The Hammurabi Code and the Ten Commandments are two significant legal codes from ancient civilizations that have had a profound impact on the development of legal systems. While both codes seek to establish a framework for societal conduct, they differ in their origins, scope, and approach to justice. This essay aims to compare and contrast the Hammurabi Code of ancient Mesopotamia and the Ten Commandments of ancient Israel, exploring their similarities and differences in terms of their content, context, and lasting influence.
Body
Historical Context
The Hammurabi Code dates back to ancient Babylon in the 18th century BCE, during the reign of Hammurabi, a prominent Babylonian king. It represents one of the earliest known written legal codes and reflects the social and political structure of Mesopotamian society. In contrast, the Ten Commandments were given to Moses on Mount Sinai around the 13th century BCE and hold a central place in the religious beliefs and practices of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Legal Scope and Purpose
The Hammurabi Code encompasses a wide range of laws covering aspects such as commerce, property rights, family, and criminal justice. It focuses on maintaining social order, ensuring fairness, and protecting the interests of the ruling class. In contrast, the Ten Commandments are primarily concerned with moral and religious principles, addressing issues related to worshiping God, personal conduct, and relationships between individuals.
Source of Authority
The Hammurabi Code is attributed to Hammurabi, the Babylonian king who claimed to have received the laws from the Babylonian sun god, Shamash. It reflects a top-down approach to lawmaking, where the authority is vested in the ruler. In contrast, the Ten Commandments are believed to be divinely inspired, as they are seen as a direct communication from God to Moses. The authority of the Ten Commandments stems from a higher power, emphasizing a religious foundation for moral and legal guidance.
Structure and Style
The Hammurabi Code consists of 282 laws inscribed on a stele, with each law addressing specific cases and prescribing corresponding punishments. The laws follow a strict “eye for an eye” principle, emphasizing retaliation and retribution. In contrast, the Ten Commandments are presented as ten concise principles, written in a more philosophical and moralistic style. They focus on guiding individuals’ behavior and promoting virtuous actions rather than prescribing specific punishments.
Influence and Legacy
The Hammurabi Code had a significant impact on subsequent legal systems in Mesopotamia and beyond. Its principles of justice, fairness, and punishment influenced the development of laws in ancient civilizations and continue to resonate in modern legal systems. Similarly, the Ten Commandments have had a profound influence on moral and ethical principles in Western society. They form the foundation of Judeo-Christian values, shaping laws, social norms, and ethical standards.
Conclusion
While both the Hammurabi Code and the Ten Commandments represent important legal codes from ancient civilizations, they differ in their historical context, legal scope, source of authority, and style. The Hammurabi Code emphasizes maintaining social order and protecting the interests of the ruling class, while the Ten Commandments focus on moral and religious principles. Despite their differences, both codes have left a lasting legacy, influencing subsequent legal systems and shaping moral and ethical frameworks. Understanding the similarities and differences between these two ancient codes provides valuable insights into the evolution of legal and moral thought throughout history.
Throughout history, various civilizations have developed codes of laws to govern their societies and establish a sense of order. Two significant legal codes that emerged during ancient times are the Ten Commandments and Hammurabi’s Code. This essay aims to compare and contrast these two legal codes, examining their origins, contents, and underlying principles, and highlighting the distinct ways in which they shaped the social and moral fabric of their respective civilizations.
Origin and Historical Context:
The Ten Commandments are a set of religious and moral principles that were given to Moses by God, as described in the Hebrew Bible. They form the foundation of Jewish and Christian ethics. On the other hand, Hammurabi’s Code was established by King Hammurabi of Babylon around 1750 BCE and was intended to regulate the daily lives and legal affairs of the people in ancient Mesopotamia.
Divine vs. Human Authority:
One fundamental difference between the Ten Commandments and Hammurabi’s Code lies in their sources of authority. The Ten Commandments are believed to be divine laws given by God, representing an absolute moral authority that transcends human society. In contrast, Hammurabi’s Code is a secular legal code established by a ruler, reflecting a more human-centric approach to law.
Focus and Scope:
The Ten Commandments primarily focus on moral and religious duties, emphasizing the relationship between individuals and God, as well as ethical conduct within the community. In contrast, Hammurabi’s Code covers a broader range of topics, including civil, criminal, and commercial laws, addressing issues such as property rights, family matters, and trade regulations.
