This is to guard against population explosion that leads into clearing of forest reserves for accommodation and agricultural purposes.
References
Alave, K. L. (2011). Hottest of biodiversity hot spots found in Philippines. Web.
Australian Government. (2009). Biodiversity hotspots. Web.
According to the most common definition, biodiversity simply refers to having a variety of species. It is a reflection of the population, variety and variability of organisms on earth. Biodiversity includes diversification within and between different species and among ecosystems.
This variation of species in the ecosystem is a very important concept and factor that indeed is the basis for sustaining life on our planet. Considering such a great role of this matter, it is regrettable that biodiversity has been threatened by a number of factors largely fueled by human activities in recent days. This essay discusses the benefits of biodiversity on both the human beings and other living things.
Benefits of Biodiversity
To start with, biodiversity provides most of the food that humans and other living beings use for their survival. Humans feed on a wide array of living organisms like animals, plants, fish and others, which provide holistic nutritional value to them. Likewise, predators depend on other animals for food while plants rely on microorganisms to keep soil suitable for growth. Clearly, with an alteration in biodiversity, not only humans but also many other species of living things stand to suffer.
Secondly, biodiversity is a primary and great source of medicines and herbs used all around the world to treat various illnesses and health conditions. In the developing world, herbs are harvested directly even where drugs are manufactured for the ingredients to be primarily sourced from living things, especially plants. To give a more specific example, penicillin and anesthetics, which are commonly used in human treatment, are got from animal species and microbes.
Biodiversity is important for fighting against different threats that can harm our health and life. With a rich genetic composition within a species, the capacity to counter different bacteria, virus and other health impairing factors is greatly improved. For example, human beings avoid inbreeding in order to expand their genetic diversity, thereby this factor gives them an advantage and better chances to survive genetic and health attacks.
In addition, biodiversity is important for global warming mitigation. There are several plant tissues and organic matters on land and in ocean ecosystems that process carbon, which is part of the combination of greenhouse gasses contributing to climate change. For instance, as a measure for controlling the rate of global warming and desertification, countries worldwide have launched campaigns to plant many trees so that they can act as carbon sinks.
Again, biodiversity is very important for sustaining the global economy. Many people derive direct and indirect incomes from exploiting biodiversity. Indeed, it provides an important contribution to the economic development of all the nations of the world. Natural pesticides, fibers, waxes, fuel, gums, dyes and many others are goods harvested from biodiversity. Also, nature related holidays and ecotourism that are the main sources of income of many countries rely on biodiversity.
Moreover, the most important supporter of life, which is soil and water in it, depends on biodiversity for its maintenance. If the soil were eroded, then life would cease to exist very quickly. Microorganisms in the soil are responsible for breaking down organic matter and serving plants with essential nutrients. Vegetation, on the other hand, keeps soil intact and protects it.
Clean air that is very essential for life is purified by plant species, which filter unwanted and harmful particles from industries, recycle oxygen and regulate atmospheric composition. Indeed, plants use carbon dioxide to manufacture food and give out oxygen in its place.
Humans depend a lot on planted crops to provide food which are, however, susceptible to many pests. Other organisms including insects, birds and fungi eliminate a great majority of the potential pests that attack crops. These natural and cheap ways of controlling pests are far superior to artificial ones as pests often develop resistance to the latter.
The intrinsic value of biodiversity must not be also overlooked. Human beings and a number of other animals enhance their emotional wellbeing by being close to natural beauty. For example, the mutually helpful relationships between humans and biodiversity are easily discernible in arts, traditions and religions of diverse cultures all over the world. For instance, a picture depicting a beautiful; nature where green and healthy trees are represented is considered by many to have a calming effect on the humans mind.
Generally, biodiversity provides all the basic needs of men and other higher animals. The provision of food, shelter, clothing and all the other basic needs can be traced back to the issue under the consideration. In fact, almost all food comes from living things, fabric for clothes is made from plants and skin or fir of animals while many of the materials used by people to build houses also have an organic nature and are the results of biodiversity.
Conclusion
That is why it is necessary to state that biodiversity is not just an important and beneficial but crucial aspect of life. Nature has its own way of balancing life, and biodiversity is at the center of this grand plan. Every single organism that exists on our planet has a role to play in supporting other life forms in all the different ecosystems. Biodiversity must be, therefore, protected and preserved if humans want the life to be sustained.
The term nature is defined as the collectiveness of the physical world phenomena that includes animals, plants and world landscapes. The concept of nature, as discussed in realms of environment, refers to living as well as non-living things found naturally on the surface of the earth. The environment can be influenced by human beings. This type of environment is called the natural landscape. There are different components of nature when compared to the environment.
