There have been several debates why people in East Asia Countries (South Korea, China, and Japan) have negative impressions and stereotypes about people communicating in their second language in the city.
However, much literature on bilingualism focuses on the experience of minorities because in European and North American context bilingual families tend to be from minority groups.
In line with this, Mother tongue or native language is a cultural stereotype with strong ideological implications varying from culture to culture.
New languages are acquired throughout life for functional reasons-personal advancement and communicating- rather than in association with a complex, personal identity or to give access to another group.
David Matsumoto and Juang Linda stated most of the problems associated with bilingualism are social or cultural problems (David, and Juang 258), principal among them is the majority-minority contrast. David Matsumoto and Juang Linda further stated each bilingual community is unique (257).
East Asia Countries present an extremely complex picture of bilingualism in contrast to that of the Western World. For the society as a whole, the situation is likely to be complex.
In my opinion, it is because East Asia Countries are not diverse (did not experienced different diversity culture) compared to the western countries, so they view them as surprise people.
In line with Derrick Sharps statement, it will be observed that most East Asian Countries are city-states in which speakers from the different ethnic and linguistic groups have been relatively isolated from that of the western world.
Furthermore, there tend to be concentrations of bilingual families among migrant families who may also be economically disadvantaged.
There have been no significant in-migration to most East Asian Countries since the early sixties, hence no much exposure to diverse culture in the world. Moreover, there have been no personal relationships or interaction with people from a different culture.
In most East Asian countries, multilingualism is restricted to elites; although patterns of language ability differ between the classes (and the races) multilingualism is the norm at all levels of the society.
Until the twentieth century inhabitants of East African countries could sustain a lifestyle which operated largely in a mono-ethnic enclave. The Chinese community for example, is drawn from many dialect groups including Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, and Hainanese.
It was even possible to live and work within a community that was virtually mono-dialectal. The whole concept of bilingualism becomes problematical outside a monolingual context. The archetypical native speaker is a monolingual who has always lived in a community which is monolingual in the same language.
The spread of bilingualism in most East Asian countries is mainly an effect of learning other languages within the continent.
As in most Western Countries, the range of proficiency in other languages among the inhabitants is wide, with some having native-like effective language and others having only negligible knowledge.
In conclusion, bilingualism cannot be related to any single nation or ethnicity; to a certain extent it must fit in to those who apply it as means of communication. Hence distinctive relationship that is present between Asian countries and language needs to be considered in detail.
David Matsumoto and Juang Linda (2012) maintained that a language attains universal standing when it increases a special responsibility that is acknowledged in all country (258) and that this unique standing can be realized by making it a standardized means of communication.
Work Cited
David, Matsumoto, and Juang Linda. Culture and Psychology. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.
Knowing a foreign language is no longer a privilege in a modern society it is rather an advantage, a chance to communicate even more efficiently and see things through the eyes of the people of a different nationality. For some, the process of language learning and, therefore, the further knowledge acquisition is extremely hard; others pass the stage of cognizing two cultures at once incredibly easy.
Nevertheless, some people argue that, despite all advantages that bilingualism offers, it can be quite a nuisance when it comes to the process acquisition. However, when considering the advantages that bilingualism offers, one will inevitably see that, in spite of its flaws, bilingualism serves to speed up the cognition and educational processes.
When it comes to mentioning the positive aspects of being a bilingual person, the first and the foremost advantage to mention is the ability to convey specific ideas in either of the languages without any problem. Once mastering the languages in question completely, one is likely not only to acquire language skills, but also the ability to understand both cultures, which means that the cultural border will be crossed and that efficient communication with the representatives of both cultures becomes possible.
Another obvious positive aspect of bilingualism for the process of cognition and education concerns the ability to think in an abstract manner. As most theories claim, abstract thinking as the final stage of cognitive process is crucial for the development of ones skills and further knowledge acquisition, as well as the ability to analyze.
Meanwhile, a perfect command of the second language can possibly help not only trigger associations faster, but also to draw parallels between the two languages, thus, developing the ability to think abstractly.
The final argument in favor of bilingualism as the power enhancer is the ability to sort the incoming information efficiently. Knowing two languages gives the ability to analyze. Hence, the skill to figure out whether a certain piece of information is relevant or not appears.
However, bilingualism does have its problems. On the earliest stages of the language cognition, one is highly likely to confuse homonyms, i.e., the words that look and sound similar in two languages yet have completely different meanings, such as sensible in English, meaning reasonable , and sensible in French, meaning sensitive. It must be admitted that, when encountering such words, in a vague context, a bilingual person who is only starting to acquire knowledge in one of the two languages, is likely to be confused.
Considering the existing drawbacks, or, to be more exact, a drawback, and the positive aspects mentioned above one must admit that bilingualism rather contributes to acquiring knowledge and skills than hinders it. Even in the case of a misunderstanding, it is possible to solve the problem with the help of an explanation or a wider context.
Hence, it can be concluded that bilingualism is extremely helpful in the cognitive and educational processes. Allowing one access a certain notion or phenomenon from different aspects and different points of view, bilingualism stretches the horizons of the learning process incredibly.
Knowing two languages opens a pool of opportunities for a person, and these opportunities can be used in a number of fields, which means that bilingualism is definitely a positive phenomenon. Despite the numerous questions and problems which it poses, especially when it comes to learning and knowledge acquisition.
PaweB ZieliDskis report is titled Bilingualism and is a brief analysis of bilinguals and who they are. It also helps readers to distinguish a person who is a bilingual from one who is not. According to the Encarta Dictionary (2011), a bilingual refers to a person able to speak two languages easily and naturally.
The Merriam-Webster dictionary also defines a bilingual as a person able to use two languages especially with equal fluency (Merriam-Webster, 2011).
This text aims to find the correct definition of the term bilingual, by identifying the characteristics that define a bilingual, the distinctions caused by the different times a language is learned, and whether learning a language is only about speaking the language or learning the culture from which the language comes from, as well.
ZieliDskis key argument is that a person can become bilingual only after they are able to speak the language fluently. This person must also understand the culture from which the language comes from.
He argues that a person does not have to learn a language from youth. It can be learned in adulthood, although it is much more difficult to master a language as an adult compared to learning it in childhood. ZieliDskis analysis covers his main arguments well, although he could have put more emphasis on covering opposing arguments to his opinions, as well.
Summary
The text is organized into an introduction, two key points and a conclusion. In the introduction, a bilingual person is first defines. A bilingual is a person with a command of two languages. A person that speaks more than two languages, however, is referred to as a multilingual. To what degree, however, has a person got understand a second language in order to be referred to as a bilingual?
Most people have been exposed to a foreign language at one point, perhaps during their education, and are, therefore, able to read an article or write clearly in the second language. However, is that enough for one to be labeled a bilingual?
Can a person who speaks only one language master a foreign language well enough for that person to be referred to as a bilingual, or is it necessary that the second language is only learned from birth or childhood for one to be a proper bilingual? (ZieliDski, 2011)
The final question is whether it is enough to know the grammar of a language simply, or whether it is necessary to master the culture from which the foreign language comes from too.
There are two types of bilinguals, according to Spolsky, the author of a book known as Sociolinguistics (1998). The first type, as defined by Spolsky, is a compound bilingual. This is a bilingual whose second language was learned after the first, and hence, the two languages are closely linked together. The other type is a co-ordinate bilingual. This refers to a bilingual that treats the two different languages as separate entities.
This distinction, however, is controversial, since it is not clear where the distinction lies. Do co-ordinate bilinguals, for example, put different words and objects in different compartments, and do compound bilinguals blend everything between the two languages? Finally, is it necessary to distinguish between different bilinguals?
In response as to whether it is necessary to have someone exposed to a language from the time they are young, most experts say that it is possible to acquire a decent command of a language at a relatively advanced age. It would require a larger effort from the adult, but it is certainly possible. One of the difficulties about learning a language in adulthood is attaining a languages proper accent.
