Category: Belief

Religious studies have reached new milestones with the advent of great philosophical and realistic experiences and today newer arenas of religious understanding are given primary importance. On this basis do we identify the relevance of religious studies as they deal with real-life human experience in relation to the development of religious belief. It is an obvious fact that from time immemorial humanity felt insecure towards the powers that outstood their own and thus the religious beliefs came into existence. Therefore, it is most significant to understand the development of religious beliefs and, of course, the religions as such in relation to the human experience.

When the beliefs of any world religion are analyzed, we come to understand this essential nature of human experience which creates the very foundations of the religious philosophies. “Religion is a worldwide phenomenon that has played a part in all human culture and so is a much broader, more complex category than the set of beliefs or practices found in any single religious tradition… In all cultures, human beings make a practice of interacting with what are taken to be spiritual powers. These powers may be in the form of gods, spirits, ancestors, or any kind of sacred reality, with which humans believe themselves to be connected.” (Introduction, Religion) Thus, we recognize the essential relationship between human experience and religious beliefs and in this paper, this essential relation between human experience and religious beliefs and the role of the former in the development of the latter is exposed.

Modern religious studies give paramount importance to the investigation of the essential relationship between human experience and religious beliefs in the wider perspective of different religions. It is, therefore, possible to compare the various religious traditions and their beliefs in relation to how they were formulated by human experiences. In an analysis of the development of religious beliefs, the contribution of the human experience becomes most significant. It is every human being’s personal experience that leads him or her to the individual beliefs and practices in a specific religious tradition. That is to say, religious beliefs are partly personal and partly social in nature, and in both cases, human experiences, either personal or social, contribute essentially to the diverse religious beliefs and ideologies. The specific human experiences in different life situations, especially in trying situations, ultimately result in religious beliefs and practices. “According to Parsons, two main types of frustration in the human situation provide the focal points for the development of religious beliefs.

One of these is that people are “hit” by events that they cannot foresee, prepare for, or control, such as the occurrence of premature death. The second type is present where there is a strong emotional investment in accomplishing some goal, yet despite the greatest energy and skill brought to bear in this effort success remains uncertain… hence the significance of religious belief is that it is made up of the life situation to which people cannot remain indifferent, which they cannot in the long run evade, but which they cannot control adjust to with every practical means available.” (p 46, Encyclopedia of Religion and Society, by William H. Swatos, Rowman Altamira, 1998) This essential nature of human life and experience is relevant not in the personal beliefs of humans alone but in the more general, social, and cultural levels of religious beliefs and practices. It is also significant to note that the influence of the human experience is evident not in the development of the religious beliefs of a single religion alone but of the religions of the world in general. Therefore, it is greatly universal in nature.

In an analysis of the role of the human experience in the development of religious beliefs, it is necessary also to note that the relation between human experience and religion is the exact background to outline the very nature of religion itself. Thus, the human experience indicates the development of a religious view. “A religious view must grow out of the human experience. This follows from the fact that human experience is the only basis for ideas that have any meaning or allow intelligible communication. This means that at every stage of discussion about religion, concepts or assertions must be explained by reference to actual human experience. Ideas tend in time to declare their independence of experience. When this happens, they lose their meaning or their significance becomes obscure and confused. This is the trouble with traditional religious doctrines: they are burdened with ideas which have lost their reference to actual human experience.” (Intelligible Religion by Philip H. Phenix). In this way, human experience provides the right basis for an exact understanding of religion and religious beliefs. It is primarily because of the fact that human experiences are the source for religious philosophies to emerge in great significance. Therefore, an analysis of the relation between religion and human relations ultimately establishes religious views and assumptions.

Another remarkable element of the basic human experience in relation to religious beliefs is that it is the universal experiences of humanity that amount to religious beliefs and practices. Religious experience influences the human experience and in turn the latter influences the former. That is to say, human experiences are of a general nature in determining their specified impact on religion. “Among the universal experiences in which man participates religion relates to those which are of central concern. By this is meant experiences which are involved in every area of man’s life. Religious experience… is not some specialized department of human thought or activity. Rather it is an aspect that pervades every form of man’s existence. Further, these experiences are of central concern by being in some sense ultimate. They do not refer to the immediate, obvious, superficial aspects of consciousness, but to the deepest and most pervasive factors which determine the long-term quality of existence.” (Intelligible Religion by Philip H. Phenix). The relation between religious experience and human experience is one of the most evading relations that is known to humanity. It is in this background we understand the role of human experience in the development of religious belief.

When we concentrate on the religious experience as acquired by human beings, we understand the influence of human experience in the formation of the religious philosophy which ultimately leads one to believe in the religious principles. The psychological development of a child’s religious conscience confirms the contribution of human experience in the development of religious beliefs. Thus, as a child acquires religious beliefs, it evaluates personal experiences and chooses the religious meaning from the meanings provided by evil. These are the human experiences that help the child choose the religious path. In other words, the formation of religious sense and belief is the result of the human being’s lived experience. It is therefore always recommended to provide the child with the maximum freedom to experience its individualized religious experience and develop personal beliefs about the religion. Nobody should interfere in the growth stage of a child. The influence of the parents seems to be the most prevailing block in acquiring the personal experience of religion.