These elements include; the climate, the minerals and rocks, the soil, the animal life, the water bodies, aerial space, natural vegetation, micro-organic life, the natural situation and the landscapes among others. Nature in the realms of the world environment can never be ignored. It supports life and growth of living things, including human beings.
Several pertinent issues manifest themselves in the discussion of nature. These issues include biodiversity, global warming and environmental conservation, among others. These issues help protect or destroy our environment (Sizer, 2014).
The global warming concept has raised varying discussions in the world on conservation of nature and environment. For example, the Kyoto Protocol, a treaty that set out conditions and limits of gas emissions in industries is a good framework for the conservation of the environment. The emission of different gases into the air is a threat to living things and most critical destruction of the ozone layer. These pertinent issues require collective consideration in the world; both industrialized and non-industrialized nations.
Nature and the environment have varying attributions. To many, the environment is a great source of economic progress. For example, the soil is an important component for the agricultural dependent population. However, the environment is just a basis of normal living. Industries and individuals committing environmental offences like cutting down of trees fail to understand that nature and environment are components that human beings cannot do without.
They are the basis for any living of human being, and essentially, punishing when misused (Waren, 2015). Non-renewal and renewal promote natural overseas ensure the continued availability of resources in future.
People in the region were able to practice horticultural farming that made them earn their living. There are many companies that have a common interest in selling nature and attracting many customers. They play the role of advertising the natures that draw attention to many as well as encouraging people to love nature and get to know the history. Floods have resulted in destroying the environment by carrying away soil and trees.
It also resulted in increasing tourism in the region that created employment among many people. Rains enabled people to migrate due to floods that resulted in an outbreak of diseases such as cholera. (Lauba, 2011) Waterborne diseases increased rapidly in the region that caused death to many people. People were displaced, and their homes were carried away by water despite the precautions they took (Vogel, 2013).
People started migrating to other places due to lack of productive soil that they had to go and search for greener pastures. Nature is an important aspect of the lifestyle of a human being, for it improves the standard of living and enhancement of technology (Vila, 2012). Production of the region enabled people to know the importance of nature through a public campaign that enabled them to cater to their needs.
The environment was made to be the nature for it was extremely suggesting the natural things like water bodies and the soil (Blodgett, 2014). Agriculture and tree plantation were also practised that enabled people to trade amongst other regions and conserve soil erosion. The soil was fertile for the trees to grow hence conserving the environment by implementing rules to prevent cutting. It was the rainy season, and the climate was not favourable to everyone due to traffic that caused congestion of vehicles on roads.
The smells were not as good as the drainage systems blocked, and the sewers were overflowing all over the region. Temperatures were low below ten degrees Celsius that made it easier for people to catch common colds and other communicable diseases. All that made the environment to feel it was natural for no other person who could control nor use and tactics to prevent it.
Many things were experienced in that place, including traffic that caused both people and vehicles to cause congestion there. A lot of time was wasted and people getting late to their works was the major problem for that time. Though everything was under control in all ways, nothing more could be done to prevent the situation. (Murray, 2015) Being an urban centre did not have any difference with the rural area because everywhere was rainy and floods were experienced.
The same case applied to all the places that made everything to stand still and cause confusion. It was so natural for it happened in other parts of the country and city as well. The businesses in the region paralyzed continually for people were not able to transact their businesses as it was expected in other days. Trade was the basic means of exchange of goods and services that made the economy to go down on that day for it was a global market day.
Though some people believed that it was nature, a small percentage of people never came into agreement with them. They argued that poor management and infrastructure was the main cause of everything. The government and its agents could have taken the desired measures every time they knew the heavy rains were about to start (Miskin, 2015). Poor drainage systems and lack of civic education to people about the precautions they should take when such things also happen the main cause. Investments were increased on the measures that were taken for no one was responsible for the rains (Kent, 2015).
Those who were not aware of the heavy rains due to lack of technology to update them on the future were the main victims. Negligence of people also contributed to the problem for they were the most affected. Despite the warnings of those near rivers or dykes to vacate, some people did not bother to do so that made their property to be destroyed. (Chambers, 2015) Not only urban areas that were affected but also rural areas made a way to some regions. The smells and sounds were so irritating such that thunderstorms and lightning caused fear to many people. Many buildings collapsed due to thunderstorm, and many trees blocked the roads that caused traffic rules. As the days moved on, the places became more fertile and more favourable as the place had drained enough water that prevented drought (Marshal, 2014).
It led to good health because people had a variety of food to eat. Reduction of the bad smell that came with stagnant water, air pollution regulations were set. Nature was observed because they did not struggle with the means of irrigation for they had enough water conserved. Buildings were constructed and infrastructure improved for the economy of the region had improved hence low rural-urban migration.
