In this case Grace contracted Jane an accomplished piano tutor to take her through ten piano lessons for which she was to pay $500 for each. The exams to be taken after the lessons; were scheduled for the last week of the month of October. After taking five lessons, Grace informed Jane the Piano tutor that she was not able to continue with the remaining five lessons; as she would not be able to pay for them due to the costs she had to cover towards her mother’s cancer illness that had significantly increased (McDonald & Street, 2009).
Jane on considering that Grace was one of her promising students; felt sorry for her and offered an agreement to collect a nominal sum of $150 per lesson for the remaining five. Grace was grateful for the offer and accepted it continuing the piano lessons. After the completion of the lessons and sitting the exam; Jane demanded that Grace should pay the $1750 balance for the last five lessons (Poole, 2006).
To start with the validity of the contract should be analyzed; and in this case, the two contracting parties had agreed mutually to reduce the amount to a nominal amount of $150. This is because Grace agreed to continue the classes based on the offer and agreement with Jane that she would receive the lessons at $150 for each (Poole, 2010).
The contract involves the principle of an enforceable contract; where one of the contracting parties advances an offer and the second accepts it. In this case, Jane offers to administer the lessons at $150 and Grace accepts to receive the same amount offered. This means that the contract is enforceable in favor of Grace but not Jane (Fafinski & Finch, 2009).
The mutual consideration of exchanging something of value is met in this contract; as Grace receives the lessons that are of value as Jane is paid money which is also of exchangeable value. According to the principles of contracting; despite the fact that the lessons are worth $500 Jane cannot claim this value as she offered them for the agreed price of $150; by doing so she would be revoking the contract (McDonald & Street, 2009).
In this case the consideration of performance and delivery; the contract is enforceable as the contracting parties have completed their part of the contract. Grace performed her duties and obligations by offering the amount agreed upon; while Jane on the other hand offered the lessons and the exam (Poole, 2010).
Giving consideration to the principle of good faith; Jane may have been secretly offering the lessons at the cost of $500 as opposed to the agreed value of $150. In this case, her claim will not be enforceable as she secretly intended to offer the lessons at $500 and not the agreed value; therefore did not act in good faith making her claim unenforceable (Poole, 2006).
According to the legal guidelines that determine the enforceability of an agreement; a contract should not go against legal policy. This is to means that for a contract to be enforceable, it should not be illegal. In this case, the contract is not legal and therefore Grace is capable of enforcing her end of the contract.
The case linking Grace and Jane is an oral contract; meaning that the evidence of the agreement is intangible if any, and this may render the agreement unenforceable, or compel one of the individuals to resolve to less than contracted to; in the original, contract. However the case will also greatly depend on whether the two contracting parties admit having agreed upon providing and receiving the lessons at $150 (McDonald & Street, 2009).
However, based on the “statute of fraud”; certain types of contracts are not enforceable unless if put in written form and signed against to confirm consent of the parties. In this case, there was no written agreement concerning the contract; therefore Grace may be capable of claiming the balance. However, the current case does not fall within the contracts enumerated under the statute of frauds that include the sale of land; responding to the duty of another; lasting more than a year, and those involving the sale of commodities under the uniform commercial code. The fact that this contract does not fall within these categories means that the claim for the balance by Jane may not be enforceable (Fafinski & Finch, 2009).
Based on the review of the case between Jane and Grace; it is evident that there was mutual consent in making the contract; the offer advanced by Jane was accepted by Grace, and the mutual exchange of lessons and money took place. This provides information to prove that the contract between the two is enforceable. In this case, both parties kept to their performance and delivery obligations; and that Jane did not act in good faith with respect to the agreement as it appears that she had silently settled at $500 dollars per lesson; despite having agreed-upon $150. The advice that I can advance Grace is that; in arguing her case out she should base her argument on the contractual agreement; Jane’s failure to act in good faith as per the contract, and Jane’s admitting to the agreement of the contract that would make the contract enforceable and valid. Based on these factors Jane is not able to claim the $1750 balance before the law.
Reference List
Fafinski, S. & Finch, E. (2009).Contract Law. Longman Press
McDonald, J. & Street, A. (2009). Equity & Trusts Concentrate. OUP Oxford.
Poole, J. (2006) Casebook on Contract Law. OUP Oxford Press.
Poole, J. (2010). Contract Law Concentrate. OUP Oxford.
The Cherokee are among the native Indians found in North America. They initially occupied the mountainous regions of North America and they were ordinary hunters and gatherers although they did practice minimal farming in order to supplement the food they obtained through hunting and gathering. This can be deduced from the work of Thornton et al (1990) who points out that ‘the aboriginal Cherokee environment indicates abundant food supply. The Cherokee had various wild plants at their disposal, had cultivated food and they had access to abundant animal life e.g. the bear and the buffalos’.