Punishments and Retribution:
Another notable distinction is the approach to punishment within the two legal codes. The Ten Commandments prioritize spiritual consequences and personal guilt, emphasizing the notion of divine judgment. In contrast, Hammurabi’s Code emphasizes retributive justice and a system of “an eye for an eye” punishments, reflecting a more punitive and deterrent approach.
Social Hierarchy and Equality:
Hammurabi’s Code reflects the hierarchical nature of ancient Mesopotamian society, with different laws for different social classes. The punishments and compensations outlined in the code vary depending on the status of the individuals involved. In contrast, the Ten Commandments promote principles of equality and fairness, emphasizing the inherent dignity and worth of all individuals before God.
Religious vs. Secular Application:
While the Ten Commandments have primarily religious significance, influencing personal morality and shaping religious communities, Hammurabi’s Code had a broader secular application, influencing the legal systems and governance of ancient Mesopotamian city-states.
Conclusion:
The Ten Commandments and Hammurabi’s Code represent significant legal codes that emerged in different historical and cultural contexts. While both codes aimed to establish a sense of order and regulate societal behavior, they differ in their origins, authority, scope, focus, punishments, and principles. The Ten Commandments are rooted in religious and moral beliefs, emphasizing divine authority, individual responsibility, and ethical conduct. Hammurabi’s Code, on the other hand, reflects a secular legal code established by a ruler, focusing on civil and criminal matters and emphasizing retributive justice. By examining these differences, we gain insight into the diverse ways in which ancient societies sought to establish laws and govern their communities, ultimately shaping the foundations of legal and moral systems that continue to influence our societies today.
The Hammurabi Code and the Ten Commandments are two significant legal codes from ancient civilizations that have had a profound impact on the development of legal systems. While both codes seek to establish a framework for societal conduct, they differ in their origins, scope, and approach to justice. This essay aims to compare and contrast the Hammurabi Code of ancient Mesopotamia and the Ten Commandments of ancient Israel, exploring their similarities and differences in terms of their content, context, and lasting influence.
Body
Historical Context
The Hammurabi Code dates back to ancient Babylon in the 18th century BCE, during the reign of Hammurabi, a prominent Babylonian king. It represents one of the earliest known written legal codes and reflects the social and political structure of Mesopotamian society. In contrast, the Ten Commandments were given to Moses on Mount Sinai around the 13th century BCE and hold a central place in the religious beliefs and practices of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Legal Scope and Purpose
The Hammurabi Code encompasses a wide range of laws covering aspects such as commerce, property rights, family, and criminal justice. It focuses on maintaining social order, ensuring fairness, and protecting the interests of the ruling class. In contrast, the Ten Commandments are primarily concerned with moral and religious principles, addressing issues related to worshiping God, personal conduct, and relationships between individuals.
Source of Authority
The Hammurabi Code is attributed to Hammurabi, the Babylonian king who claimed to have received the laws from the Babylonian sun god, Shamash. It reflects a top-down approach to lawmaking, where the authority is vested in the ruler. In contrast, the Ten Commandments are believed to be divinely inspired, as they are seen as a direct communication from God to Moses. The authority of the Ten Commandments stems from a higher power, emphasizing a religious foundation for moral and legal guidance.
Structure and Style
The Hammurabi Code consists of 282 laws inscribed on a stele, with each law addressing specific cases and prescribing corresponding punishments. The laws follow a strict “eye for an eye” principle, emphasizing retaliation and retribution. In contrast, the Ten Commandments are presented as ten concise principles, written in a more philosophical and moralistic style. They focus on guiding individuals’ behavior and promoting virtuous actions rather than prescribing specific punishments.
Influence and Legacy
The Hammurabi Code had a significant impact on subsequent legal systems in Mesopotamia and beyond. Its principles of justice, fairness, and punishment influenced the development of laws in ancient civilizations and continue to resonate in modern legal systems. Similarly, the Ten Commandments have had a profound influence on moral and ethical principles in Western society. They form the foundation of Judeo-Christian values, shaping laws, social norms, and ethical standards.
Conclusion
While both the Hammurabi Code and the Ten Commandments represent important legal codes from ancient civilizations, they differ in their historical context, legal scope, source of authority, and style. The Hammurabi Code emphasizes maintaining social order and protecting the interests of the ruling class, while the Ten Commandments focus on moral and religious principles. Despite their differences, both codes have left a lasting legacy, influencing subsequent legal systems and shaping moral and ethical frameworks. Understanding the similarities and differences between these two ancient codes provides valuable insights into the evolution of legal and moral thought throughout history.