The self-experience has a great significance in a person’s growth of religious identity. The religious experience of a child as it grows old is affected by several life experiences which determine the religious philosophies and beliefs it ultimately chooses. As the faith becomes strong the individual accepts the beliefs of the religion and human experiences then lead not to the selection of a particular religious belief but to the affirmation of the faith in a particular religious philosophy. “Religious experience is markedly influenced by physical health, inherited temperament, and social environment. But these temporal conditions do not inhibit inner spiritual progress by a soul dedicated to the doing of the will of the Father in heaven. There are present in all normal mortals certain innate drives toward growth and self-realization which function if they are not specifically inhibited. The certain technique of fostering this constitutive endowment of the potential of spiritual growth is to maintain an attitude of wholehearted devotion to supreme values.” (Religious Growth, The Urantia Book, Part III – The History of Urantia). The religious growth of a person is an unconscious process. However, it does not mean that the human experience does not affect religious beliefs. It actually takes place and it is unconscious.

It is important to note that religion has a critical role in the life of humanity and it contributes considerably to the progress of the universe. It is also important that religion forms the life experience of an individual all through his life. “Religion is an integral part of the holistic development of an individual, community, and the nation. It permeates every aspect of life. It contributes to making education holistic in terms of tolerance and appreciation of values and ideas within various traditions. (Religious Education). Therefore, on the one hand, religion plays a dominant position in the life of an individual and, on the other, religious beliefs are influenced by the individual’s experiences. The role of religion on humanity and its experiences are very well recognized and now we recognize a more significant role played by human experiences on religious beliefs. Religious beliefs are those which create the religion itself and therefore there is an intrinsic relation between human experiences and religious beliefs and religion itself.

Ultimately we come to top the conclusion that human experiences have paramount influence on religious beliefs as they are formulated by the specific experiences of the individuals in their development of the religious self. The difficult and different situations in a person’s life lead him to the acceptance of a religious belief and as the life experience of the individual grows, the religious belief in the person also gets rooted in the person. “Sometimes a spiritual power is understood broadly as an all-embracing reality, and sometimes it is approached through its manifestation in special symbols. It may be regarded as external to the self, internal, or both. People interact with such a presence in a sacred manner—that is, with reverence and care. Religion is the term most commonly used to designate this complex and diverse realm of human experience.

An adequate understanding of religion must take into account its distinctive qualities and patterns as a form of human experience, as well as the similarities and differences in religions across human cultures.” (Introduction, Religion). Therefore, we can conclude that the person’s individual experiences lead to the specific religious beliefs of the person. In short, the role of human experience in the development of religious belief is greatly significant.

Bibliography

Introduction, Religion. Web.

Intelligible Religion by Philip H. Phenix. Web.

Religious Growth, The Urantia Book, Part Iii – The History of Urantia. Web.

Religious Education. Web.

p 46, Encyclopedia of Religion and Society, by William H. Swatos, Rowman Alttamira, 1998.

The Creed is a declaration of faith which has been abridged, granted legitimacy, and is intended to be used worldwide in religious rituals. The Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are each given three brief paragraphs in the Apostles Creed. The Creed proclaims that God is the righteous ruler of all and a spiritual Father to those who believe in Him. Furthermore, it teaches about Christ´s absolute divinity, which includes both his divine existence and his relation to other members of the Trinity, whereby he is both a son and a Lord. The part of God that dwells within Christians is the Holy Spirit, commonly described as “God within us.” He constantly draws attention to God and Jesus while guiding people towards God’s wisdom and truth.

The church and the Holy Spirit share a connection that involves the Holy Spirit infusing the church’s life with solidarity, devotion, and charity. As the church is susceptible to the guidance of the Holy Spirit, His participation is felt. All believers get spiritual gifts from the Holy Spirit in accordance with His sovereign designs and purposes (Catholic 190). The Bible lists a variety of gifts that are given for both church building and international ministry. The church selects leaders with the help of the Holy Spirit and the church has a duty to recognize and promote the use of the spiritual gifts in its life and ministry.

The Creed incorporates several teachings on the Church, the Resurrection, and Everlasting Life in addition to outlining the central beliefs of a given religion. The word church in the Apostles’ Creed, similarly to the Bible, refers to the people of God, the holy society made up of individuals who profess faith in the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. When the Creed states to believe in the church, it teaches adherence to the Bible, educates Christians about the church, and stipulates that the church is fundamental to Christians.

The Creed teaches that the resurrection of the body is not only something to believe in but also something that inspires hope in individuals. The Creeds teachings exclusively focuse on the bodily resurrection in an effort to counter Hymeneus and Philetus’ heresy from the first century which stated that scriptural analogies to the resurrection only refer to the soul being raised from the dead to the life of salvation and has nothing to do with the physical (McClain 747). Ultimately, what the Creed teaches is a profession of belief in the actual resurrection of the body.

Last phrase of the Apostles’ Creed, “I believe in the life everlasting”, is a Christian affirmation that they believe in the bodily resurrection and that the resurrected body will enjoy life everlasting. The Apostles Creeds’ final verse teaches about everlasting life, and that God has promised all who believe and put their faith in Him everlasting life through resurrection.

The structure of the Creeds, which make up the ancient Catholic catechism, do provide framework for Part 1 of the Catholic Church’s Catechism. Nevertheless, this is completed by frequent references to the Creed, which is more specific and detailed. If there is hope for a future glory and a genuine friendship with God, which is charity, therefore faith evolves in charity and the existence of faith is truly restorative. The work of Christian faith is charity, the eternal prospect involved with it is hope, and the path of faith involves developing all these crucial attributes.