The tradition of enjoying the sweetness and beauty of nature and landscape has made people to feel more encouraged in history of nature. Both technological and joined scientific nature has improved drastically that enable people to come to like the history. All the sites were part of the nature as it was observed during that period for there was no major thing that could make them not to understand the cause of nature (Blodget, 2014).
People learned many things on consequences of nature that contributed to both benefits and disadvantages of nature. They also discovered that gardens were natural and they had to take good care of it despite what the nature will bring thereafter. It also came into their knowledge the three components that make up urban landscape included residual native landscape, managed landscape and so forth (Emerson, 2013). All ought to know what political and economical procedures that facilitate the transformation of nature (Hanser, 2011).
Much focus is about nature and the environmental roots which have effects modern habitat. People should always be ready to embrace the changes caused by nature and not to complain outcome. The institutional and motivational transformations are required to reduce and prevent these issues. How these changes relate to other central and social political and economic consideration. The concentration and explosion of lack of plan on hoe to deposit garbage makes human beings to be failures. Keen measures are needed to be put in place in order to avoid regretful turn of events (Robertson, 2015).
Everything in the universe is connected for good or bad. The human race has had a huge impact on the world for the better but more likely for the worse. The biodiversity decline we see today is a worrying sign of the adverse effects humans have had on the planet. The 2020 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity report states we are at a crossroads and we have to take action now to make space for nature to recover and slow its’ accelerating decline.” Over the past forty years biodiversity is declining rapidly (Butchart, S.H.M., et al, 2010). The causes of decline are significantly due to human practices such as deforestation, agriculture, and pollution, and overall the increasing climate has a huge impact on biodiversity loss. Action needs to be taken urgently and now more than ever. Throughout the history of the planet, more than 99 % of all forms which lived have already gone through extinction (Raup 1992). This shows extinction is a natural occurrence but not so much at the rate at which it is happening today.
One of the famous factors contributing to biodiversity loss is deforestation. Deforestation is the removal of trees to make space for something viewed as more valuable such as cattle or crops or selling the raw materials of the forest. It has a significant impact on the ecosystem of the forest due to habitat loss which subsequently leads to extinction. This is happening at an alarming rate. The increased demand for palm oil is one of the compelling reasons for deforestation in Southern Asia. This is causing significant habitat loss to familiar exotic animals such as orangutans, tigers, and elephants who rely on the fragile tropical rainforest environments in Malaysia and Indonesia (Rainforest Action Network, n.d.). Palm oil can be used as a greener alternative for fuel than fossil fuels and demand is set to increase by 9% every year (European Commission An EU Strategy for Biofuels Commission of the European Communities 2006). It is ironic that switching to palm oil from fossils fuels is suggested to be more carbon neutral when in fact the number of greenhouse gases and environmental destruction implanted to clear the forest and transport materials, etc may do more harm than good (J. Germer, J. Sauerborn, 2007)? Although palm oil plantations are still technically areas of forest, these forest areas are much less diverse. Unless palm oil production does not destroy forestry areas across the globe production will likely heighten the effects of climate change, and food prices will amplify and thus accelerate biodiversity decline (Fitzherbert, E., Struebig, et al. 2008).
Agriculture alone contributes massively to the loss of biodiversity. Agricultural land takes up 38% of Earth’s terrestrial surface which equates to 4.91 billion hectares (Ramankutty et al., 2008). For wild species of flora and fauna, agricultural practices such as tillage, drainage, intercropping, rotation, grazing, and widespread use of pesticides and fertilizers have major implications (McLaughlin, A. and Mineau, P., 1995). Over 50% of Canada’s Southern wetlands have been lost, 85% due to agricultural land drainage (Keating, 1989). Drainage is done for the benefit of producing a larger yield but at the cost of the local species that inhabit the marshland such as reptiles, amphibians, birds, mammals, and fish (Leighton,1991). One-third of fauna in Canada’s wetlands are deemed endangered, threatened, or rare by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (FON, 1987). While it is clear that it is urgent to conserve remaining wetland ecosystems to preserve biodiversity, for Canadian farmers, there are far more incentives to have higher crop yields and profits than worry about the conservation of precious wetlands, this way of thinking urgently needs to change (McLaughlin, A. and Mineau, P. 1995). According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (2006), the livestock industry is the leading source of biodiversity loss. The production of meat is highly unproductive with up to 16kg of grain needed to produce 1kg of meat and 97% of all soya crops are used to feed livestock (PETA UK, 2017). The use of pesticides on crops and the monoculture created by these vast areas of crops has caused habitat loss and fragmentation due to the disappearance of diverse flora, reducing food and nesting resources for key pollinators. Over 75% of the major world crops and 80% of all flowering plant species rely on animal pollinators (Nabhan GP, Buchmann SL, 1997). A survey of 1509 cultivated plant species uncovered that bees were responsible for pollinating at least 75% of the plants (Renner 1995). The faster these pollinators decline the faster the rate of biodiversity loss. These pollinators are absolutely essential for the maintenance of biodiversity across the globe and with land use changing from diverse forests and meadows to crops and cattle pollinators are rapidly losing habitat and biodiversity is declining.