Throughout history, various civilizations have developed codes of laws to govern their societies and establish a sense of order. Two significant legal codes that emerged during ancient times are the Ten Commandments and Hammurabi’s Code. This essay aims to compare and contrast these two legal codes, examining their origins, contents, and underlying principles, and highlighting the distinct ways in which they shaped the social and moral fabric of their respective civilizations.
Origin and Historical Context:
The Ten Commandments are a set of religious and moral principles that were given to Moses by God, as described in the Hebrew Bible. They form the foundation of Jewish and Christian ethics. On the other hand, Hammurabi’s Code was established by King Hammurabi of Babylon around 1750 BCE and was intended to regulate the daily lives and legal affairs of the people in ancient Mesopotamia.
Divine vs. Human Authority:
One fundamental difference between the Ten Commandments and Hammurabi’s Code lies in their sources of authority. The Ten Commandments are believed to be divine laws given by God, representing an absolute moral authority that transcends human society. In contrast, Hammurabi’s Code is a secular legal code established by a ruler, reflecting a more human-centric approach to law.
Focus and Scope:
The Ten Commandments primarily focus on moral and religious duties, emphasizing the relationship between individuals and God, as well as ethical conduct within the community. In contrast, Hammurabi’s Code covers a broader range of topics, including civil, criminal, and commercial laws, addressing issues such as property rights, family matters, and trade regulations.
Punishments and Retribution:
Another notable distinction is the approach to punishment within the two legal codes. The Ten Commandments prioritize spiritual consequences and personal guilt, emphasizing the notion of divine judgment. In contrast, Hammurabi’s Code emphasizes retributive justice and a system of “an eye for an eye” punishments, reflecting a more punitive and deterrent approach.
Social Hierarchy and Equality:
Hammurabi’s Code reflects the hierarchical nature of ancient Mesopotamian society, with different laws for different social classes. The punishments and compensations outlined in the code vary depending on the status of the individuals involved. In contrast, the Ten Commandments promote principles of equality and fairness, emphasizing the inherent dignity and worth of all individuals before God.
Religious vs. Secular Application:
While the Ten Commandments have primarily religious significance, influencing personal morality and shaping religious communities, Hammurabi’s Code had a broader secular application, influencing the legal systems and governance of ancient Mesopotamian city-states.
Conclusion:
The Ten Commandments and Hammurabi’s Code represent significant legal codes that emerged in different historical and cultural contexts. While both codes aimed to establish a sense of order and regulate societal behavior, they differ in their origins, authority, scope, focus, punishments, and principles. The Ten Commandments are rooted in religious and moral beliefs, emphasizing divine authority, individual responsibility, and ethical conduct. Hammurabi’s Code, on the other hand, reflects a secular legal code established by a ruler, focusing on civil and criminal matters and emphasizing retributive justice. By examining these differences, we gain insight into the diverse ways in which ancient societies sought to establish laws and govern their communities, ultimately shaping the foundations of legal and moral systems that continue to influence our societies today.
The role of women in society is considered to be one of the most burning and captivating issues of all the times. People face numerous problems during the discussions whether it is correct to make men and women equal to each other or not. This is why lots of people try to use as reliable sources as possible to prove the chosen idea.
And of the first sources, used in discussions concerning women place and role, is the Bible. The fact that Eve was created not first but second and the idea, came from Hebrew religion, that Jacob is considered to be the favorite implied for a long period of time that women were inferior to men; however, nowadays, lots of contradictions take place on these arguments and the discussions about woman’s role in society become more and more urgent.
The questions of gender inequality are inherent to many cultures and nations; some nations prefer to rely on religion in order to satisfy society; the other nations take into consideration modern points of views and moral values. However, during a long period of time, The Holy Bible was considered to be the major religious text that helped to clear up the different between women and men, their roles, and duties.
The point is that even The Holy Bible represents several approaches to the discussion of this concept. The New Testament and The Old Testaments tell that women have to inferior to men as the authority of God is really great, and God is the only one, who has the right to judge, divide, or make equal. In these testaments, women take the second place and may be regarded as men’s properties. However, The Gospels of Jesus, which appeared between The Old and New Testaments, underline how powerful women could be and that the equality between men and women was obligatory. However, the power of God was really huge, this is why the point that God created Eve second provided many people with a chance to underline women’s inferiority to men.