References

McClain, Daniel Wade. “Book Review: The Apostles’ Creed: A Guide to the Ancient Catechism.” Anglican Theological Review, vol. 101, no. 4, 2019, pp. 746–748.

Catholic Church. “A Guide to Themes in the Catechism.”The Catechism of The Catholic Church Second Edition, 2000, pp. 1–848., Web.

The role of faith and grace in human life is significant. Everyone has one’s own believes and moral principles according to one’s religion. In Christian conception, faith and grace are the main issues; however, at the same time, according to Healey, there is no a word for faith in the Hebrew Bible (744).

Besides, although faith is one of the peculiarities of different religions, in fact, none of them gives an explanation what is faith and what are the differences between faith and fidelity. Analyzing the opinions of different researchers, it is possible to consider faith as a set of the moral principles caused by the personal experience of God, while grace is a gift given by God in return of people’s faith.

Healey cites words of St. Thomas Aquinas that “faith is the act of the intellect when it assents to divine truth under the influence of the will moved by God through grace” (744). Therefore, one can see faith as psychological conditions when a person acts according to the high moral principles and regarding to the divine and absolute truth.

In this case, faith can be considered as the result of the personal experience of God. Analyzing works of Buber, Healey says that in Christianity act of faith is closely concerned with God, as God is a source of faith as well as the source of the other good issues. Thus, in religion, the term of faith cannot be considered separately of God and the divine essence.

People turn to God, following their will to show faith and wanting to get grace from God. At the same time, Johnstone sees faith as “a common ingredient in relationships between individuals” (30). For the author, most of the relations and interactions between people are based on faith.

Therefore, faith as an essence exists not only in the context of human-God relations, but in all relations present in the society. Thus, it is possible to conclude that one treats people according to one’s believes and faith. Danker also considers faith as the basement of human relations.

He supposes that “since religion is related to at its base primarily to the spiritual, the sacred, and often supernatural beings and forces – that is, to forces that are usually unseen – and involves matters of faith and feelings as well” (6).

Faith given by the supreme forces helps people to comprehend how to behave in the society. Thus, one can consider faith as a set of the moral principles caused by the personal experience of God.

According to Healey, the brightest examples of faith in religion are prophets whose messages should be treated as an absolute truth without any doubts.

However, it is still complicated to comprehend what faith is deepest and more correct: the one when every message from Bible is taken for granted without thinking, analysis or arguments or faith that comes after a long way of analysis and doubts. In this situation, the opposite of faith in prophets is apostasy, because faith requires the commitment of traditions (Healey 747).

The prophetic faith is described in clear and precise way and must be followed by everyone. If one does not accept the prophetic faith, one does not accept the whole religion. Therefore, many people who follow the visual traditions of Christianity may think that they follow the real faith.

However, true faith is inside everyone, not in the visual elements and demonstrations. Besides, when every message have to be accepted as the supreme truth, is it possible to consider such position as a real faith when every message is received and taken for granted without an analytical process? In this case, there is a high possibility of being confused, misunderstood or even being deceived.

As people want to get grace and forgiveness of their bad affairs, they are ready to follow any rules and states. It is a kind of deal when, in return of their faith, people want to get love and forgiveness. Thus, faith is the main issue of salvation.

However, on the other hand, only deep and real faith is true and helpful. Grace cannot be given in return of simple and emotionless following of the rules, as the essential meaning of every religion lies in its moral domination in one’s life.

It becomes evident that faith and grace are the most important issues of religion. Faith is considered as a set of moral principles that help people to interact with God and each other.

Demonstrating their faith to God, people hope to get love and grace in return. One of the most significant elements of faith is its confrontations with fairs.

One who has faith inside does not have the fairs which limit the human life such as fair of death, of self and of the universe. People take for granted the messages given by prophets and, thus, believe in grace of God who gives the salvation and eternal life as in return of people’s faith.

Works Cited

Danker, Frederick William and Kathryn Krug. The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. US: University of Chicago Press, 2009. Print.

Healey, Joseph P. “Faith.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 Vol. Set. Ed. Freedman, David Noel. NY: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.,1992. Print.

Johnstone, Ronald L. Religion in Society: A Sociology of Religion. US: Prentice Hall, 2006. Print.

Shinto or Shintoism, which can be indirectly translated to ‘the way of the gods’ is a faith indigenous to the Japanese. Shinto does not possess a founder or even sacred scripture, unlike the Bible. Preaching or propaganda is also uncommon as the inherent nature of Shinto is embedded in Japanese traditions, culture, and people. Shinto is able to encompass both community practices as well as strictly structured ceremonial rituals that were once common in earlier historical periods. The faith has taken notable influence from Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism though it would divert through alterations in the divinities that are worshipped, ritual practices, and reorganization in hierarchy. Currently, no central authority exists in Shinto, and practitioners employ a diverse number of ways to practice their faith

Though the exact date of the creation of Shinto is not known, the variation of the faith from Buddhism with the introduction of divinity worship occurred around 300 BCE to 300 CE. Beyond the Meiji period much later, in 1868, Shinto rituals would become centralized, and all shrines would move within the jurisdiction of state administration (Japan Guide, 2021). Despite this, fundamental beliefs of the faith remained unchanged and even continue to exist in their original form to this day.