Shows only 62% of the global agricultural land directly feeds humans 35% of animals feed indirectly feeds humans but not very efficient if we used our existing agricultural land more effectively we would not have to be constantly expanding agricultural areas and losing mass amounts of forests and biodiversity
It is now clear that humans have caused devastation to the planet. Pollution whether in the atmosphere or hydrosphere is having detrimental impacts on biodiversity. In marine and coastal areas a theme that is becoming increasingly more prominent is plastic pollution. Entanglement and ingestion are the main ways marine biodiversity is affected by plastic contamination (Vegter et al., 2014). These can have lethal consequences for all marine life mistaking plastic for food and then suffocating or being trapped in various pieces of the anthropocentric litter. Microplastics are another kettle of fish. These plastics are between 1-5mm and are easily ingested or absorbed by many organisms. We have found many marine organisms in the fishing industry (fish, mussels, etc.) have been found to have microplastics ingested we can assume that this is not a good thing for human health (Eleonora Guzzetti et al., 2018). This potent substance is losing biodiversity across the globe and will only increase if our reliance on plastic continues.
We are placed in a precarious position in time, what can we all do to mitigate the devastating effects humans have had on the world? Time is something that is important in the effort to save biodiversity. To try and slow the acceleration of biodiversity loss firstly we need to slow the rate of agricultural expansion, especially where it is expanding into delicate ecosystems such as tropical rainforests (Foley, J.A, 2011). We also need to have a shift in mindset about our meat consumption ideally cutting out meat products altogether but reducing it considerably will allow for a more effective agricultural system (Machovina, Feeley, and Ripple, 2015). The leadership of a country and policies are crucial to stopping the loss of biodiversity. Trump’s infamous wall has had a more environmental toll on the surrounding environment than we could possibly imagine. The wall among other matters will cut off the main jaguar population, already at risk of extinction, in Mexico from the US. Groundwater is being used to create concrete to build the wall which is draining natural wetlands increasing the risk of extinction and slashing biodiversity(Gilbert, 2020). One environmental activist described that the wall “will choke off life from both sides” (Silva and Gamboa 2017). If we continue to have world leaders that have no interest in saving biodiversity and rejecting the climate crisis the loss of biodiversity will become very serious. Everyone can do their own part by consuming less meat, buying less plastic, relying less on cars, and planting a wildflower area in their garden but for the big changes, we rely solely on our leaders to stop the burning of fossil fuels and implement policies designed to slow climate change.
In conclusion, agriculture is the most important factor in biodiversity loss if we had no desire for large areas of land we would not need to be cutting down precious forests and our climatic impact would be lessened without the transportation of animal feed and products across the globe if we incorporate biodiversity into our crops agree to all reduce our reliance of meat we could have changed at slowing the decline of biodiversity. However, the most effective way to tackle biodiversity loss is if policies are implemented to protect wild areas and increase biodiversity. Biodiversity is at the heart of nature and losing it would cause a ripple effect across the world. “When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the Universe” – John Muir.
Plants and trees are the lungs of the earth. They provide oxygen and shelter for the ecosystems that thrive within the forest. The UN sustainability goal #15, life on land, was aimed at increasing biodiversity and decreasing deforestation around the world. This is done by using target indicators. And while many countries agree that protecting nature is a noble initiative, many of them fail to reach the targets. Because political policies and consumer preference lean towards unsustainable habits, the targets have not been met as evident by Brazil and Africa.
Reaching these sustainable goals was guided by target indicators. The targets were increasing forest proportional to land area, increasing sustainable forest management, decrease land degradation, protect ecosystems, etc. (Division for Sustainable Development Goals, 2015). In order for countries to reach these goals, certain metrics have been established to measure the progress of a goal. Species population abundance using the Living Plant Index (LPI), species extinction rate using the Red List Index (RLI) and ecosystem longevity using the Biodiversity Intactness Index (BII) are all used as metrics to track progress and are necessary to reach the goals. (WWF 2018, pg 118). For example, target 15.3, which is focus at limiting deforestation and is measured, with the help of satellite imagery, using the Forest Cover Change (FCC), has not been met as deforestation continues to increase around the world. This is caused by increase rate of forest fires which also contribute to rising temperatures. This is creating a runaway greenhouse effect. The rising temperatures decrease the oceans ability to store CO2, causing the planet to warm, which causes dry climate suitable for forest fire, and those forest fires release more CO2 into the atmosphere, decrease the oceans ability to store CO2. Forest fires have been a major issue in California, Australia, and The Amazon rain forest.