However, an accent can always be developed and perfected over time. It is, therefore, not necessary, as proposed by Spolsky, to divide bilinguals into groups. It is senseless to put a group of people in categories based on criteria that are not particularly clear in the first place.
Another noteworthy point discussed in the text is the issue of culture, and the role it plays in bilingualism. It is unclear whether or not a persons knowledge of a language is considered incomplete if the person does not understand the culture from which the language comes from. A good example about a Polish and an English customer is given.
In Poland, if a customer has to be apologized to, the letter must be long, winded and offer several apologies and an explanation for whatever mistake was made. If the letter is not long enough, the Polish customer perceives that the letter is dishonest. A long letter to an English customer, on the other hand, portrays dishonesty. It is essential in England to be brief and precise when issuing an apology.
As long as an individual has adequate command of a second languages grammar, speech and words, and can speak the language comfortably in a natural environment, that person may be considered bilingual. Knowledge of customs only enhances the competence of the individual. It is not an integral part of measuring a persons bilingual ability.
Critique
Authors Opinions
The text has three main opinions expressed. First, author opposes Spolskis idea of creating two different groups of bilinguals. The idea of having different groups of bilinguals could probably create a better understanding of this subject. However, the definitions given by the Spolski are unclear and are not mutually exclusive. In addition, they are not necessary, since they do not have any effect on the definition of a bilingual.
The second opinion expressed by the author relates to time during ones life when languages are picked up. For one to be a true bilingual, the author believes that it is more beneficial to develop a strong command of the structure of the language, the vocabulary and possibly the traditional accent of the language.
Younger persons have the ability to pick up languages faster than older persons. However, if an older person picks up a strong command of a second language, then he/she is considered to be a bilingual.
Finally, the author has a strong opinion on the cultural context of a language. Although it is not a vital aspect in determining a persons bilingual ability, understanding the culture of the second language enables the speaker to settle in better in a natural environment where the language is spoken.
Are the arguments convincing?
ZieliDskis argument about Spolskis categories of bilinguals is somewhat convincing. First, Spolskis categorization of bilinguals does not have clear-cut definitions and is not credible to use. However, Spolski is not the only author that uses these categories of bilingualism, so it is reasonable to assume that there will be further research and clearer definitions of the two categories.
ZieliDskis argument that there is no need to categorize, however, is a lot more accurate. In the context of defining bilinguals, the two groups do not make much of a difference to what bilingualism is, and what its defining characteristics are.
ZieliDskis argument that languages can be learned and mastered at about any age is a strong point. First, he explores the defining characteristics of a language, particularly describing excellence in language as mastery of vocabulary, grammar and speech. These characteristics can be picked up through constant practice and study, particularly if one places himself in a position where he can access the language effectively.
ZieliDski argues this well. He also notes that it is easier for a child to learn a second language faster than an adult. Children grasp languages faster because of their unique stage in human development.
Finally, culture, as mentioned before, is a definite bonus to learning a second language. The importance of learning the culture from which a language was born is emphasized when a person has to enter that culture and interact with its people. ZieliDskis argument on this matter is valid, and his emphasis on learning the culture of a people is highly sensible.
Are the Conclusions Reasonable?
ZieliDskis first conclusion is that Spolskys argument regarding the categorization of bilinguals is vague and unnecessary. This argument is based on the definition Spolsky gives the different categories. They do not cut a distinct line between any groups of bilinguals.
In addition, the categorization of different types of bilinguals, particularly in such a vague manner, does not make a lot of difference to the subject of bilinguals as a whole. Therefore, ZieliDskis conclusion is valid.
ZieliDski also argues that a language can be picked up and perfected in adulthood, although it is much more difficult than learning the second language at a tender age. Given childrens capability to grasp languages faster, and the challenges adults are likely to face, then he makes a valid conclusion that adults will need more time and practice in order for them to be fully bilingual.
Finally, ZieliDski concludes that it is an added advantage to understand the culture of the people that speak the language, although it is not necessary for one to become a bilingual. Given that being a bilingual is more about speaking the language well than understanding culture, ZieliDskis conclusion is valid.
Conclusion
The overall opinion of the text is that it is well written and argued quite reasonably. It is a reasonable source of information for people looking for basic information on bilingualism. Given that there is remarkably little information and research on the subject, ZieliDskis paper is an invaluable piece material that should be added to the growing library of information related to this matter.
There are two aspects that could improve the paper. First, more research should be done on the various aspects of language that make a bilingual a master of the language.
These include elements like writing skills, prose and academic writing. Secondly, opposing arguments on the three aspects discussed in the paper should be included in the paper. This makes it wholesome and enables a reader to view both sides of the argument and make an informed decision.
Bilingual education is the study that focuses on two languages and this case being Spanish as first language and English as the second language. This kind of study was due to the demands by the Spanish immigrants in the United States that their children learn the English language as well. They wanted a form of an understanding of the language of instruction to help their children create good communication skills in the public schools for better learning environment. For a long time in America, the public schools focused on two languages for instruction, the main one being the English language with the aim of helping students get familiar with the English language (Angela 16).
It has always been available to those students who hardly spoke any English or were non-proficient in English. These students have been referred to as Limited-English-proficient (LEP) or English Language learners (ELL). Though the federal government had attempted to distance itself from this program in the early twenty first century, its implementation has received immense support by both the State governments, local education agencies and even the federal government in United States. Debates over the usefulness of the program has caused a great spectacle with each team arguing why they each think that the program is or is not very useful in the country. This argument had taken an interesting turn especially with the notion that the Mexican American students are the largest language minority in the United States.
Background Of Bilingual Education
According to Cummins (16), bilingual education embraces both the public and private schooling in America. It is not a new phenomenon as its application dates back to almost five hundred years. In 18th and 19th centuries, similar programs were introduced with a specialty to German, French and Scandinavian all of which slowly waned during the two World Wars which saw a decrease in the European Immigration.
The years1958 1968 saw the evolution of Spanish being introduced as a foreign language in the States. During this period, reforms were made in the curriculum programs to embrace improved learning in mathematics, sciences and also foreign languages. This was after the Soviet launched its first earth artificial satellite in 1958. During this period, it also saw many Spanish citizens migrating to America as a result of the Cuba Revolution. They settled in Southern Florida around the Miami area.
The Spanish speaking residents needed to learn and assimilate English as a second language and as a result, bilingual programs were introduced in public schools in 1959. the new program grew and its popularity attracted the interest of the nation as a result of its effectiveness and in 1963, the program was introduced in Southwest.
The state showed support in this program upon the implementation of two Acts of Congress at the time; the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and the Title VII Bilingual Education Act of 1968. it was the Title VII Bilingual Act that brought major changes when it authorized the bilingual local schools to be funded. This was aimed to those students who spoke other languages apart from the English language. In the first year alone after its implementation, it had funded over 76 bilingual programs of students who spoke over 14 different languages (Joel 16).
The Introduction of this Act increased the level of learning both the Spanish and English language and it was later backed by other statutes and even court orders at a later stage. These programs have received a good response throughout the years up to date and its implementation has been embraced even at this era.
Federal Support Of Bilingual Education
Before we embark on our argument as to why the implementation of bilingual education in schools is important, it is important to first see how the federal government has supported this program.
The support dates back when it introduced the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and the Title VII Bilingual Education Act of 1968 as has been discussed earlier. By end 1968, more than 10 states had enacted several statutes that backed the bilingual program and several others had passed legislation. The key role of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act was to fund the program for the poor students who couldnt afford it, the adults who wished to enroll in this programs and even giving support to the teachers of this programs. The Bilingual Education Act enacted shortly afterwards became the backbone of the first Act and the government ensured that the funds were released to schools offering this programs. It demonstrated the need to use the two languages for instruction as a means to enhance the education of the language minorities (Reynaldo 31).
The federal government, after the introduction of the Bilingual Education Act was able to achieve the following; it convinced those states which only took English to be the only language of instruction or those that prohibited the use of any other language other than English to amend or repeal their state laws to accommodate the new program. Secondly, it also signaled its go ahead to adopt the use of non-English languages as languages of instruction to teach the minority students. This was in particular the minority students in the Southwest and Northeast. Lastly, it was able to highlight the problems of these minority students making them recognizable.