The gods of Shinto are known as ‘kami’ and are closer to spirits than deities in nature. Kami are sacred spirits that can attain physical forms of concepts that are vital to life, such as the wind, rain, mountains, fertility, rivers, and trees. Humans are able to become kami after their passing and are then revered by families as ancestral kami. Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, is considered to be the most important of all the kami (Bernard, 2021). Humans that are considered extraordinary may even be enshrined within Shinto shrines.

Some of the major teachings of Shinto dictate that human beings are not inherently evil and are, in fact, fundamentally good. However, due to the influence of bad spirits, they can be swayed to commit adverse or evil acts. The kami are these spirits and because they exist in everything from natural elements such as trees, mountains, rivers, and animals to human-made creations such as cups or musical instruments. However, kami of good nature harmonize with all things, and devoted followers of Shinto are able to perceive the elusive and transcendent kami through their faith.

Shinto places emphasis on a concept known as ‘makoto no kokoro’, or the heart of truth. It is an attitude that acknowledges the revelation of the truthfulness of kami presence in the lives of humans. Within more modern iterations of the faith, this belief can manifest as people doing their best in the work they have chosen or in improving and maintaining their relationships with others. Essentially, the ultimate source of the ‘makoto no kokoro’ attitude can be found in being aware of the divine. While this process cannot be summarized as finding salvation as it would be in more European-centric religions, truth and understanding are essential to the Shinto doctrine in a similar manner. As such, the adherence that all living things have the presence of kami and their ability to create harmony is essential in attaining such a truth.

The introduction of a Christian belief to an individual who follows Shinto may be contradictory on a number of levels. Primarily, a Christian may emphasize the source and human predicament of sin, which does not reflect the Shinto belief that evil emerges from sources exterior to a person. Additionally, a Christian may explain atonement as the only route to salvation which contradicts not only Shinto teachings that prioritize awareness but also aspects of modern Japanese social norms. As such, the fundamental differences are important to keep in mind in the case of a Christian witnessing to a follower of Shinto.

Bibliography

Bernard, Rosemarie. “Shinto and Ecology: Practice and Orientations to Nature.”Yale, 2021.

Japan Guide. “Shinto.”Japan Guide, 2021.

Introduction

Faith refers to a general influence of the mind that a certain statement is true. It is a confident belief or trust in truth or constancy of an individual, concept or thing. It entails attitude, conviction and conduct based on the true relationship with God. Aquinas believes that faith is a rational activity because it involves possessing certain traits that are interrelated and rely on the facts about God. He argues that it involves agreement to propositions; God being the object.

According to Aquinas, propositions involve revelation. A person agrees to believe in something due to the fact that God must have revealed it to him or her. This brings in a correlation of revelation to faith. Faith requires one to be wholehearted. This makes faith to be different from knowledge as it involves voluntary steps being taken.

There is always a rationale underlying faith though it is voluntary. The fact that some truths concerning God are well known makes the belief in faith rational.

According to Aquinas, faith is exclusively different from knowledge in that if one know something as being true, it is not absolute that he or she will have faith in that very thing as being true.

Assumptions that underlie Aquinas’ argument

Aquinas’ arguments are based on the assumption that through faith one accepts proposals by revelation that is reflected as being reasonable by believing that the natural theological proposals can be revealed first. The revelation enables one to know what is right and wrong and act accordingly.

Agreeing to the propositions through revelation is seen to be reasonable because in normal circumstances, propositions of natural theology are given the first priority. Aquinas asserts that true faith should believe in what has been revealed by God

The agreement that characterizes faith is being wholehearted and not timid. Voluntary faith differs from knowledge and opinion as it calls for wholeheartedness (Conlan 70).

Following the voluntary aspect of faith, there has to be a rational basis underlying it. Some of the realities concerning God are demonstrated. Other concerns about God are known and are demonstrated, reflecting faith as the true way and hence believing on it is rational. Through faith, humanity gets closer to God. God is known through believing that He is there and that he controls actions.

The Soundness of Aquinas’

Aquinas’ argument seems to be sound in that the element of revelation is very important. Through revelation one accepts the propositions in faith that God has revealed to him or her. Since true faith must not agree to anything a part from that revealed by God, the argument seems to be sound. Faith requires one to be wholehearted and should not possess the traits of timidity. This is very true because a believer has to be fully submitted to the revelation by God; this is based on the truths concerning God (Conlan 56).

Conclusion

It can be concluded that Aquinas believes that one being knowledgeable about something does not necessarily mean that he/she has faith in it. This is an indication that faith is exclusive from knowledge. We need faith within ourselves to enable us to succeed in whatever we do. Knowledge acts as guidance in ensuring that whatever we believe in is achieved. Faith and Knowledge therefore co-relate but can never be the same thing.

Works Cited

Conlan, William. The definition of faith according to a question of MS. Assisi 138: study and edition of text. New York: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1999.

The major concern in religion is that the relationship between faith and spirituality is a frequently debated subject among all Christians. Many people today have an intellectual belief in God but lack a two-way contact relationship with Him. The “faith experience” with God allows individuals to personally experience God’s faithfulness, compassion, and personal existence. Undoubtedly, faith is hard to achieve, as it is the belief that something is real or genuine despite the lack of credible proof, and it often ignores established facts that show the thing is not accurate or true. For these reasons, there is a rising problem regarding people’s faith and lack of it.