Much of the world relies on the amazon rain forest as it supplies a fraction of the earth’s oxygen and is home to over 10 million species (Nunez 2019). It also plays an important role in South American rain cycles and the global climate. But in recent years Brazil has seen a great deal of deforestation. This started 50 years ago in the 1980s where the government started building the trans-Amazonian highway. This highway connects people to more remote areas of the forest therefore they can cultivate the land and grow the economy. This land was cut down and used for livestock and agriculture such as soybeans. Consequently, deforestation rates skyrocketed. It wasn’t until 2003 when former environment minister Marina Silva step in and created more protected areas for the rain forest and indigenous people. She did this by using IBAMA (Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) to enforce strict forest protection laws and investigate into illegal deforestation. This transformed the amazon into a shared and sustainable space. Deforestation decreased yearly up into 2012 and if Brazil had continued like this, they would have met the goal easily (Zaitchik 2019). However, the Ruralistas, which is a conservative party focused on agriculture, was gaining popularity and in 2018, Jair Bolsonaro became president. Due to the political landscape, IBAMA funding was cut, and increased the amount of rainforest companies are allowed to legally deforest. Setting fires is a common way to clear land and in 2019 over 80,000 fires were blazing in the amazon, more than 3 times of 2018 (Irfan 2019). In recent years, the president has allowed mining of indigenous lands (Jamasmie 2019). further leading to climate change and deforestation. All this was to say that political power plays a big role in in reaching these sustainable goals. These goals are global, however individual countries how their own goals and agendas. This is why many UN project fail such as the Green Climate Fund (GCF). The GCF goal was to raise $100 billion a year by 2020. While countries like UK, France, Germany, Norway and Sweden have donated large amounts to the fund, in contrast, Finland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Japan, Portugal, and New Zealand haven’t donated anything (Ratcliff, 2019).
Which countries have contributed a lot? Northern Europe is performing best to achieve the UN sustainable development goals (See appendix). This is because the EU has made commitments to lowering greenhouse gas emissions and is making progress towards that goal to this day (European Environment Agency, 2016, pg. 35).
Management of natural resources has been confirmed by observing organizations around the world provoke conflicts when scarcity, poor governance, and unfair distribution of amenities constitute its procedures. These conflicts have, in turn, caused heavy impacts on biodiversity and climate change; most of which are negative and irreversible (IUCN, 2021). The climate justice movement seeks to minimize the different forms of conflicts ranging from socio-economic coercion to wars at stages where dialogue is effective. Poor communities experience armed conflicts over certain natural resources, and the commotions do not get reported; such situations have aroused an outcry for climate justice. The types of conflicts examined in this coursework include those between local communities and the management of protected areas for necessary resources, as well as communities versus nomadic cattle herders. Many communities will lose people and property from conflicts in over-developed cities if the voice of climate justice is ignored.
The problems associated with biodiversity conservation conflicts have been emphasized in this section in relation to its call for climate justice. A literature review of the theoretical framework and some concepts built around efforts made through climate justice to conserve nature will be presented in section 2. Relevant data will be accompanied by information that relates to various conflicts, as well as their impacts on climate change will be highlighted in section 3. Data analysis is done in section 4 to arrive at effective suggestions in using the theoretical framework for climate justice toward resolving biodiversity conservation conflicts. The complex patterns of conflicts connected to natural resources are a limiting factor in the availability of climate justice research. Section 5 will highlight findings regarding reputable ethics to conclude the coursework.
Literature Review
The approach to biodiversity conservation has continued to evolve through the varying interests and activities of people around the world. Deforestation has provoked confrontation in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa more than most other locations around the world where operators against plantation losses always clash with people practicing open grazing and orchestrating tree felling. ‘Conflict’ is a term used to describe occurrences of dispute that escalate beyond social resolutions (Heller, 2001). Conflicts contribute potentially to socio-political development by instigating investigations into causes, and it magnifies situations that seemed tolerable. The forests served people as locations for hunting, rearing cattle, and grazing sheep; these agricultural benefits made livestock farmers and woodland residents perceive coercion from lumber dealers. The demand for timber in Europe was at its peak in the 18th century when military equipment and socio-economic projects needed strong wood as raw material (Shama, 1996). The farmers mostly live a contented lifestyle and prefer to settle in a serene environment to raise livestock, but their villages quickly become EJ communities as deforestation threatens their livelihood.