The Hebrew Yisrael presents other evidence that males have a kind of privilege in comparison to females. Jacob got inspiration from God, so, God perfects his favor and admiration on Jacob more than on any other person, and any woman in particular. He is the only one, who can communicate to God and introduce God’s messages to other people.
Due to such God’s preference, Hebrew boys have more rights, choices, and freedoms. Is it relates to The Holy Bible and Eve’s creation? Maybe; however, each religion has its own values, and the Islamic people made their choice in favor to male priority. Of course, women have certain rights, but still, their rights are dependent on many other factors, connected to male activities.
The Holy Bible is the first source that divided people in accordance with their genders. From the Old Testament, the roles of women were not that significant. The fact that Eve was created second allows many people to believe that women are inferior to men. However, times have been changed, and values are different now. It is hard to prove that women are inferior to men, and those people, who still believe the ideas, offered in The Holy Bible, just do not have enough imagination to prove women’s inferiority within own words.
One gets a deep inspiration reading the God’s Word and every Catholic can read Bible if he/she wishes to. Studying the Bible can raise questions about church history and the tenets of faith (Gibson).The Catholic Church emphasizes that only the officially approved translation with provided explanatory notes should be read.
However, church asserts that there is another source of God’s revelation. People need the ancient texts of Bible as “they have something to do with the truth of our lives” (Johnson 1). Scriptures play an important role in Catholic’s life.
Scripture is a sacred manuscript and the primary source of the Catechism (MacDonald). The catholic commentary on Holy Spirit says that Canon is the most truthful version of the original Scriptures. Jim Seghers writes in Luther and the Canon of the Bible that “the canon accepted by Catholics contains 46 books in the Old Testament and 27 books in the New Testament” (Johnson 2). Catholic Church absolves people and allows its members to read the Scripture. The reading of Bible is allowed but it is not necessary.
According to Scripture and Tradition, sacred or apostolic tradition consists of the teachings that the apostles passed on orally through their preaching (Catholic Answers). Bible is followed by the Tradition according to the beliefs of the Catholic Church. It is asserted that the early Christians, not having written scriptures, relied on the oral traditions (Seghers). The truth of Catholics is that the Scripture should be understood and taken within the preserved traditions of the church.
Centuries back, there was no Meryl for the evaluation of the Churches’ teachings. The dogmas of the churches were accepted without critics as the majority of the Catholics were taught mechanically within the lessons of God’s Word.
Nowadays, when there is an opportunity to get the Bible any time, they realize that it is impossible to find most of the dogmas used before in teaching. There are many contradictions in the beliefs, for example, the theory of the immortal souls that can not be judged. It goes along with the theory of the teaching of limbo.
Generally, scripture is taken as an authoritative guidance of the teachings of the church to live, to worship and to keep moral values the way it is written in the God’s Word. Many religious scientists do not keep to the original canons of the Bible and cause misunderstanding of Catholics who see the differences in the original manuscripts and teaching of the modern priests.
There is also a strict belief that a Catholic may be absolutely sure that a church can not simply spread the teachings contradicting the Scripture. Any Catholic doctrine may or may not contradict the Scriptures principles and it is left for people to find out all the niceties, differences and similarities.
The Catholic Church says that ignorance of reading the Bible is compared to the ignorance of Christ that is not acceptable in religion. That is why the main message for the Catholics is “Read your Bibles” (Catholic Answers). The Bible may also be used as the oral teaching that is denied by the Protestants who claim that the true “rule of faith” is just kept on the pages of Bible and that anything extraneous to the Bible is wrong and unacceptable.
Catholics take the Bible as the manifested teaching living authority. There are also many books that serve as an introduction to Scripture study such as “How Do Catholics Read the Bible”, “What the Gospel Meant”, “Jesus of Nazareth” etc. that should be read by every true Catholic (Catholic Answers). Bible is presented as a right world as a garden that God plants for humans to enjoy and cultivate (Johnson 2).
Scripture is the key to know the truth of life but it should be used in a proper way to open the sacred doors to verity.
In Reading the Book: Making the Bible a Timeless Text, its author, Burton L. Visotzky, presents to the reader a wonderful and exciting world of the midrash, one of the methods of interpreting the Hebrew Bible. Rabbis were the people who developed midrash in the land of Israel.
Visotzky finds the Bible like an entity with numerous insights available to any reader who wants to understand the essence of the text. In this book, he focuses on different issues such as good and evil in a person, parent-child relations, sibling envy, life and death, faith, etc. In the chapters 8 (Dying) and 9 (Siblings), Visotzky discusses the issues of death, faith, essence of life, relations between relatives, and envy.