Indifferentism has been increasing in the 21^st century, with the younger people ignoring religion and taking a more neutral stance towards religion. The study found that traditional Protestant churches and other branches of Christianity are declining, posing a significant threat to religion’s strong presence in person and societal life (Schneiders). Such a trend may be explained by the fact that younger generations of Americans have had less religious experiences as children than previous generations.

Faith is not the same as hope or optimism. And religious faith is not to be mistaken with confidence based on evidence or trust gained with time from experience since there are no gathered facts to validate confidence and no accumulated trust over time in religious faith. There may be speculation that leads to faith, but there are no details about the nature of any gods. In all cases outside of religion, faith is the product of getting at least some proof. When faith is involved, religious belief is completely devoid of facts. Earned confidence acquired over time through experience, on the other hand, is nothing like faith. Trust is confidence devoid of knowledge over time, taking us full circle back to faith, trusting in the reality or truth of something without adequate proof.

Among the religious society, several concepts for the relationship between religion and spirituality exist, as explained by Schneiders (2003). In the first model, people perceive religion and faith as two distinct notions. This is the viewpoint of young people who admire others’ religious commitments but are not interested in engaging in religion themselves. The second theory states that some people see faith and spirituality as contrasting truths that are inversely related to one another (Schneiders 164). The less religious one is, the more spiritual one is, and vice versa. Ultimately, some people see faith and religion as two facets of a single enterprise that, like body and spirit, are often at odds with one another but are indispensable for one another, together, create a single truth (Schneiders 165). Thus faith and religion have various perceptions and may be viewed from different dimensions.

Concluding, I personally agree with Schneiders’ attitude on faith and spirituality across all domains. Faith is something that is developed within individuals as a consequence of their religious education and personal feelings. The fact of the declining religious population explains the lack of faith and deep conscious involvement in the religion. The author argues about the concept of spirituality, giving substantial evidence to his statements, which evokes a feeling of trust and persuasion. He concludes that the confrontation between religion and spirituality is principally influenced by the shortcomings of the latter, which invalidate the former, as religious tradition is reduced to and equated with its institutionalization, which I entirely agree with.

Works Cited

Schneiders, Sandra Marie. “Religion vs. Spirituality: A Contemporary Conundrum.” Spiritus: A Journal of Christian Spirituality, vol. 3, no. 2, 2003, pp. 163–185, 10.1353/scs.2003.0040.

This is a religious belief that the Earth and all the life forms, universe, and humanity were all created by a supernatural and not by a natural process. The 19^th Century British geologists postulated that the Earth was older than the calculations that were adduced by the scriptures. The misunderstanding between the scientists and religious authorities on creation was characterized by cultural warfare in the United States of America. There was a row over who could provide an authentic American creation story to rival the biblical creationism which had become the standard substitute to scientific suppositions. Towards the end of the 19^th century, there was a very sharp contrast between creationism and evolution which borrowed heavily from naturalistic observations, in the American society. Ardent creationist adherents held that evolution did not substantively demystify the earth’s history, diversity and complexity. The Abrahamic faiths like Christianity and Judaism base their beliefs on the biblical pentatauchial reading of Genesis. Evolutionary creationists believe that despite the fact that the nature of the universe is grounded on evolutionary trends, it leads to creator deity. This essay intends to construct a definition of what science is, based on creationism, by providing a summarized overview of creationism, clearly stating whether creationism should or should not be considered as a science.

Proponents of creationism have tried supporting creation myths using scientific backings while trying to water down conventional scientific facts and theories advanced about history of the earth and biological evolutionary trends. Proponents of scientific creationism are the United States fundamentalist Christians. These scientists have been preoccupied with trying to prove inerrancy of the bible while disapproving scientific evidence of evolution. Creation scientists believe that the Earth was created in the last ten thousand years-creation ex nihilo and that mankind and earth’s life forms were created as distinct fixed kinds (Numbers, 2006). They also believe that fossils found on the stratum of the earth were deposited when cataclysmic flood covered the earth’s surface. The position of creation scientists has heavily been challenged by the geologic and astrophysical evidence on the origin and age of the earth adduced by the evolutionary scientists. The evolutionary scientists believe that the positions taken by creation scientists on the origin of the earth and life forms are irreconcilable to theirs. Creation scientists normally refer to evolutionary theory as Darwinian evolution. In as much as creation scientist would want to sanctify their position to absolutism, by challenging historical geology and evolutionary theory, scientific creationism is more religious than scientific, as it is deficient in empirical support. Scientific creationism does not have tentative hypotheses. This is evident in the manner in which it describes natural history based on scientifically untestable supernatural causes. Many creation scientists have defended themselves using mechanisms like inducible complexity in the process of trying to challenge the fundamental evolutionary models and theories. The creation scientists have asserted that biochemical structures are incapable of evolving by gradual step-by-step process as Darwin posited. This argument threatens to destabilize Darwin’s theory if a proof for irreducible complexity can be demonstrated. A demonstration of this complexity is embedded on ability to demonstrate that none of the parts of a complex structure can survive in seclusion from the rest. As a matter of fact, texts and curricula of creation science were founded on literal biblical interpretation and had heavy religious overtones that linked the flood during Noah’s time in the bible to the geological and fossil records.