However, it should be noted that the federal government did not have a smooth ride to implement these programs to be widely acceptable. It took almost a decade for it to be able to implement these policies and required backing by various policies including court decisions to finally implement the programs.
In 1970, the Department of health, Education and Welfare issued a directive as a result of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 directing all schools in the district to stop any form of discrimination to students not familiar with the English language. The memorandum instructed the schools to take into consideration the students who were limited in the English communication ability and to further put their problems at ease by ceasing to test this students highly in English and lastly, to bring in participation of their parents by communicating to them in the language that they understood.
In 1974, the government was given a further backing by the Supreme Court when they held unanimous decision in the celebrated case of Lau V. Nicholas when it spoke against discrimination in school programs that were conducted exclusively in English. It further stated that the schools had a responsibility of ensuring that the students were helped to overcome their language barrier (Jennifer 22).
The same year saw the introduction of Equal Educational opportunity Act that prevented any kind of language discrimination. The New York City Board of Education which was the biggest school in the nation at the time was sued by an advocacy group known as ASPIRA. The advocacy group argued that the school had failed to provide the necessary education to the Spanish speaking students from Puerto Rican. The advocacy group got their moment when an order was given to all schools to obtain a consent decree requiring them to provide the Spanish students with the bilingual education programs.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was further amended in 1975 to include a provision of bilingual ballots and services pertaining elections so as to include non-English speaking citizens such as the Latinos, Indian-Americans and the Asians. The courts too inserted a provision in the Court Interpreters Act in 1978 requiring interpreters for the defendants who could not understand English to be provided to aid in smooth and fair court proceedings. It also required the state to release funds for the interpreters to be trained.
The campaign for bilingual program has grown ever since with new policies being put in place with the support of the federal government.
Linguistic Benefits For Bilingual Program Implementation
Though many people tend to ignore other languages other than English, there are advantages of being able to learn more than one language. The benefits can be classified into four categories as they will be discussed below.
The first benefit of bilingual learning is for cognitive development. This means that the child is able to enhance his creativity due to the diversity thinking. They further develop verbal abilities that they utilize by learning and appreciating other peoples culture. They also develop excellent listening skills in a bid to learn more and are in a better position to solve a crisis due to their general reasoning (James and Judith 13).
The other benefit is personal appreciation. When one learns another language, it helps that person open up socially and engage in communications with more people. This is especially important for a child who opens up to the outside world by not shying away when around people who cannot express themselves eloquently in English. Learning another language other than English helps the child to enhance their memory and studies have indicated that such children develop good memory than those children who only learn in one language.
The child also acquires Academic advantage over other students. Research has further shown that the students who have engaged themselves in more than one language score a grade higher in examinations. The study further revealed that they scored higher in exams for joining college especially the verbal section tested by Scholastic Aptitude. It also revealed that students who learnt an additional language exhibited better academic performance achieving highly than their counterparts.
Economic benefit is another reason why the program should be implemented. Learning more than one language opens up more career paths to the individual. This has been attributed to the increase of economic growth abroad. Careers such as interpretation or teaching foreign languages require one to have knowledge of an extra language other than English.
Implementation Of Bilingual System In Schools
Though there is no age limit of learning an additional language, it has been encouraged that bilingual programs be introduced in schools so that children are engaged at early age. Immersion programs have been classified into Early immersion, Middle immersion and Late immersion. Early immersion is where the child starts learning the other language between the ages of 5 to 6. The middle immersion engages the child who has attained the ages between 9 to 10 and lastly, the late immersion range between the ages 11 to 14 (Courtney and Catherine 10).
Various reasons have been given for the importance of implementing the program to schools with the most outstanding reason being that young students have the ability to learn how to mimic the native words faster than older people. learning a foreign language require lots of mimicking the native words to come up with a sentence and young children have greater advantage.
The other reason is the ability of young childrens ability to develop the intonation of the native language faster than the older ones. Learning the second language in school also helps to open up the child mind and perform well both academically and socially. They grow up with a critical mind and ability to communicate effectively over the years.
Though many people argue that introducing more than one language to a child creates confusion, research has indicate that to the contrary, it enhances the childs memory and all that the child requires at this age is motivation from his elders.
Challenges Of Bilingual Program Implementation
The implementation of this program has faced many criticisms from various bodies. A movement was established in 1980 with a goal of eliminating all non-English languages in the region. It aimed at ensuring that the state reverted back to the English-only and makes it the sole official language. By 1990, its attempts bore fruits when 17 States gave a declaration that they only recognized English as their universal and official language. It was also successful when the bilingual education policies were reverted in the states of California in 1998 and in its place introduced the Structured English Immersion for all the Limited-English-proficient students. Arizona and Massachusetts followed suit in 2000 and 2002 respectively (Bruno 33).
Most of these movements have painted a bad picture with their arguments that the undocumented Latinos are out to steal the jobs of the American citizens. The program has also been termed as a disaster with many people arguing that it is costly for the state to implement the program. Much of the worry comes from the immigrants being incorporated into the American culture and society and further being immersed into the host country. This has been connected to the politics, most of the critics opting to vote out the program. They have gone to an extent of viewing the bilingual education program as a form of remedial education.
The critics have also gone further to treat the bilingual students as helpless bunch of individuals and they dont recognize the education program as an academic subject. They criticize the mode of teaching the students major subjects like mathematics and sciences in their native language as primitive.
Other critics have argued that bilingual education is not so much of an issue about the language of instruction but rather one is which is based on competing cultures. The culture here is the one between American and Spanish.
The other main challenge facing this implementation is from the state itself. This has been established by only four public schools in the District receiving waivers from the department in a period of two years to initiate these programs.
It has also been argued that most people have attained success without having to undergo the said program. This has acted as a challenge to convince students to undergo the program in which most term as difficult and a waste of time.
Effectiveness of Bilingual Education
Several studies and researches have been conducted to show the effectiveness of bilingual education. According to Virginia (32), the Longitudinal Study of Structured English Immersion Strategy (1984-1991) identified and gave comparisons of different approaches to educate Limited English Proficient students with each language of instruction differing with each other.
The approaches they discussed were the structured immersion, the early-exit transitional bilingual education and lastly, the late-exit transitional bilingual education. In the first approach, all the instructions were mostly given in English language while in the second approach, the initial stages of the student learning were done in the native language and the rest in English with the native language only being used when there is a need to clarify and issue.
The last approach is where the students for most part of their study received their instruction in their native language regardless to whether they were fluent in English. The study results indicated that the students who were using the last approach which is the late-exit transitional bilingual performed higher in their grades as compared to the other two approaches. The study also showed that they all acquired the skills of the English language at the same rate. The same findings were supported by Virginia Collier and Wayne Thomas, both of who conducted a research on the effectiveness of bilingual education. They also stated that students who had received instructions in both languages performed better than their counterparts.
Research has also been conducted on the dual immersion bilingual education programs. This is where instructions are given in both the Spanish and English language. The research showed that the students benefit from the two way program and that they are equally proficient in the English language.
The census conducted in 2002 in United States gave an estimation of over 45 million people in the state whose first language is not English, with almost 60 percent of the total being Spanish speakers. In the released statistics, it showed that 55 percent of the Latinos and Latinas could speak both English and Spanish, 21 percent reporting to only speak the English Language and 24 percent stating that they spoke only Spanish. Armed with this figures, it is therefore apparent that the numbers of Spanish who spoke Spanish as a native language and who could not express themselves properly in English is still very high (Miguel 24).
From the researches that have been conducted, it is clear that effectives of bilingual education has been established and should be encouraged since mainstream and marginal groups benefit much from them.
Conclusion
The critics of bilingual education should first get their facts right before arguing. This kind of education has brought unity in all the students. Those who only spoke Spanish can now understand their counterparts and be able to communicate effectively. The bilingual education should actually be improved and the government introduces new policies to support it and make sure that it still has a future in our state.