In order to deepen the understanding of the text presented in Reading the Book: Making the Bible a Timeless Text and in the Bible itself, it is necessary to clear up the differences between the Bible and midrash, using the ideas of Visotzky; to realize how exactly midrash may keep the text alive forever; and to discuss how Rabbis apply and elaborate the biblical story to their lives and the lives of their relatives using midrash and peshat in particular.
To start the analysis of the book and the Bible, it is important to have a clear understanding of what midrash is and how it differs from the Bible. “Midrash is often compared to new literary analyses of the Bible because the rabbinic and the contemporary approaches to the Bible are said to bear some similarities, such as close attention to textual detail, and openness for multiple interpretations.” (Teugels 140)
One of the peculiar features of midrash is that every word and even every comma in Torah has a reason. People truly believe that the Bible is written by God, so, such a text cannot have any punctuation or grammar shortages. The Midrash is created by people, the Rabbis, so, someone may think that it is not that perfect as the Bible. The relation between the Bible and the Midrash may be compared with the relation between the present and the past.
The text presented in the Midrash is a kind of interpretation of the text presented in the Bible from one concrete perspective presented by the Rabbis. This is what Visotzky tries to reproduce in his Reading the Book: Making the Bible a Timeless Text. The Bible is the source text, and the Midrash is a kind of the target one interpreted by Jewish people.
It is not the question of race and inequality, it is just one more attempt to present the biblical text from another perspective, a kind of renewal of the information taking into consideration cultural aspects, traditions, and time. So, the main difference between the Bible and midrash is that the later is a type of interpretation of the former that concentrates on small details, and this is what makes midrash unique and significant.
There is one more peculiar feature of midrash, it is its ability to keep the text alive. In Reading the Book: Making the Bible a Timeless Text, Visotzky underlines that the text, the Torah, stays alive because of easy thematization prevention. In the Midrash, some alternative readings and interesting questions are offered. Midrash is not only a simple story to read, comprehend, and remember.
The Bible is a holy text with its rules, and midrash helps to interpret it and opens the God’s voice to the reader. Midrash lifts all the voices out of the text and makes them somehow audible. Readers do not involve into simple reading only, they are also the participants of the conversation, conversation with God, other people, and oneself. Almost at the beginning of Reading the Book: Making the Bible a Timeless Text, Visotzky writes: “Every act of reading is a journey for which we carry baggage.” (Visotzky 5)
So, with the help of midrash, readers get an opportunity to analyze their own sense of life, improve it, and even help the others make the necessary changes. For someone, the Bible is simple words, for someone, these words have unbelievable meaning that rules the life. Almost the same happens to the readers of the Midrash. People take all the information in midrash seriously and pay attention to each word and even comma, if they need and believe in all this.
From the biblical perspective, the author touches upon such issue as sibling rivalry (in the chapter 9). It is not only about the envy between males and females (for example, in the Bible, the youngest brothers have been always in some kind of favor). However, the envy only between brothers or only between sisters is present indeed. This is what Visotzky describes in Reading the Book: Making the Bible a Timeless Text.
One of the possible ways to understand clearly the reasons of such a rivalry between the relatives, especially between brothers and sisters, and the literary meaning of the text itself is the method of peshat. The author wonders: “Why should one prefer the midrash to the simple reading of the scriptural text, the peshat? (Visotzky 159).
Peshat is one of the methods that Jewish people use to comprehend the Hebrew bible. The literal meaning of this method underlines the simplicity. In other words, peshat is a kind of exegesis that presents the meaning of the text with the help of simple and comprehensible expressions for any reader. The purpose of peshat is to retain a clear literal understanding of the Bible narrative.
In the chapters 8 and 9 of Reading the Book: Making the Bible a Timeless Text, the method that we call “peshat” or “pshat” helps to understand that the personalities presented in the Bible relate to ordinary people with their personal experience, their own dreams, and principles. The biblical narratives are captivating and unique indeed. They have such a quality to pull the reader and burn a desire to read more and more.
In general, with the help of the Rabbis interpretation of the biblical text, people get one more opportunity to comprehend the information presented in the Bible that gathered during such a long period of time. The New Testament and the Old Testament are not always comprehensible to every reader.