As witnessed in the scientific creationism, there are a few notable evidences that link creationism to science. Moreover studies are still being conducted that can substantially link creationism to science as seen in irreducible complexity.

Reference List

Numbers, R. (2006). The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design, Expanded Edition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Introduction

Death is definite but cannot be specified or identified in the human way of life, even though we do fight with its certainty.

Regardless of death’s omnipresence, it is an occurrence conceptualized in another and different manner depending on the culture or characteristic of an orientation that characterizes the thinking of a group or nation.

These distinctions are visible due to several cultures act of subjecting to an influencing experience of death in the African perspective, the keeping with the nature of the Bible or its times, the people from the Middle Eastern part of the world, and the contemporary character of the continental islands of the Americas.

This paper will be related to the Chinese and their religious belief of death and dying with their analysis of death and the association with the process of passing from life or ceasing to be (Brennan, 2005). The paper will further focus on Chinese mythology, legend, and belief in death and dying. The paper will also describe the ceremonial and ritual sacrifices being practiced by the Chinese about death and dying.

As regards the theological perspective and definition of death, it will be observed that death is characterized as the separation of the actuating cause of individual life and body. But as Professor Philip Keane presented an opposition that nobody has perceived by sight or has the power to perceive by the sight that the soul has gone away from the body.

This explanation on the topic of death and dying, as reported or stated by another theologian of German origin known as Karl Rahner, who expressed that Professor Philip Keane’s analysis of death falls short in what is expected to point out the distinction from soul factor of the death of any creature.

Concerning philosophy and series of assessments, death is characterized as the termination of the integrated regular operation of the human system (soul) which is considered analogous in structure or function to a living body.

This dissolution is like the departure of the entire structure of an organism and the actuating cause of an individual life’s characterization and not an apparent description.

The prehistoric Chinese assumed that life after death was very comparable to life going on in the abode of mortals (as contrasted with Heaven or Hell). However, working out a prescribed procedure for conducting religious ceremonies served as an approach of organizing and arranging dead family members for the Life after death, nevertheless, they also linked the existing human being to the departed (Shohov, 2003, p.122).

The Chinese believe on death and dying

In line with the above introduction, the Chinese populace has a strong belief in a supernatural power or powers that control human destiny in an uninterrupted connection or union between this earth (life) and the subsequent (death). However, both worlds were brought into conformity with rules, and principles by bureaucratic principles that reflect the imperial bureaucracy (Brennan, 2005).

There was as Thomas Laqueur pointed out that no fundamental doctrine that reality consists of two basic opposing elements in Chinese notion-distinguishing body and soul-comparable to the central apprehension that determines the European notions of death. In other words, the “moment of death,” through which body and soul were eternally separated, did not have the equivalent meaning among Chinese as it has among Europeans. One of the most important objectives of the Chinese was to preserve the dead body of a human being and spirit together at some point in the early stages of death; however, parting of the corpse earlier than the ritualized act of forcing out from the community was considered to bring the state of extreme ruin and misfortune.

The Chinese ideology on death and dying

The additional fundamental attribute of Chinese ideology on the subject of life after death was the belief that an individual societal relative position or standing remained mostly unaffected by death.

Above all, both worlds were controlled or ruled by superior authority or power of the close connection marked by community of interests or similarity in nature or character, and it was assumed that death did not end the state of connectedness between agnatic kinsmen (Liu, 1981). It is important to note that, for the majority of the Chinese populace, it was a patrilinear kinship that continues in existence further than death; multilateral connection (through one’s mother) and final relationships (through marriage) were usually ended upon death.

The ideological distinctive group of people with some shared interest of late imperial China was also being controlled or influenced by the belief that the soul, or spirit, was composed of several parts (Watson, & Rawski, 1988). There is a substantial discussion on the subject of the precise spatial attributes of the soul.

Chinese Mythology and Legend on death and dying

The Chinese believe that the death sentence is passed on a soul by Yanluo. About this, Yanluo is viewed as not merely the sovereign or commander but also the authority that can estimate worth or quality of the world of the dead and delivers judgment on every single dead being.

Yanluo all the time and on every occasion Come into sight or view in the form of a male being and his servile or fawning dependant include a public official authorized to decide questions brought before a court of justice and also who held a brush and a reporting note that comprises of every soul’s sin and the assigned date of death of all human being.

The Chinese mythology believed that once an individual dies, there are some guardians whose task is to bring such people for judgment. According to the Chinese belief of death and dying which as a result bring into existence for judgment the Ox-Head and Horse-Face, whom they believe are the dreadful and freighting custodians of the world of the dead, fetch for the not long-dead human being, one after the other, in the front Yanluo for assessment of their deed while living.

The Chinese also believed that the vital principle or animating forces of the dead, on being passed a judgment upon by Yanluo, are required or under orders to either go through a limited period of satisfaction in an extended spatial location which is at the middle between the abode of mortals and the place of complete bliss and delight and peace of the gods or to experience their mode and level of penalty in Naraka (Roberts, 2009, p.29).

About this Naraka, is believed by the Chinese to be the world that dwells beneath the surface of the earth, which is situated in an indefinite or unknown location in the southern district. Where, after that, they may come again to the Earth as a new being with a new soul and body.

The historical belief of the Chinese on death and dying

According to history, the Chinese world populace appreciated prolonged existence, and the death of an old aged person was as much a vaguely specified social event for the feeling of great happiness as for mourning.