Work Cited
Angela, Valenzuela. Why Texas-style Accountability Fails Latino Youth. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004. Print.
Bruno, Rosalind. Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equality in Texas. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987. Print.
Courtney, Cazden and Catherine Snow. English Plus: Issues in the Bilingual Education.
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. London: Sage, 1990. Print.
Cummins, Jim. The Entry and Exit Fallacy in Bilingual Education. NABE Journal, Vol (94)45, 1980.
James, Olson and Judith, Olson. From Trauma to Triumph: Cuban Americans. New York: Twayne Publishers. 1995. Print.
Jennifer, Hook. Diversity and Change in the Institutional Context of Immigrant Adaptation. Demography Vol.39. 2002.
Joel, Perlmann. Historical Legacies: 1840-1920. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volume 608, 1990.
Miguel, San. Language Use and English Speaking Ability. Census 2000 Brief.
Washington: Census Bureau, 2003. Print.
Reynaldo, Macias. Language and Ethnic Classification of Language Minorities. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, Vol 15, 1993.
Virginia, Collier. A Synthesis of Studies Examining Long-Term Language Minority Student Data on Academic Acievement. Bilingual Research Journal, Vol: 17, 1992.
Language policy is currently used by various governments as a tool of protecting the cultural, social and economic values of the state and government. The enhancement of the language policy in this manner defends the countrys official language of a particular region which is threatened by other languages. Language bilingualism is a current practise conducted by various states in the establishment of two languages to act as communicating tools (Ferguson, 2006).
The two languages are established as a national policy to facilitate a communication platform amongst different people from various cultural backgrounds (Ruiz, 2004). The policy adaptation involves the representation of the most commonly used and accepted languages to act as communicating tool by the population of the given state or country. Bilingualism has been effective in different countries and states. In addition, diversity in languages enhances development and growth.
Definition of Language Policy
Language policy stands for the facilitation of governing policies designed by a country to ensure the use of a common language amongst its citizens. Language policies have been used by different countries over time in the establishment of a communicating tool that would join the citizens to a common and cohesive goal. Preservation and protection of linguistic and cultural diversity in the 21st Century is vital according to the research illustrated by politicians, writers, leaders, artists and by the human rights and linguistics activists (Shohamy, 2006).
The current languages spoken word wide stands at approximately six thousand languages. These languages are a threat of being eroded and diminished in the 21st Century. There are numerous factors that affect the usage and existence of the various human languages.
The use of the language in formal learning and communication is the key determinant of the importance and effectiveness of a language. Some languages are very essential in the learning and communication practices of various people in offices, businesses, institutions and in the government (Ferguson, 2006). This means that these languages are vital in the communication of the entire region due to its diversity.
The size of the languages native speaker also indicates the general usage and importance of the language to the people of the entire region, state or country. The languages used by the biggest percentage of the population acts as a common communicating ground amongst the population (Mackey, 2009). The adaptation of a common language used by the majority of the population leads to the desire to know and learn the same language from the other smaller tribes.
Individual and personal reasons lead people to learn and embrace foreign languages which are commonly used in their region so that they can also be part of the dialogues and conversations in the region. Similarly, the tribes that have low population numbers fail to interact effectively with other regional or country members due to communication barrier. The result of erosion in languages usually takes place when the low population languages are neglected and adaptation of new languages enhanced.
The economic and social weight of majority of the speakers of a particular language determines the effectiveness of language policies. The language can have a small percentage in terms of its usage and population but the availability of elites who use or uphold that particular language leads to a clear determination of whether the language is recognised by a particular state or government. According to the research conducted by various scholars, every language has a right of protection, recognition and establishment in the various language policies established by the states. The facilitation of this effect governs the minority population from oppression and discrimination.
In addition, the language acts as one of the tools that moderate the cultural, economic and social values of a certain group of people, region and country (Shohamy, 2006). In addition, language policy is currently used by various governments as a tool of protecting the cultural, social and economic values of the state and government. The current languages spoken word wide stands at approximately six thousand languages. This means that these languages are vital in the communication of the entire region due to its diversity. The size of the languages native speaker also indicates the general usage and importance of the language to the people of the entire region, state or country.
The knowledge of different languages acts as an added advantage to international trade, foreign exchange and globalisation. The 21st Century has resulted to the realisation of diversified markets through international trade and globalisation. Involvement of students in international learning and education is also a tool illustrating on the importance of bilingualism (Ruiz, 2004). Students learn different languages to enhance their communication with other students and with business associates in future.
The diversity of a person in languages acts as a fundamental establishment because the current century needs people who have diverse communication skills. In addition, investors from various countries and states have acknowledged the benefits of diversification. This has resulted in growth of international institutions, organisations and companies across the world with the aim of diverse facilitation of goods and services with the aim of customer satisfaction, growth and profit accumulation.
Language Policy and Goals
Language policy consists of different significant roles in the establishment of an industrious and cohesive state and country. The language policies act as fundamental tools in the establishment of barriers of language erosion from external involvement, international trade and globalisation (Ricento, 2000). Research indicates that languages are the key contributors of the cultural heritage of a certain region.
Consequently, language policy is currently used by various governments as a tool of protecting the cultural, social and economic values of the state and government. Some languages are very essential in the learning and communication practices of various people in offices, businesses, institutions and in the government. There are numerous languages that exist in the different parts of the world and are not recognised or established. Some of these languages are yet to be provided in writing because they are not officially recognised.
According to Spolsky, languages which are termed or seen as endangered go through segregation because of lack of formal and informal support and integration (Spolsky, 2009). The distinction between planning and policy making results in an effective realisation of language policies that acknowledge diversity in languages and facilitate a mutual relation among different languages. The domain of the various languages is dependable on the social and economic status.
There are languages that are seen as universal because of the ancient political and economic influences. For instance, some countries adopted their colonies official language as their own official language. The adaptation of foreign languages as the key and formal language in states and countries with low social and economic standards resulted from colonialism and slavery. On the other hand, the locals who were subjected to colonialism and slavery by the countries with huge social and economic standards had to learn the language of their colonies.
Communication between the colonies and their subjects had to exist thus the facilitation of education facilities to enhance proper communication grounds between the two parties. Slavery and colonisation therefore acts as an essential element which facilitated the learning of the major languages (Mackey, 2009). In addition, the presence of various languages that are recognised worldwide and practised in various parts signifies the need to have bilingualism and multilingualism.
The state or government can be willing to set language policies to protect the cultural, social and economic values of the local citizens. However, the maintenance of the local languages depends entirely on the native language speakers.
The government sets the different policies in the governance of the various languages and their corresponding policies. Languages are vital in the communication of the entire region due to its diversity. The size of the languages native speaker also indicates the general usage and importance of the language to the people of the entire region, state or country. The twenty first Century has resulted to the realisation of diversified markets through international trade and globalisation. Every language has a right of protection, recognition and establishment in the various language policies established by the states (UNESCO, 2008).
The language acts as one of the tools that moderate the cultural, economic and social values of a certain group of people, region and country. The diversity of a person in languages acts as a fundamental establishment because the current century needs people who have diverse communication skills. The language policies act as fundamental tools in the establishment of barriers of language erosion from external involvement, international trade and globalisation.
Reasons for Language Policy
There are numerous reasons behind the establishment of language policies. The reasons depend on the diversity of the language, population using the language, amongst other factors. The importance of a language in the facilitation of communication and learning processes of the population of a state or country acts an essential determination and reason behind the establishment of language policies (Ricento, 2000).
Research shows that the cultural diversity and the heritage of the various communities and regions depend mostly on their local languages. The governance of the language policies by the state offers an essential obligation to different languages to practise indigenous cultural norms and communication without external pressure and interference. On the other hand, the facilitation of language policy of bilingualism provides room for international growth and development. The use of two languages in communication and learning enhances on the diversity of knowledge and business opportunities.