‘Climate justice’ fully came into play around 1989 with Edith Brown Weiss’s research work; the three directions that policies on climate justice handle include mitigation, adaptation, and impact control. Environmental activists and civil rights advocates have dedicated their voices to creating awareness on this important issue of climate justice (Tikka and Kauppi, 2003). The residents of affected regions have only a little confidence in governments since the many conferences on forest activities and biodiversity conservation conflicts have not accomplished a global treaty. Feminists also clamor for gender equality on climate change to begin with an end to intimidation and sexual violence against women who lend their voices towards climate justice (Hoare, 2018). Non-governmental and Private initiatives have corresponded to policies established for forest conservation right from the 1992 Rio Conference which instigated a decade of legal reforms on forestry in about 90 countries (FAO, 2002). These environmental policies have reflected encouraging impacts on the management of natural resources and conflicts, and they are accountable to climate justice. Some existing policies relating to natural forest conservation include Common Agricultural Policy, and Forest Focus which proposes an extensive community to monitor forest activities and address conflicts in biodiversity conservation. Economic growth influences forests with detrimental impacts (Larsson, 2001) that result from persistent industrialization (Hellstr and Reunala, 1995). The government and politically influential people are responsible for such heavy urbanization that force poor communities and farmers to migrate in search of habitable environments. A theoretical framework drawn from a comprehensive perspective of natural resources, social standards, and conflict management theories will serve climate justice effectively on the subject (Heller, 2001).
There are certain occasions when reforestation could lead to a biodiversity conservation conflict; especially if it is not properly planned and tries to replace a more beneficial ecosystem. This climate justice framework was suggested by E. Heller. I’m will help decision-makers to understand disputes from the dimensions of substance, procedure, and relations for better chances of addressing conflicts (Walker and Daniels, 1997);
Substance: This points to the identification of conflict through the types of biodiversity involved. This is usually a contention between natural and artificial ecosystems.
Procedure: This dimension focuses on how activities are done with regard to biodiversity conservation conflicts. Activities could include legal actions, planning and strategy for agitation, and how stakeholders enforce claims.
Relations: The type of interactions between the stakeholders is observed in this dimension of the framework; their cultural character is an important influence on their view of biodiversity.
Climate justice for biodiversity conservation conflicts will have to examine these three dimensions with the understanding that; firstly, stakeholders can perceive natural resources as cultural, political, economic, or social capital. Secondly, communities may interpret issues according to their social norms, so the situation needs to be defined relatively before establishing a collective opinion. Thirdly, theories on conflict regulations can combine consensus and conflict theories to accomplish climate justice.
Case Study Background
This coursework is set around conflict situations relating to ecological conservation activities that demand climate justice for fair resolutions. There has been an annual record of up to 7,000 armed conflicts that have displaced nearly 70.8 million people including asylum seekers, internally displaced people, and refugees. The average number of annual conflicts over the past 30 years around the globe reaches between 4,000 to 5,000 (UCDP, 2013). Many of these conflicts are connected to limited natural resources and land use disputes that have resulted in more than 2 million fatalities according to Uppsala reports. Countries like Nigeria and Rwanda are recording their highest amounts of fatal conflicts recently with about 61 percent of deaths from conflict occurring in Africa. The fatalities from armed biodiversity conservation conflicts in South and East Asia is 12 percent while that of West Asia is 17 percent of the global record.
Data from a research paper on Cross River National Park, Nigeria revealed that 90 percent of respondents in the local community and 78 percent of Park staff recognize disputes between the community and Park management. Some of the disagreements were reported to arise from failed promises by the Park management in form of inadequate employment and lack of alternative sources of livelihood for communities located in and around the National Park. Another instance is the Old Oyo National Park, Nigeria where a study captured nearly 64 percent of grazing, 30 percent of hunting, and 6 percent of farmland encroachment in the Park. Conflicts in these areas have resulted in injuries and deaths especially since communities were made to give up ancestral wildlife resources and land forcefully when the conservation plan was implemented (FAO, 1990b; 1990d). The case of herdsmen clashing with farmers in Nigeria has stretched for years and affected states like Abia, Bauchi, Benue, Enugu, Gombe, Ibadan, Kaduna, Nasarawa, Plateau, Taraba, and Zamfara among some others that may not have officially made it to public media. About 1,700 people have been killed in the herdsmen and farmers conflicts in Nigeria according to a report by Global Terrorism Index from January to September 2018. Other cases of similar conflicts in African countries include park rangers battling poachers in locations like Garamba National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zakouma National Park in Chad.