If people take into consideration the variety of traditions, cultures, and time barrier, it will not be that easy to create one source that will be appropriate for any generation and any culture. The Midrash provides the readers with an opportunity to look at the familiar text in another light.
The professor of interreligious studies and midrash in particular, Burton L. Visotzky in his Reading the Book: Making the Bible a Timeless Text explains to the readers the grounds of the Bible from the Rabbis perspective. Such explanation helps to analyze the information in a different way. This book turns out to be interesting and understandable to people of any race, belief, and people with any religious background.
The interpretation offered by the Rabbis deepens our understanding in different ways: the readers realize that it is not that difficult to create and develop their own relationships grounding on the Bible, and present their own midrash. “Although midrash was mostly created by male rabbis, there is nothing to stop the modern writer and reader of the Bible from creating new midrash which re-examines texts that may be unfavorable and unsafe for women and re-fashions, re-interprets, and revises them.” (Graetz 19)
The ideas of jealousy, parenting, rivalry between siblings, responsibility, and faith presented in the book – this is exactly what rouses unbelievable interest in the readers’ mind. It helps to reveal a richness that the readers have not known or noticed before.
A new vision of the already analyzed and discussed problems, new ideas and suggestions – this is what the reader can get from the book Reading the Book: Making the Bible a Timeless Text by Visotzky.
A clear understanding of the differences between the Bible, and one of its interpretations, midrash, the factors, which prove that midrash keep the holy text alive forever, and the analysis of the Bible with the help of one midrash methods, peshat, help to comprehend deeper not only the sense of the book by Visotzky, but also the essence of the Bible.
Works Cited
Graetz Naomi. Unlocking the Garden: A Feminist Jewish Look at the Bible, Midrash and God. Gorgias Press LLC, 2005.
Teugels, Lieve, M. Bible and Midrash: the Story of “The Wooing of Rebekah”. Peeters Publisher, 2004.
Visotzky, Burton, L. Reading the Book: Making the Bible a Timeless Text. Random House, 1996.
Galatians, one of four letters confidently attributed to Paul himself (Bruce 1), addresses a group possibly including “exiles in dispersion” from Roman persecution, but more likely consisting of converted local ethnic Celts, in today’s Turkey. (Bruce, 14). They had little prior Jewish connection, but they had fallen under the influence of some who emphasized adherence to Jewish law over-dependence on faith for salvation.
This departure from his teaching frustrates Paul. He points out that living in the Spirit empowers a different way of life. He then lists some behavior incompatible with the life of the Spirit. For gentile converts confused by the conflict of Paul’s gospel message with Jewish law, this message would have been liberating. It would have meant the inclusion of people who were not prepared to undergo adult circumcision.
For the gentile converts of the first century, the issue of following Jewish law (chiefly circumcision but also eating unclean meats, as in those offered to idols, as for example in I Corinthians 8-10) was a barrier to a full embrace of salvation by faith (The Holy Bible). Jews who were following Jesus still considered themselves Jews, but this left out gentiles. How, gentiles must have wondered, could they be both saved by faith and observant Jews? Furthermore, there were all sorts of other sinful actions to avoid, as well in the Roman Empire in the first-century C.E..
The problem is solved by living in the Spirit, acknowledging that life has changed because of Jesus’ generous act. This state of giving the strength to do “what you want,” or good and positive things, rather than what the “flesh” or the human impulses of our beings prompt us to do (The Holy Bible Galatians, 5:17). This is an empowering idea that builds on God’s loving, correcting actions over millennia but casts them in a new light.
Today, we worry less about circumcision than about, for example, appropriate behavior towards others on the job or in our church fellowships. Today, we might ask for the help of the Spirit in appreciating them as examples of God’s wondrous creation rather than lusting after them. With the help of the Spirit, we can have the fortitude and self-control to view others as our sisters and brothers rather than as sex objects.
The alternative, which is to separate people so that there is less chance of contact and transgressing current norms (both according to secular society and church expectations), is equivalent to the Judaizing approach that Paul criticizes. This solution would be legalistic rather than inclusive and hopeful of the human capacity to do the right thing with God’s help. As Duvall and Hays put it, “God’s grace is given as a gift” (Duvall and Hays 101) and a tool for building the Kingdom of the Spirit and not as a reward for keeping out of trouble.
Works Cited
Bruce, Frederick Fyvie. The Epistle to the Galatians: A Commentary on the Greek Text. W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982. Web.
Duvall, J. Scott and J. Daniel Hays. Journey into God’s Word. Zondervan, 2005.