The availability of international trade, globalisation and international relations gives a platform for growth and development. The state should therefore provide room for communication and learning to enhance on the different improvement levels in the social and economic standards. According to UNESCO, a close relationship between countries communicating in different languages provides a base for growth and development (UNESCO, 2008).
The achievement of this is realised due to lack of communication hazards and the embracement of the different cultures and languages. The recognition of language adaptation by a country in the learning and education institutions results in improved social and communication standards among various countries. Similarly, the levels of investors increase with the increase in goods and services. The availability of numerous sources of goods and services ultimately results in the reduction of prices thus bridging the gap between the rich and the poor.
Challenges and solutions for Language Policy
The government or state faces various challenges in the implementation of the language policies. The enactment of language policies to limit the erosion and extinction of languages and provide limitless boundaries in the use of different languages acts as a challenge to the different governmental entities. The native speakers in most cases fail to embrace their relative languages and opt to adopt the internationally recognised languages in communication.
The research conducted by various research practitioners illustrates that the different local languages will start disappearing in the 21st century (Wright, 2007). Globalisation and the presence of free international trade have greatly contributed to the adaptation of certain foreign languages to assist in communication between citizens of different countries and economic and social background. The presence of elites from local languages determines the recognition of their native languages. Nepotism, corruption and other related factors contribute greatly to the allocation of language policies. Bureaucracy is another factor that leads to adverse effects on the facilitation of effective and efficient language policies.
The proper channels should be followed in the facilitation of language policies of individual states and governments. This provides a clear and concise formulation of the long term policies that lead to cohesion and understanding amongst the different users. On the other hand, the acknowledgement of the diverse languages and their individual significance should facilitate a motive from the government or state. The above factors can effectively act as solutions to the various problems generated by the enactment of language polices.
Arabization and Language Policy
Arabization which is at times referred to as Arabisation depicts the art of non-Arabs embracing the cultural values, learning Arabic and embracement of the Arab identity. The realisation of Arabization developed in the seventh century where the Arab culture and language was established to oppose the Arab Christians who were natives of the lands conquered by Arab Muslims (Wright, 2007). The Arabs intermarried with other communities and hence the growth and spread of Arabic and Arabs worldwide.
The Arabic language has gained recognition over the past decades due to the availability of diverse and numerous job opportunities and economic and social benefits. Arab countries are recognised for their fertility in crude oil and petroleum products. This makes the Arabian countries and states an economic attraction to many citizens from various states.
The presence of foreigners in Arab countries results in the need to teach and learn Arabic as well as English, Spanish, French and other languages. The connection between Arabization and language policy lies in the fact that there are numerous foreign visitors that work in the companies, organisations and institutions in the relevant Arab countries. Learning and communication is a vital aspect in the economy and social status of the Arabian countries.
Consequently, the different states use language policies to enhance on the communication, learning and teaching practises within their individual boarders. In addition, the availability of international and foreign learning institutions provides room for education advancement (Spolsky, 2009). The foreign students benefit in advancing their studies in the Arab countries through language polices. Similarly, the Arabs benefit through the establishment of language policies because they also learn foreign languages to enhance communication between them and other citizens from foreign countries (Tollefson, 2006).
Policy of Bilingual Education
Language bilingualism is a current practise conducted by various states in the establishment of two languages to act as communicating tools. The two languages are established as a national policy to facilitate a communication platform amongst different people from various cultural backgrounds (Hornberger, 2006). Language policies have been used by different countries over time in the establishment of a communicating tool that would join the citizens to a common and cohesive goal. Preservation and protection of linguistic and cultural diversity in the 21st Century is vital according to the research illustrated by politicians, writers, leaders, artists and by the human rights and linguistics activists.
Conclusion
There are numerous challenges and benefits affiliated with language policies and bilingualism. The state or government should enhance the enactment of useful and long-term language policies without corruption, nepotism bureaucracy or related factors. In addition, the adaptation of language policy involves the representation of the most commonly used and accepted languages to act as communicating tool by the population of the given state or country (Hornberger, 2006).
The result of erosion in languages usually takes place when the low population languages are neglected and adaptation of new languages enhanced. Similarly, the levels of investors increase with the increase in goods and services. The availability of numerous sources of goods and services ultimately results in the reduction of prices thus bridging the gap between the rich and the poor. The governance of the language policies by the state offers an essential obligation to different languages to practise indigenous cultural norms and communication without external pressure and interference.
References
Ferguson, G. (2006). Language planning and education. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Hornberger, N. H. (2006). Unpeeling the onion: Language planning and policy and the ELT professional. Tesol Quarterly, 30(3), 401-427.
Mackey, W. F. (2009). Language policy and language planning. Journal of communication, 29(2), 48-53.
Ricento, T. (2000). Historical and theoretical perspectives in language policy and planning. Journal of sociolinguistics, 4(2), 196-213.
Ruiz, R. (2004). Orientations in language planning. NABE journal, 8(2), 15-34.
Shohamy, E. (2006). Language Policy: Hidden agendas and new approaches. Oxon: Routledge.
Spolsky, B. (2009). Language Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tollefson, J. W. (2006). Critical theory in language policy: An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method. NY: Blackwell Publishing.
UNESCO. (2008). Advocacy Brief on Mother Tongue-based Teaching and Education for Girls. Bangkok: UNESCO.
Wright, S. (2007). Language Policy and Language Planning: From Nationalism to Globalisation. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
The analyzed article describes a study carried out by Thai researchers to evaluate the English vocabulary acquisition in bilingual students. The researchers use a fifteen-minute interview and a five-point scale to assess the learners performance. The principal emphasis is put on the lexical side of the language; thus, the researchers carry out a detailed analysis of the vocabulary units that the students employ. The researchers come to a conclusion that the length of studying plays a critical role in vocabulary acquisition. They assume that the relevant practice should be implemented in schools for regular evaluation of bilingual learners speech.
Research Question
In the framework of the relevant study, researchers from the Rangsit University, Ruja Pholsward and Donrutai Boonprasitt were determined to estimate the English vocabulary acquisition of primary and secondary students. The researchers focused on bilingual students, thus their key target was to identify the strengths and limitations that such learners experience in using English vocabulary (Pholsward & Boonprasitt, 2015, p.8).
Investigated Population
The examined group was comprised of the students from the Satit Bilingual School. The researchers focused on primary and secondary-level learners; therefore, there were 34 primary students and 18 secondary students participating in the study. The selection criteria implied that a participant was supposed to have an experience of a minimum of a three-year experience of learning English. Pholsward and Boonprasitt, likewise, point out that all the students participated in the research with the consent received from their parents and guardians.
Methodology
To complete the ultimate goal of the study, the researchers employed two instruments. The first tool was represented by a questionnaire and was aimed at estimating the communication skills of the participants. The survey contained fifteen questions and was carried out in the form of an oral interview. The second tool was a five-point scale employed to estimate the students performance during the interviews. Therefore, the interview served to be an organizational instrument, while the scale played the role of an assessment tool.
It is necessary to note that the discussions were organized with the participation of two interviewers: a bilingual Thai speaker and a native speaker of English. The interviewers applied the relevant scale to measure the lexical, syntax, discursive, interactive, and strategic aspects of a students speech. The key emphasis, in the meantime, was put on the lexical side of the language by the initially set research target.
One should necessarily note that the researchers worked out precise criteria defining every level of a five-point scale: full, functional, moderate, sufficient, and marginal. Moreover, to increase the level of accuracy, all the interview data was first recorded and, then, transcribed. This two-stage approach enabled the researchers to avoid the contortion of facts.
Findings
The analysis of the data collected in the course of the fifteen-minute interviews let Pholsward and Boonprasitt generate a series of valuable conclusions. Thence, the principal finding of the relevant study resides in the fact that secondary students show a wider lexical variety than primary learners, whereas their conceptual complexity is relatively equal. Therefore, the duration of learning proved to be significant for a students performance according to the research results, the students with a three-year experience of learning had no limitations in listening and speaking, while the students with a one- or two-year experience would rather show sufficient or marginal level for every aspect.