Moreover, in agreement with what the Chinese already known and believed which is compatible with their feeling of profound respect for prolonged existence, they observed and believed that the death of a young person in an early period of life is as a sign of an evil spirit at work, which in turn strikes all young people and hence a warning that something unpleasant is imminent to other people.

They also believed that, at death, the body-soul system is caused to separate and go in different directions and the dead human being becomes a sacred earlier form from which a later form evolved (Aiken, 2001, p.151).

Ritual belief of the Chinese towards death

In china it is believed that to bury a dead individual or person without suitability, rightness or appropriateness of attention to ritual ceremonies is to bring into existence a starving ghost who will come back to inflict any large scale calamity (especially when thought to be sent by God) on the living, however, if we are to relate the Chinese belief of death and dying with the axiom of Elisabeth Kubler-ross which quotes that “I’ve told my children that when I die, to release balloons in the sky to celebrate that I graduated. For me, death is a graduation”- Elisabeth Kubler-Ross, one will agree that the doctrine of analogy between spirits and outlaws is a conscious one in Chinese extended social group having a distinctive cultural and economic organization.

Furthermore, both beliefs continue living outside the constraints of family, kinship, and community. Another uniform characteristic or attribute of the ideological domain of the Chinese is the proposal that there must until the end of time be a sense of balance between the sexes, even in death. The notion of gender, cultural construction, survives in the Chinese life after death.

The Chinese ideological domain

In a close relation or position in time and coupled with the content of cognition on social permanence is the concluding, and most important, prominent attribute or aspects of the Chinese ideological domain: the personal view of switch over between living and the dead.

Death to the Chinese does not end relationships of mutual dependence, action or influence among the Chinese; it basically changes or alters the nature of these social relationship and repeatedly makes them have strength or power greater than average or expected.

The ritual and funeral rites belief on death in the Chinese culture

A central characteristic of Chinese funerals and post burial practices is the transfer of food, money, and goods to the dead. As a result of the stated practice and in exchange or in reciprocation according to the Chinese custom and tradition, the existing look forward to obtain definite material benefits, including luck, wealth, and immediate descendants.

This odd, fanciful or capricious idea of continued switch over between living and dead is the foundation of late imperial China’s ideological domain. In other words, all prescribed procedure for conducting religious ceremonies associated with death is carried out as if there were a continued link between the existing and dead. It is inappropriate whether or not partakers really accept as true that the spirit continues to exist or that the introduction of offerings has an outcome on the dead. What matters is that the Chinese customary observance or practices are executed according to established process.

According to the Chinese custom Daoist priests carries out a chain of rites over some weeks subsequent to a person’s death (ter Haar. 2000, p.92). The most important was to get rid of the SEN SHIN, a demon in charge of bringing the soul back to the home where it had lived, but a potentially evil power (Birrell, 1999, p.216).

Nevertheless, during funeral, family members would spread out on the streets with round paper slips called “road money,” which could be used to buy the disposition to kindness and compassion of Demons and nomadic ghosts so that they would not harm the dead on the way to the place for the burial or the place of complete bliss and delight and peace.

In the prehistoric times, Emperors would have number of armies of small status made; signifying the powers they would command in the next world.

Dead rich people would be buried with a complete set of domestic and personal items, including money and jewellery. However, in the later traditional practices, pictures of household belongings would be burned in the idea that the smoke would get to the dead in heaven and turn into a spiritual description of the worldly goods.

The deceased were buried in a coffin very close to the family’s house in order for the family to perform the annual graveside family rituals of gift sacrifices of food, money, and prayers of mid-April. The rituals integrated laying out meats, vegetables, and drink for the recurring soul. Sticks of incense, firecrackers, and gold and silver paper (which were burned on the site) were also meant to assist the spirit with food and money all through the coming year. Afterward a family would attach long slip of red and white paper to the angles of the grave to show that they had performed their obligation (Watson, & Rawski, 1988).

In line with this, it will be observed that the whole world is on a more precise view with the biological study of the definition of death and dying. At this juncture, death is judged or regarded as a stop in the process of taking in and expelling air during breathing and the rhythmic contraction and expansion of the arteries with each beat of the heart. This is better known as loosing ones soul.

Works Cited

Aiken, Lewis R. Dying, death, and bereavement. Mahwah, NJ: Taylor & Francis, 2001. Print.

Birrell, Anne. Chinese mythology: an introduction. Baltimore, Maryland: JHU Press, 1999. Print.

Brennan, Mary. Death and dying: Death is a biological certainty but the practices surrounding death and mourning are socially constructed. Socially Review, 14 (3), 26-28. 2005.

Liu, Da. The Tao and Chinese culture. London: Taylor & Francis, 1981. Print.

Roberts, Jeremy. Chinese Mythology A to Z. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing, 2009. Print.

Shohov, Serge P. Advances in Psychology Research, Volume 28. New York, NY: Nova Publishers, 2003. Print.

ter Haar, Barenda J. Ritual & mythology of the Chinese triads: creating an identity. Leiden, The Netherlands: BRILL, 2000. Print.

Watson, James L. & Rawski Evelyn Sakakida. Death ritual in late imperial and modern China. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1988. Print.