The Holy Bible. kingjamesbibleonline.com, 2014. Web.
The book by James Watts reveals an in-depth analysis of one of the six biblical books, Leviticus. Watts tries to find rhetorical meaning of the rituals depicted in this biblical book. The major concern of the present study is to answer the following question: “Who was trying to persuade whom of what by writing these texts?” (Watts xv).
It is possible to divide the book into three parts. The first part is Chapter 1 which is Introduction where Watts outlines the scope of his research and provides his major claim. The next part consists of chapters 2-6 where thorough analysis is revealed. Here Watts provides explanation and justification of his theory. The third part includes chapters 7-9 where the author focuses on the rhetorical meaning of the text and its impact on sacrificial rituals and priesthood.
In the first Chapter of his book Watts introduces the major of the research. He defines the importance of rituals which are depicted in Leviticus. Watts provides analysis of the literature on Leviticus concentrating on the works by Mary Douglas and Jacob Milgrom. For instance, Watts points out that Milgrom has demonstrated that “biblical ritual can be interpreted rationally and realistically” (Watts 10). Watts provides major theories as for the role of rituals and their meaning.
However, the author also states that there is still no substantial and precise analysis of the symbolic value of the rituals. He stresses that when analyzing these texts it is essential to pay much attention or rather focus on their rhetoric. Besides, in this chapter Watts answers the question he pt earlier and notes that rituals are usually described to persuade people to perform them, or to perform them in this particular way, or to accept the text and/or its author’s authority to mandate the rituals and, perhaps, to officiate over it. (34)
In the following chapters 2-6 Watts provides definite explanations and evidence for his claim about the importance of rhetoric analysis of the text and its major ides. Thus, Watts provides in-depth analysis of the text. It is important to note that the author stresses that Leviticus was “shaped not only to instruct” people how to carry out rituals, but to “persuade them to do exactly as these texts stipulate” and “to accept these texts as the ultimate authority for such ritual performances” (Watts 38).
To illustrate and prove the text major of persuasion Watts analyzes genre, content, style. For instance, the use of second person in the text emphasizes the idea of instruction. The texts are addressed to people reading it (or listening to it). The specific style of the text transforms mere instruction into a persuasive writing which motivates people to carry out rituals in the appropriate way and to accept the authority of those who conduct the rituals.
In Chapter 2 Watts points out that the recurrence of such words as “as YHWH commanded” and phrases which have the same meaning reveals persuasive character of the text (103). People are taught that priest will save them from many misfortunes by carrying out rituals in the appropriate way.
The third chapter is concerned with the “rhetoric of burnt offerings” (Watts 63). The author states that the major idea of the “burnt offerings” depicted in Leviticus is to promote selflessness of sacrifice. This kind of rituals, according to Watts, is also aimed at distracting attention from other types of sacrifice which were usually used by priests.
In Chapter 4 Watts is concentrated on the rhetoric of “sin, guilt, and ritual offerings” (79). The author claims that the use of jargon and specific terms emphasizes the idea that rituals are saving remedy for all believers (Watts 86). According to Watts, the texts of Leviticus promote this idea explicitly via specific vocabulary.
In Chapter 5 Watts considers the rhetoric of “ritual narrative” (97). He also comes to the conclusion that Leviticus narrative promotes the idea that rituals depicted are based on customs, whereas Nadab and Abihu made many mistakes and wrongful rituals since they did “what had not been commanded” (Watts 106).
The sixth chapter dwells upon the meaning of the term “kipper” (Watts 130). Watts considers existing theories concerning the term and draws a conclusion that the term is used to emphasize the idea of purification and achieve the major of the text, i.e. to persuade people.
In Chapter 7 Watts is concerned with rhetoric of ritual writings and the way it was perceived from ancient times up to modernity. The eighth chapter deals with the essence of sacrifice and its meaning in Leviticus and other ritual texts. Finally, Chapter 9 is concerned with the role of ritual text for establishment of priests’ authority.
In one of his works Watts pointed out that “Western culture has traditionally drawn a dichotomy between rituals and texts, usually favoring texts over rituals” (“Ritual Legitimacy” 401). His book Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture provides a thorough analysis of rituals one th ebasis of Leviticus, and successfully draws a link between the two parts of the “dichotomy”.