Another critical finding that the researchers describe reveals the primary students intention to receive extra clarifications and express their thoughts in a maximally clear and illegible manner. The relevant tendency is particularly typical of the primary learners from level 2. The researchers note that these students employed more words in their speech, and were generally more talkative. Therefore, this group of learners showed a high willingness to employ the maximal number of vocabulary units in their responses.
Practical Implications
From the pedagogical perspective, relevant research is of significant importance. First, and foremost, the researchers have emphasized the necessity to evaluate the vocabulary acquisition of bilingual learners on the regular basis. Secondly, they worked out an efficient framework for performing such evaluation; hence, they introduced brief interviews carried out by both bilingual and native speakers. Moreover, Pholsward and Boonprasitt managed to develop an efficient and valid scale aimed at measuring various aspects of learners speech. Therefore, the researchers offered a detailed description of the evaluating procedure and the tools that should be employed.
One might assume that the suggested approach can be successfully implemented in any school to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the students speech. Furthermore, Pholsward and Boonprasitt provided an explicit literature review that enables one to receive a full and precise idea of the research question. One might assume that the data collected in the course of the study might be potentially employed in further research for other levels of bilingual students.
Personal Evaluation
In conclusion, one might note that the offered evaluation method represents an effective alternative to the classic tests that are typically used in schools for estimating bilingual learners performance. One should essentially point out that the relevant practice is to be carried out regularly so that a teacher can track the students progress and help them eliminate the limitations.
Reference List
Pholsward, R., & Boonprasitt, D. (2015). English Vocabulary Acquisition of Bilingual Learners at the Primary and Secondary Levels. PASAA Journal, 49(1), 1-37.
The contemporary professional life requires specific attention to additional skills and capabilities that can distinguish an individual from others. Bilingualism is the ability to speak two languages fluently or partially that allows an individual to communicate with native speakers. The apparent advantage of this capability provides a person with an opportunity to work in diverse cultural environments. This paper aims to examine bilingualism in professional life and study evidence regarding the benefits of this cognitive ability.
Importance of Bilingualism
The importance of bilingualism at the professional level is displayed through the changes in society as a whole and the advantages that are speaking two languages has. According to Walsh (2015), bilingualism was proven to enhance ones executive functions such as problem-solving, reasoning, and attention. The experiments conducted with bilingual children showcased their enhanced ability to resolve tasks when compared to kids who only spoke one language. Moreover, Walsh (2015) states that this skill improves cognitive skills, resulting in better memory functioning in older aged people. While these elements mainly refer to the personal benefits that bilingualism provides, they can also be applied at work.
One can argue that the current environment and innovation enable easy cooperation with people from other states or even continents. Lazar (2018) states that the changes affecting the global economy demand individuals to be able to speak more than one language to communicate. In business, this is especially necessary due to the growing importance of multinational companies. Lazar (2018) argues that in the future, the workforce will be heterogeneous in terms of culture and language due to globalization. Therefore, a bilingual individual can bring more benefits to companies in the modern world. Yi and You (2018) state that the development of foreign trade in various countries has accelerated the demand for international bilingual business professionals in various countries (p. 248). According to my personal reality, academic perspective, and professional experience, bilingualism provides many advantages. Individuals who know more than one language can communicate with a culturally diverse population, which expands their knowledge and understanding of the world.
Despite the advantages of bilingualism that were discussed above, there are several issues outlined by the recent research. Folke, Ouzia, Bright, De Martino, and Filippi (2016) conclude that bilinguals are unable to assess and evaluate their performance accurately. This issue is connected with the concept of metacognition, which is ones self-awareness, which appears to be less developed in individuals who speak more than one language. Konnikova (2015) argues that the current research on bilingualism and its advantages provides partial support for the argument of its benefits. Therefore, more large-scale studies are required to determine the validity and importance of this skill in both personal and professional life. However, regardless of the impact of bilingualism on cognitive abilities, metacognition, and resolving tasks, it is evident that speaking a second language provides professional advantages because the person is able to work with individuals from other countries and understand their rationale for actions.
Conclusion
Overall, this paper defined bilingualism and provided evidence suggesting the importance of it in ones professional life. Research suggests that this skill contributes to the development of several cognitive functions. Additionally, the changing environment of the professional world requires one to have the ability to communicate with people in different countries. However, the downside of this skill is the lack of self-awareness and substantial evidence supporting the conclusions regarding the positive impact of bilingualism.
References
Folke, T., Ouzia, J., Bright, P., De Martino, B., & Filippi, R. (2016). A bilingual disadvantage in metacognitive processing. Cognition, 150, 119-132. Web.
Lazar, M. (2018). The bilingual advantage in the global workplace. Web.
Yi, L., & You, Y. (2018). A study on bilingual talents cultivation model of international trade practices from the perspective of production-education integration and school-enterprise cooperation. Paper presented at the 8Th International Conference On Education, Management, Information, And Management Society (EMIM 2018). Web.
Bilingual education is a programme that is designed to offer education to foreigners or minority groups in their native language. This system has been in place for many years now and dates back to the 1960s.
Its history is as follows: In the 1960s, there was a high influx of foreigners who were Spanish and Mexican. They realized that there was a problem with the current education system because most of the Spanish students were quitting school. The Spaniards did not find it relevant as they couldnt understand what was being taught. They decided to protest against this. The American president at that time gave them a listening ear. He signed an Act allowing non English speakers to be taught in their native language and to broaden their horizons. This law was reviewed in the 1970s to rectify its anomalies and to make it more efficient.
A number of questions and arguments have been put forward for or against these programmes. In this system, English is a secondary language geared to making students catch up with their academics until they can get comfortable enough to join mainstream English classes.
What l think about bilingual education
Bilingual education is a step backward in our education system
There are plenty of critics in the country opposing this programme and here are the disadvantages;
First of all, students are denied the opportunity to improve their language skills. The question most foreign students normally ask themselves is; what is the need of improving my English when l can still acquire knowledge in another language? Consequently these students relax and may never be fluent in English.
During its inception, bilingual education was formed with the main aim of preparing non- English students to fit into English speaking classes. But this good intention has remained theoretical. In reality, students simply go on and on in bilingual classes without graduating into mainstream classes (Glodis, 2000).
Bilingual classes bring about isolation of students attending those classes. In most schools offering this programme, bilingual classes are situated at a totally different location from other mainstream classes. This makes the minorities appear different and other students may not view them as part of the school. In other words, discrimination may spring up. This is because students become dependent on their native language and cannot blend in with the rest of society (Rosell, 1996).
Bilingual education does not allow students to enjoy benefits of both worlds. This is because students only enjoy scientific, historical and literary works in their own language. They are not able to have a deeper understanding of other peoples culture and way of thinking as views will only be from one side.
Foreign students who attend mainstream classes develop a sense of tolerance of other peoples culture. They get to interact with native students and learn their way of life. However, this is not the case with bilingual programmes.
Bilingual education encourages students to learn only one language. If these students were in mainstream classes, they would be proficient in two languages. Research has shown that most students who can speak two languages or more have a high intelligence quotient. This is because students become great thinkers since they associate two words with one object. Bilingual education thus slows down or prevents foreign students from learning two languages and exploiting their full academic potential.
If a student attends a bilingual class during his/her entire stay in college, then he/she will have fewer employment opportunities in the country or in the community. This is because most industries like banking, accountancy, marketing, law, medicine and education all involve reading and writing English. Besides, one needs to interact with clients or with fellow staff members. However, this is not possible when students are not proficient in English. It should be noted; that students may be able to speak English but may have a problem writing or reading it properly hence they will be unable to apply the skill acquired from a bilingual school (Rosell, 1996).
Foreign students attending mainstream classes have a higher self esteem than those attending bilingual classes. This is because research has shown that students who are proficient in two languages or more feel better about themselves. They are confident in both languages and feel like they have an added advantage over their monolingual counterparts (Glodis, 2000).