Displacements and migration have been recorded in large amounts from affected communities in the states and from Nigeria generally, increased insecurity is a major factor in the movements. Climate change is making natural resources like water scarce in nearly 43 countries around the world where some 700 million people suffer harsh conditions and migrate away from these economic challenges that trigger disputes. Women, children, and old people usually get seriously affected by migration and its resultant conflicts; this promotes a perspective of emergency on climate justice. The United Nations (UN) predicts that 70 percent of the world’s population will settle in urban areas by 2050; so, vulnerable internal migrants will struggle for natural resources as climate change causes more scarcity. Nomadic cattle farmers in the East and West of Africa seek out water for their animals through seasonal migration, and they experience clashes with local farmers when their cattle eat up farm crops. The injustice which humans do to nature through aggressive industrialization, unsustainable lifestyle, and continuous conflicts is the basis of climate change studies; the damages heavily affect both environment and less privileged people. The unfair privileges associated with affluence on the matter of biodiversity conservation are a huge influence on the related conflicts. The discourse continues to grow through education and activism that expands awareness of the urgency of climate justice on the causes, processes, and effects of climate change orchestrated by biodiversity conservation conflicts
Critical Analysis
It is important to approach climate justice arguments with relevant evidence of unjust procedures in climate action. Some of the conflicts are activated by raping women and kidnapping children; these activities contribute to demands by feminists for gender justice in climate change. Unstructured conflict management aggravates the inequity directed toward vulnerable people living around scarce natural resources by depriving their human rights. This section will focus on the basic factors that influence conflicts in order to propose a framework for resolving disputes that arise from biodiversity conservation. The following technical, political, and cultural directions should be used;
Substance: The value in both quality and quantity of natural capital is relevant to monitoring this dimension of conflict substance. Primarily important indicators like a specific forest, landscape, and socio-cultural indicators can contribute to the substance of a conflict (Larsson, 2001). This direction is quite technical because it measures the conservation of natural capital by the implemented climate actions.
Procedure: Conflict management processes can be monitored through organizations and individuals in the local communities. This is a political direction where social capital is observed; (1) to implement climate justice using information from meetings, areas to become protected, funding, and extent of media coverage. (2) The observance will note the opinions of stakeholders on the productivity of conflict management, the probability of stakeholders’ engagement, and correspondence. (3) The dedication towards mitigation will be monitored through policies, strategy changes, legislation, and stakeholder correspondence.
Relations: The cultural background of stakeholders involved in the conflict resolution process will be relevant to how climate justice is addressed. Stakeholders’ relationships will be observed at the individual, organizational, and community levels.
This theoretical framework can be deployed to detect an imminent dispute, during an active conflict, and post-conflict. The people who would suffer the highest damages have to be protected through the process while the conflict is being resolved, and every stakeholder can be guaranteed that they will get a fair representation (Sovacool et al., 2019a).
Conclusion
The elements of biodiversity conservation conflicts are not easily identifiable, especially when climate justice becomes the context within which resolution is pursued. The case study data has been analyzed to establish technical, political, and cultural directions that the theoretical framework accommodates in the substance, procedure, and relations of conflict. The suggested framework in this study can be used to identify factors that instigate disparity between communities and conservation processes for environmental damage control, mitigation, and adaptation. It is clearer that threatened communities need to be prioritized for careful climate action to limit damages; policies, participation, and funding should encourage biodiversity conservation instead of concentrating on economic activities only.
Bibliography
Adetoro, A. O., Oyeleye D. O., and Henry M. Ijeomah, 2011, Causes and Impacts of Conflict on Biodiversity Management at the Buffer Zone of Old Oyo National Park, Oyo State, Nigeria, Viewed 19 July 2021
Biotechnology is defined as “the exploitation of living systems and biological processes to develop tools for technological use”. It may be applied in areas such as industry, medicine, environmental sciences as well as computer design. The field of biotechnology is very broad because there is such a wealth of biological phenomena which we could harness for human benefit. However, although these biological advances have positive and reliable uses in today’s society, it also poses various ethical and social concerns affecting the earths biodiversity.
Humans have been using biological processes to improve their lifestyles long before genes and DNA were understood, or the term “biotechnology” was first used. The word “artificial selection” was originally coined by Charles Darwin as an illustration of his proposed wider process of natural selection. Most historic biotechnology was discovered by accident or through simple observation of nature and was then used to improve everyday life. For example, agriculture developed in ancient times when humans needed to grow their food closer to home to aid travelling long distances for supplies. Plant seeds for crops were tended to by experimenting with different amounts of water, light and nutrients, and crop improvement soon developed where the most successful plants were used to obtain seeds for future crops. The manipulation of biological processes for humans use in early agriculture was the basis of biotechnology. The deliberate selection and breeding of individual with favourable characteristics is known as artificial selection. It is carried out with the intention of retaining favourable characteristics in future generations. For example, corn existed in 5000BC with small cobs and few kernels. By 1500AD, selective breeding had produced corn cobs that were almost five times the size of ancestral corn cobs, being larger and juicier. Early agriculture also involved the domestication of wild animals by using selective breeding to produce animals suitable for food and transport. A classical example is the mule, which is cross bred from a female horse and a male donkey. Mules were commonly used in ancient times for the transport of heavy loads. Dogs have also been artificially cross bred for a variety of reasons. Crossbreeding two purebred organisms, will result in offspring with inherit desirable traits. For example, Poodles are crossed with Labrador Retrievers to combine a Poodles low shedding coat with the Labrador’s calm, trainable features, resulting in a cross-bred labradoodle.