It is necessary to point out that the author explicitly formulates hs statement and provides a detailed explanation of his theory. Watts does not only present his assumptions, but proves that his theory is truthful illustating his ideas by passages from Leviticus. For instance, the entire Chapter 6 is concerned with a single word analysis. Interestingly, this single word enables the author illustrate his major claim that ritual texts are aimed at persuasion rather than mere instruction.
Notably, Watts considers existing theories in the field and points out their strenghths and weaknesses. He does not only claims that the theories are based on insufficiant analysis, but provides precise examples of his arguments. It is also important to state that though the author is concentrated on Leviticus he pays much attention to other ritual writings. For instance, in the seventh chapter of his book he considers the whole scope of ritual writing from antiquity up to modern times. This enables the reader to have more complete picture.
Thus, the books is a valuable source of data for those interested in rhetoric analysis of ritual texts since it is based on profound research, many serious works were included in the book to support or refute this or that argument. Apart from precision of the author’s analysis it is necessary to point out that the book is written in simple language.
Therefore, it can be useful for a wide range of readers. Watts’ specific approach enables the reader to consider the rhetoric meaning of ritual texts. This leads to better understanding of the meaning and role of rituals which are regarded as significant part of any religion.
Works Cited
Watts, James Washington. Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
“Ritual Legitimacy and Scriptural Authority.” Journal of Biblical Literature 124.3 (2005): 401-417.
Martin Luther, the once devoted Catholic, one day came across a bible hidden in one of the apartments of Erfurt University library. Upon reading the book keenly, Luther encountered significant differences between what his Catholic Church taught and what the bible said concerning issues like relying on the church fathers for the remission of sins. Since the church teachings were contrary to the bible teachings, he got concerned and protested the issues, hence becoming the father of Protestantism.
As a working criterion of spreading the truth, as it stands in the bible, Luther took the boldest step ever of translating his newly found bible into vernacular languages, German for instance, an issue that angered the Catholic Church as more people left the church to follow Luther’s teachings.
The translation plays a very important role to the German history. Initially, the Germans could not tell lies from the truth based on the then teachings, which were presented in foreign languages other than their understandable vernacular language.
In addition, they had hungered for reformation for long and thus the translation seemed important as it marked the dawn of that awaited reformation. In fact, Shaff points out that “The spread of this version, imperfect as it was, proves the hunger and thirst of the German people for the pure word of God, and prepared the way for the Reformation” (Para. 9).
In addition, the translation was so important in that it solved the problems of the majority of Germans who, despite their little education, wanted to know the truth but could not get it from the former complicated bible. Sanders observes, “…even tailors and shoemakers, yea, even women and ignorant persons…studied it with the greatest avidity as the fountain of all truth” (Para. 2).
Further, the translation assisted the common people who, through the easy reading and understanding of the true word of God, could then make informed decisions concerning the truth. In other words, Luther’s work was no more than a force that fuelled the freedom of the Germans.
The evident Protestant state churches of Germany, initially used by Luther to teach his cohorts, aroused the courage of teaching to the Germans. Besides, the Lutheran bible is of great significance to the German history.
Luther’s translation of the bible into German marked the most outstanding revolving point of the Germans’ history. For instance, its high rate of spreading across the Germans stands out as the origin of the advanced German language. Initially, the language featured so many dialects such that the people could neither understand nor unite with one another.
Therefore, Luther, through his works restored this harmony of language and further forming the basis of the contemporary German literature. The translation too fuelled the famous reformation of religion. In fact, it was through the translation that Protestantism emerged, which was otherwise nowhere before.
Further, the Lutheran bible contributed significantly towards “the creation of German nationalism because…his sayings and translation became part of the German national heritage” (Gerhard 216). The translation too contributed towards the reformation of the German education system.
The reformation came as Luther campaigned for the education of every person, which in turn left virtually all Germans in a position of reading and understanding the bible. Internationally, Luther’s translation significantly fuelled the widening of Protestantism as many other people who supported Luther came up with some other translations like the King James Version, the Bishop’s Bible, and the Douay-Rheims Bible among others.
Therefore, as evidenced by the expositions, Luther’s translation of the bible into vernacular German language stands out as both important and significant the Germans history. It marked the dawn of reformation in Germany as people demanded to hear and know the truth, as revealed by the word of God.
Further, it induced the courage of teaching by the Germans and more so teaching the true pure word of God in a language that even the illiterate could understand. As a result, the translation is the root of all the protestant churches, not only in Germany, but also in the world at large.
Works Cited
Gerhard, Ritter. Luther: His Life and Work. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1963.