It has also been shown that students attending bilingual classes have not shown any academic improvement. For example in the state of California, it was found that 17 % of Spanish speaking students drop out of school while in mainstream classes the number is lower than this amount by seven percent. It was also found that lees than five percent of students graduate from bilingual classes to mainstream classes. The duration by these students is also excessively high. It was found that some students took about 7 years to complete a course in a bilingual school than the normal 3 years in a mainstream class.
The study further reinforces the idea of failure by the bilingual programme in that, test scores of foreigners in bilingual classes are lower than those foreigners in mainstream classes hence showing that the education system is ineffective (Rodriguez, 1998).
The government is spending a huge sum of money on this system which doesnt even yield results. This therefore means that state resources are going to waste.
Teachers in bilingual classes are paid much more than those teaching regular classes. This is no small amount; it can be about four thousand dollars more than regular teachers. These teachers have to be trained and the government has to invest so much just to hire them. Millions are going into this programme yet no tangible results are coming from it. Unless the bilingual system is improved, it will simply be viewed as a waste of resources that could have been more useful in another industry (August, 1997).
The bilingual system has brought about a lot of discontent from parents of these foreign students. This because they know that one cannot excel without proper English knowledge. Some Latin speaking parents in Los Angeles have protested over their childrens attendance of bilingual classes. This is an indication that it is a failing system if the people it was designed to help are now protesting against it.
Bilingual education divides the country ethnically. This is an impediment to the unity of the country. Language is a symbol used to unify a country. If one mentions the country United States of America, then it is immediately associated with English speakers. This will not be the case if immigrants are allowed to live in the country with scanty knowledge of the language. Latinos will keep to themselves, Russians will keep to themselves and so will the natives (Glodis, 2000).
English is a secondary language in these bilingual classes. Yet linguists argue that language is best learnt in a free environment from peers. However, this is not the case in these schools. A language is quite difficult to learn when it is taught in a matter of fact way within a classroom setting. If foreign students attended class with plenty of English speakers, then they would learn the language very fast.
A number of factors have been put forward to support the bilingual education system. Some of the advantages of bilingual education include;
Bilingual education helps students with little or no English skills to acquire knowledge. This means that if the programme was not in existence, then foreign students would have to first learn the language proficiently before they can start going to school. This would be a great a hindrance to their learning process.
Teaching students in a language they understand, improves academic performance. This is because students will not have to waste valuable time trying to figure out what concepts mean or translate facts then understand them. They will be focusing on the subject matter and not on the language used or what it could possibly mean in their native language.
Bilingual education instills a sense of pride in ones culture. Students attending these classes will feel that their languages are good enough to be used as a medium of exchange. It makes them feel confident that their culture is not inferior. Also, because English is still taught in these classes, then students are able to appreciate the diversity of culture in the country (August, 1997).
Bilingual education gives foreign students a sense of identity. They do not feel like they have totally lost themselves in other peoples way of life. This gives them a sense of security and purpose in life.
Conclusion
It is quite clear from the above arguments that the bilingual education system has not succeeded. It had quite noble intentions at its inception but this has not to come to pass. It has instead bred a group of ill equipped students, who have very limited knowledge of English, are dependent on their languages, perform poorly in class and have no place in the real world outside their schools.
It should be noted however, that the spirit behind the bilingual system should be borrowed and used to implement a new programme. The purpose of establishing a bilingual system was to integrate foreign students who had little knowledge in English and to provide them with an opportunity of acquiring knowledge regardless of their shortcomings.
There was a system of swim or float in the 1970s, where students who couldnt fit in with the countries culture were secluded. This is abit too harsh.
My recommendation would be a new system called immersion classes. These classes have already begun in some parts of the country. They involve teaching foreigners the English language and other lessons or crucial facts about the American society. These are skills for life. They will enable foreign students to integrate easily and quickly into the country. The classes will pick specific issues that are important for survival and students need not spend a lot of time in these institutions. They can be perceived as bridging courses that will give these students a chance to access equal opportunities in the education system, workplace and in their social lives.
References
August (1997); Improving Schooling for Language Minority Children: A Research Agenda, National Academy Press.
Rosell, K. (1996): The effectiveness of bilingual education. , a journal by Rossell Keith.
Glodis, G. (2000); Current Bilingual Education Fails, MA Telegram
Rodriguez, G. (1998); English lesson in California: The Nation
There has been a very controversial debate in U.S, where Americans and government officials have been arguing over the implementation of laws of English only . Those opposing the implementation of these laws propose that, bilingualism should be allowed in various official operations, which is prohibited by laws of English only . Due to lack of enough support against bilingualism, law that would require English to be the only language for official use in U.S was not passed. Therefore, these laws were and are still being implemented at state levels in some states in America.
Introduction
According to (Sandra12), laws that require English to be the only official language that should be in U.S were introduced at the state level as well as the federal level in 1990s. These laws required all public operations in U.S government and that of its states to be conducted in English including resolutions, elections, judicial proceedings, orders and records. Laws that require English to be the only language that should be used in U.S came as an opposition to the decision that allowed other languages to be used in U.S. Previously, the Supreme Court of U.S and the Act of Civil Rights had mandated a support of language for those students who were not proficient in English. This decision by Supreme Court stated that, it would be discriminative to provide instructions to students in English language only. Discrimination of students due to their sex, race, national origin as well as color was prohibited. For learning to be effective, students had to be in a position to communicate with their teachers as well as other students (Sandra13). This rendered requirements for the possession of English skills before getting engaged in regular learning a very unfair decision for students who were not proficient in English. Up to this day, there is a continuing debate on whether it is fair to have English language as the only language that should be used in U.S official operations.
According to (Sandra14-15), supporters of bilingualism argue that, it is necessary for students be confident in expressing themselves in their different native languages prior to the introduction of English curriculum. However, supporters of laws that require English to be the only language that should be used in U.S and its states argue that, if students who lack proficiency in English are made to learn English as early as possible, it will benefit them in learning as well as in communication processes later in life. These laws of English only were fueled in 1980s by a movement that was opposed to bilingualism and arguments of this political movement were supported by cultural conservatives, where the use of English language only was said to result to social cohesion. Laws of English only regard bilingualism as a source of social separation on ethnical grounds. However, the movement that was in support of English only laws lost power when it was realized that, there was a connection between members of the movement with organizations that advocated the control of population in U.S as well as immigration restrictions.
It was not long before support for laws of English only gained support again, which took place in 1990s. This was followed by the passing of an Act that empowered English language which proposed restriction of bilingualism in official operations including instructions to students who were not fluent in English. However, it was not possible to have the law of English only passed since there lacked national laws that restricted bilingualism. This meant that, since it was not possible to make demands for English as the only language to be used in U.S part of law, it would not be included in the constitution. Therefore, it was left to individual state governments to impact the demands in their own states which have brought about heated debates from the supporters of bilingualism. (Michael 38-40)
Debate on Laws of English Only And Bilingualism at the State Level
According to (Jill 44-47), a number of states have already made English the only language that is used in their official operations among them being California which introduced this practice in 1998. This was after the supporters of laws of English only exceeded those of bilingualism, which restricted programs of bilingual education from being carried out in Californias public schools.
Students who lacked proficiency in English were required to go through English immersion programs before being accepted in courses that were taught in English. This did not go unchallenged since California had registered the most number of students who were not proficient in English than other U.S states and were therefore in support of bilingualism. This opposition resulted to a challenge of the proposition of Laws of English only in federal as well as state courts.