Introduction

Spirituality is one of the integral parts of human beings as it forms their mentalities and value systems. For this reason, this issue has always been topical for societies. Having appeared at the rise of civilization as they attempt to create the basis for the further evolution and explain various phenomena, spirituality evolved into different forms and religions that became potent forces impacting the whole world and the formation of particular cultures. At the same time, because of the diversity peculiar to individuals, there are many perspectives on this topic and attempts to justify them. As for my concept of spiritual belief, I am sure that people need some higher creature who can direct their actions and promote a particular value system by his benevolent nature.

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This idea is also presented by Rene Descartes in his Meditations on First Philosophy. Being sure of the existence of a kind God that tries to help all creatures, he also introduces two proofs for his existence. First of all, the philosopher is sure that the presence of some supernatural power becomes clear from the concept of a supremely perfect being (Descartes, 2018). In other words, the fact of the existence of the universe proves the idea of God responsible for the creation of such ideal objects and things. People need some special beliefs to explain the fact of their living and their evolution. For this reason, Descartes’ ideas become applicable and can be used to prove the offered concept of spirituality.

Additionally, in Meditations, he offers another argument for the existence of God because of the observable effects of his activity. The visible world of objects, things, and living creatures exists in our Universe and evolves, which becomes an important element of people’s lives (Descartes, 2018). At the same time, all existing creatures need a particular orienting point that will guide their decisions and result in the formation of a value system needed for them to engage in cooperation and promote the further rise of societies (Descartes, 2018). That is why Descartes is sure that the existence of God cannot be doubted because of his contribution to the evolution of our world.

In such a way, Descartes tends to prove the existence of a higher creature, or God, who is responsible for the emergence and formation of particular spiritual beliefs in people who need it. This idea correlates with the concept of faith provided above. At the same time, the credibility of this source can be proven by the fact that Mediations are accepted by the majority of philosophers as one of the theoretical frameworks that can be used to cogitate about the nature of religion, spirituality, and people’s beliefs. Moreover, ideas offered by the thinker are used by many other outstanding ideologists to prove their assumptions.

Conclusion

Altogether, spiritual belief can be considered a particular set of assumptions that result from people’s value system that is formed under the impact of the belief in the existence of a supernatural creature, God, that directs their actions and guides them to achieve the desired states. Descartes also tries to prove a similar idea explaining the presence of God by the fact of our lives and world, which are created because of his benevolent character. The credibility of this source cannot be doubted; however, when speaking about religion, there is still much space for debates about the nature of faith.

Reference

Descartes, R. (2010). Meditations on first philosophy. New York, NY: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

In Chapters 1-3, Leah Francis describes the actions and peaceful protests that were arranged by the clergy of St. Louis to seek justice for Michal Brown, a young black man who was shot in the middle of a day by a policeman. In those protests, the clergy joined the local leaders, and their participation was perceived by some other participants as the symbol of “the presence of God” ¹. In this way, the religious activists may raise public awareness about the topical social issues in relation to the spiritual dimensions of human life, and engage people “in conversation about the theological imperative” in the fight for justice and equality ².

According to Francis, the theological reflection requires individuals to evaluate their social backgrounds and history that supported their formation and to understand that each person have a choice to become better and see the presence of God in his/her life³. The author’s observation is of great significance because it demonstrates that people always has a choice either to give away to the unjust events and adverse conditions of life or to renew themselves and make the efforts to improve the situation for the better.

Francis pays greater attention to the role of young people in the movement because they embody the sense of urgency in the situations that demand “immediate attention and responsiveness”⁴. Young leaders appeal to other young people who do not participate in the life of the church, and the young activists can motivate them by demonstrating passion and strong aspiration for the achievement of the common good. It is important because the teenagers and the millennials are usually prone to listen to their peers and be influenced by them. Thus, care for justice expressed by the young protestors is encouraging, and it may positively affect the decisions and actions of other young people.

Chapters 4-10 are devoted to the identification of religious and spiritual implication of protests for justice and equality.

“Caring for people who are oppressed and disenfranchised is a core tenet of many religious faiths” ⁵. Therefore, clergy cannot simply neglect the social events that take place in the world, and needs to make efforts for the achievement of problem-resolving. By participating in movements for equality, clergy promotes the conception of “safe sanctuary” and representation of church as a place of emotional and psychological safety for every person regardless of his/her gender or ethnicity ⁶.

Francis also underlines the essential role of black women in the clergy. Along with the young activists, through the participation in movements for equality, the black women may significantly raise the public awareness about racial and gender inequality.

In Chapter 10, Francis notices that “the struggle for human dignity is a deeply theological issue”⁷. However, a religious person should not attempt to resolve the issues merely in the theoretical contexts, and needs to undertake the practical measures that may lead to the tangible positive outcomes. In this way, the collaboration with organizations, communities, and young people in protests and movements for justice is significant as it allows clergy to shed light on the complex social, ethical and spiritual issues that many members of society prefer to neglect. By doing so, they encourage people to be more caring for those who are in need of help.

Bibliography

Francis, Leah Gunning. Ferguson & Faith: Sparkling Leadership and Awakening Community. St. Louis: Chalice Press, 2015.

Footnotes

1. eah Gunning Francis, Ferguson & Faith: Sparkling Leadership and Awakening Community (St. Louis: Chalice Press, 2015), 16.
2. Ibid., 22.
3. Ibid., 37.
4. Ibid., 56.
5. Ibid., 91.
6. Ibid., 109.
7. Ibid., 156.