Biotechnology can be used in the field of medicine, animal biotechnology and aquaculture. There are various recombinant DNA techniques such as gene sequencing which are currently being used in medical developments of personalised treatments. There are also various other applications. These include gene therapy, the reprogramming of dysfunctional cells/tissues, ELISA used in disease diagnosis, CRISPR in molecular biology as a gene editing tool as well as gene cloning and therapeutic cloning allowing stem cells to differentiate into any cell and produce relevant biological proteins such as insulin. Knowledge of the genetic makeup of our species, the genetic basis of heritable diseases, and the invention of technology to manipulate and fix mutant genes provides methods to treat diseases. Other reproductive technologies such as artificial insemination in the livestock industry are used for animal production, being able to synchronise pregnancies and bypass issues of fertility. In vitro fertilisation occurring in humans, and artificial insemination in pollinating crops and genetic experiments are also forms of current biotechnology applications. Cloning techniques such as whole organism cloning is used for definite inheritance of desirable traits in livestock animals. Biotechnology also provides powerful tools for the sustainable development of aquaculture, fisheries, as well as the food industry. As seafood increases to become a public demand, scientists have studied the ways that biotechnology can increase the production of marine food products, making aquaculture a growing field of animal research. It allows scientists to identify and combine traits in fish and shellfish to increase productivity and improve quality, involving techniques such as transgenesis and chromosome engineering. Some ethical consideration with biotechnology involves concerns of scientist playing the role of god. Social implications include factors such as both cost and lack of resources. This type of technology is very expensive to research and produce. The modification of DNA to create altered DNA sequences for profit, minimises the value of human and animal life for profit potential. It opens the door to ethical and moral questions. Concerns with aquaculture include concerns with water systems being polluted with excessive nutrients and chemicals being introduced. It can also compromise the native gene pools or species and also threaten the livelihood of fishermen.
Biodiversity is essential for the functioning and stability of ecosystems. It exists in a rage of scales including genetic, species and ecosystems. Biotechnology in agriculture can cause biodiversity loss through favouring a small number of varieties and losing the characteristics of wild species. Genetically modified plants can adversely affect organisms such as bees as well as soil ecosystems. Genetically modified organism poses a risk through breeding or cross-pollination, with the potential for invasive species to develop in the wild with the genetically modified characteristics. A range of biodiversity conversation methods have become possible with biotechnology. The genetic variation of wild and captive populations can be measured and monitored using genetic technologies. De-extinction techniques could be used in the future in order to return keystone species to at-risk ecosystems. However, ethical questions have been raised concerning using genetic technologies to interfere with evolutionary processes. Biofuels have the potential to lower atmospheric carbon dioxide by providing cleaner energy sources and bioremediation and phytoremediation have the potential to clean up environmental pollution such as mercury deposits in soil.
Synthetic biology is an emerging area of research which aims to be increasingly interdisciplinary, combining engineering principles with biological tools. It includes molecular biology, genetics, biophysics, computer engineering and evolutionary biology – all coming together that aim to use fundamental biological systems with new tools. The biomedical application xenotransplantation involves the transplantation of cells, tissues or organs from one donor species to human. Another future direction includes designer babies. Designer babies refers to a baby whose genetic makeup has been selected or altered, often to include a particular gene or to remove genes associated with disease. It poses unethical concerns as it will allow scientists to design babies as well as their features in unnatural ways and may involve artificial wombs and synthesised zygotes, eliminated the need for men and women, overturning gender as a social structure. Additionally, genetic modification of animals’ sample grafts is also a developing field in biotechnology, allowing animals to be disguised to reduce the likelihood of rejection by the human body and will hence a medical breakthrough for organ donor needs. Similarly, despite the advances in cancer diagnosis and treatments, it is still the second leading cause of death in the world. Recent biotechnological advances have increased researcher’s knowledge of molecular events of cancer and have created new hopes in early diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Using biotechnology methods, molecular errors can be determined, and appropriate treatments can be selected.
Therefore, the field of biotechnology is a large growing factor influencing and affecting the earths biodiversity. It provides breakthrough products and technologies to combat debilitating and rare diseases, reduce our environmental footprint, feed the hungry, use less and cleaner energy, and have safer, cleaner and more efficient industrial manufacturing processes. However, it holds various ethical and social implications and concerns which may affect the earths future environment. It is a growing field which involves medical, animal and aquaculture and introduces future direction such as designer babies and synthetic biology. Hence biotechnology processes and various techniques will overall affect the earths biodiversity.