Implementation of laws of English only in some of U.S states have left a large number of elderly immigrants who are not proficient in English to find it hard to vote due to lack of provision for bilingual ballots. Bilingualism supporters maintain that, the provision for campaign materials in other languages would allow voters who are not proficient in English to be more informed before engaging themselves in voting processes. On the other hand, it is argued that, a single official language which in this particular case is English would help U.S government in unifying its citizens who are diversified. This has been in response to a census that was conducted in1900 that revealed that, thirty two million people in U.S live in households where other languages are spoken and fourteen million people out of the large number are not proficient in English. (Carol 67)
In 1995, Bob Dole addressed attendants of an American convention stating that, the restoration of Americas greatness would demand for more than bringing back the countrys defenses. He argued that, Americans have to revisit the concepts that feature the meaning of true American citizenship. He sited an example where English needs to be taken as the countrys official language, requiring its citizens to put aside other languages that bind them to their native countries and become united in one language for the whole of Americas population. Members of a particular advocacy group referred to as U.S English, have a different proposal from other supporters of laws of English only as they argue that, it would be appropriate to have English as the primary language of U.S but it should not be used as the exclusive language. They continue to argue that only official proceedings should have English as the only language used, giving allowances for bilingualism in some places like police stations, hospitals, tourist sites and emergency rooms. (Taylor 47-48)
Supporters of bilingualism argue that implementation of laws that require English as the only language to be spoken is a reaction that would portray hostility to the rapidly increasing number of immigrants who are entering U.S day in day out. This accusation was supported by Bill Clinton when he was addressing a group of Hispanic Caucus. Clinton said that, he was not against English being an official language for America, but was worried whether young children who migrated to America would be in a position to comprehend other things that were taught in English. He was also worried whether those hardworking Americans who pay taxes but are not proficient in English would be in a position to cast their votes like any other citizen of America. In 1995, Parris who was a Governor of Maryland opposed a bill that required the state of Maryland to have English as the only language that would be used in official operations of the state. Implementation of such a bill would cause separation among Americans living in Maryland (Carol 68-71)
(Rosa 25-27) found out that, another instance was in the state of Arizona where supporters of bilingualism sued Arizonas Governor together with state officials who were in support of laws of English only so as to stop them from enforcing that law in their state. Utah is another state that had laws of English only integrated in their states constitution which took place in 2000. However, it was attacked by voters who pointed out some areas where Utahs lawmakers had not taken consideration of. They argued that, law had provided some exceptions where bilingualism was allowed, among them being public health as well as public education. These measures were to be read to prohibit an exercise of bilingualism in Utah. This made the union of Civil liberties sue officials who had passed the law, where the union represented nonprofit organizations and government employees who were to be negatively affected by the law. This led to ruling that put limitations to the provisions of that law by a district court in Utah which argued that, the law should not limit the use of bilingualism among elected officials as well as government employees.
Conclusion
Even as more states continue to carry out negotiations that are supposed to culminate in the implementation of laws of English only in their respective states, debate on whether this practice will unite Americans or separate them still continues. (Taylor 49) Supporters of bilingualism argue that, United States naturalization of its citizens can be achieved without having everyone using English as their language of communication; be it immigrants or indigenous U.S citizens. On the contrary, supporters of laws of English only argue that, it is only through the use of a uniform language that Americans will be united since according to them, bilingualism divides Americans on ethnical grounds. It would be appropriate for the federal government to intervene and bring the debate to an end where Americans should also exercise some level of flexibility in order to have universal unity (Guadalupe18-22).
References
Carol L. Conflict, identity and cultural pluralism in comparative perspective: Oxford University Press, 2001 pp 67-71.
Guadalupe S. The rise and fall of federal bilingual education in the United States: University of North Texas press, 2004 pp18-22.
Jill N. American Cultural pluralism and law: Greenwood publishing group, 1996 pp 44-47.
Michael A. Languages in a globalizing world: Cambridge University Press, 2003 pp 38-40.
Rosa C. Bilingual education: ABC-CLIO 2002 pp 25-27.
Sandra D. Language rights and the law in the United States: Multilingual Matters, 2003 pp12-15.
Taylor J. California politics, propositions and people of color: Greenwood publishing Group, 2001 pp 47-49.
In his article Viva Bilingualism, James Fallows analyzes such issue as bilingualism in the United States, in particular, the author argues that two or even more languages can successfully co-exist in America and it will not pose any threat to the dominance of English. In addition to that, he believes that there are some myths or stereotypes about bilingualism, which should definitely be broken. His overarching thesis is that multilingual community can effectively function and the members of such community will have no difficulties, while interacting and communicating with one another. Overall, it seems that his argument is well-grounded because recent research findings in linguistics have proved that under certain circumstances, a person can master two languages and he or she will be able to use them efficiently. Moreover, there are many regions, in which people speak several languages and there is no tension or animosity among them. Nonetheless, at some moments, Fallows tries to be very non-committal and prefers not to express his opinion about rather stressing problems. Apart from that, some statements, which the journalist makes, are not quite evidence-based.
James Fallows says that many countries are promoting bilingualism and such policy does not have any detrimental effects on the society. The author draws such example as Japan, where many people are willing to learn English; however, it does not mean that Japanese has come out of use. Besides, the journalist mentions Scandinavian countries, like Sweden or Norway, where people may speak several languages, apart from their own, and it does not cause any problem or difficulty. These cases illustrate the authors point. The thing is that now many politicians in the United States believe that bilingualism will eventually result in separatism or make the population of the country ghettoized. The author points out that this belief is based on common misconception, because separatism is cause mostly by governmental and administrative controversies. James Fallows says that the United States will never have its own Quebec. Nevertheless, we need to say that the author overlooks the dynamics of emigration process in the United States, for instance, according to recent estimations, there are approximately 50 million immigrants in the United States, they can be either legal or illegal, and the majority of them come from Spanish-speaking countries. In the near future, this number will definitely increase. So, Is it not possible that the dominance of English may suffer a severe blow? Certainly, it will not happen soon, but in thirty or forty years, the situation may dramatically change. James Fallows compares the United States to Japan, but these countries are similar in terms of cultural and linguistic tradition. The land of the Rising Sun has always been more occlusive than America, and Japanese is spoken by ninety five percent of the population, whereas in the US there is no such unanimity.
Furthermore, he says that in such countries as Canada, Belgium or Sri Lanka, the problems, which arise in connection with bilingualism, are primarily motivated by tense relations between the ethnic groups. The situation is drastically different in America. Immigrants are trying to adapt themselves to the new conditions and the best way to do it is to learn English. James Fallows demonstrates that that there is no need to be afraid of Spanish, French or other languages. He says that that English is not a fragile blossom, about to be blown apart by the blasts from the Spanish-speaking world (Fallows, p 261). Again, we need to stress the idea, that in the long run, English may turn into a fragile blossom because, even now a great number of immigrants do not see the reason, why they should learn this language. If the government gives official status to other languages, we may not speak about any English supremacy.
It seems the journalist carefully avoids the problem of linguistic ghetto. Naturally, he says that many people, who have come to America from other regions, are willing to learn English, yet we cannot forget that there are many Spanish-speaking communities, or even ghettos to be more exact, and we cannot say that they have effectively integrated into the mainstream of American life (Hayakawa, 4). He mostly discusses bilingualism in connection with the dominance of English. No one can deny the fact that it is very unlikely to be substituted by some other language (at least in the near future). It stands to reason that English is the most spoken language in the world but it has to be admitted that in modern America the division between some ethnic groups is still strongly marked, and there are many people who prefer to live in separate areas and have practically no contact with English-speaking world. Subsequently, it prevents them from becoming full members of American society, which seems even hostile to them.
Perhaps, the question of bilingualism should be discussed from a slightly different standpoint. It goes without saying that James Fallows makes some very reasonable statements but he pays too much attention to the English language and its role in modern American society and in the world. Promoting bilingualism will make America, itself friendlier to the immigrants, because very often, they are ill-treated just because they do not speak good English. By allowing them to speak their mother tongue in federal institutions or learn it schools, the government of the United States will definitely make the country more attractive to the immigrants.
Therefore, it is quite possible for us to arrive at the conclusion that James Fallows has outlined the advantages of bilingualism in modern American society, namely, he has stated that there is no possible threat to the dominance of the English language not only in the country but in the world as well. Yet, it appears that the author has preferred not to discuss the problem of linguistic and social ghetto and how these notions are connected with each other.
Bibliography
James Fallows. Viva Bilingualism. The New Republic, 1986.
Samuel Hayakawa. Bilingualism in America: English should be the only language . USA Today, 1995.