This environment with plenty resources enabled them to lead a very comfortable and steady life dictated by their culture. As a tribal group they did not have a formal structured social, political, and economic organization and any other structures that are present in a complex society. As a tribal group they did not have a political leader and there was no private ownership of property and they shared all other characteristics of any tribal group which befits the term ‘primitive.
All these changed once the white settlers invaded their land. The changes which were introduced to the culture of Cherokee by the Europeans are the one which served as the gate towards modern civilization and this argument will be carried all along my essay. Civilization can be described as a very complex culture whereby the society has a very complex social structure and organizations and people are engaged in very different economic and cultural activities. Some people are producers while others are consumers and there is a well established political structure with one head at the top.
Discussion
The Cherokee did not change their cultural way of doing things out of will, rather it was in response to the changes that were being forced to them by the western European settlers who wanted to occupy their land. Changes in their cultural fabric were as a result of relocation to other regions which were different from the mountain environment and this called for new ways of adaptation, new lethal diseases such as small pox which could not be cured using their traditional methods and introduction of market economy an new political alignments which were taking place in the 18th and 19th century.
Political alignment saw unending wars between the Europeans i.e. Spain, England, and France as they tried to take control of the natives land. Cherokee men were recruited as soldiers and this means that they acquired guns and as we shall see later this marked the beginning of civilization. Also the flow of information from the elders to the youth was cut and their culture begun to disintegrate because the young people were not present.
The Cherokee learned the art of combat war from the Europeans and they used the same tactics later on to attack their neighbors in the frontiers. This are still characteristic of civilization and in the modern era the most economically and politically powerful countries continue too attack the poor ones in order to gain access to their natural resources.
Contacts with the white introduced market economy to the Cherokee and their involvement in this market called for a change from traditional lifestyle to a new lifestyle. The Cherokee exchanged deer and bear skin and fur with the Europeans and later on they became employees of the traders. This trade adversely affected their environment because they had to kill more animals in order to get enough in order to meet the demand from the Europeans.
As employees the Cherokee duty was to travel to the interior and bring back items of trade to the traders who settled along major trade routes. Involvement of the in trade enabled them to acquire trading skills and one has to recall that exchange of goods and serviced drives the market economy and the Cherokee were sure going that way.
McLoughin (1986) also highlights the same issue when he argues that ‘obtaining guns was the mark of a radical transformation of the traditional way of life’. According to him ‘the Cherokee thus moved from foragers life to a mobile, free trade market economy with heavy reliance on European trade goods and alliances’.
This was bad for the Cherokee because reliance on European goods means that they had forgotten their traditional ways of obtaining resources from the environment and thus they created a good room for the Europe to impose her ways on them. In addition the Cherokee intensified their farming practices because there was a prospect of a good market for their produce and at the same time they could acquire better farming implements from the whites such as hoes and animal driven plows.
Apart from farm implements farming goes along with domestication of animals and thus at the end of the day the Cherokee developed more interest in domesticated animals in favor of the wild animals which they used to hunt. The Europeans also are believed to have introduced new type of crops mostly new fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes and watermelons McLoughin (1986). One can note that these new crops were not meant to benefit the Cherokee, rather they were meant for consumption by the settlers since they could easily obtain them through trade.
Cherokee political structure was also altered by the Europeans. Traditionally there was not post for an overall community leader among them but for conveniences the Europeans needed some on who could communicate to them on behalf of the community. They therefore had to create such a post in the community. McLoughin (1986) reports that ‘finding that the Cherokee had no national chief or political unit, the English tried to create a ‘‘king’’ to unite them.
In 1721, the governor of south Carolina met with 37 Cherokee chiefs and persuaded them to make Wrosestawasatow their king’. This in essence means that a formal political structure was being introduced to the Cherokee and it remained up to date. In modern civilization we have one individual who leads his state and makes decision on behalf of his or her followers. The head of the state is elected by the people themselves.
Turning on to the other side of the discussion it is important to note that ‘civilization’ per se would not have taken place among the Cherokee if they were allowed to retain their ancestral land because according to my own opinion they were already civilized. I have quoted the term because it is always defined from a very ethnocentric point of view mostly as a result of our ignorance. In order to understand people’s culture the elements of comparison have to be dropped. I believe that the Cherokee were civilized in their own capacity because they had fully mastered their environment and this enabled them to extract resources from the environment without destroying it. Their relationship with the environment was guided by their strict cultural teachings because environment was part of their religious life.
Ehle, McLoughin and West writing in different books shows us s that the Cherokee did not have anything such as written laws, formal court and police system yet the society was not in chaos. As a tribal group the Cherokee had mastered the art of living harmoniously and all decisions that affected the community was made by the society members as a group collectively. Their decisions were further enforced by their religious and other cultural teachings which were passed on from one generation to the next. This traditions were century’s old and I believe that given a room they could still be functioning up to date.
Conclusion
In conclusion it won’t be wrong to say that civilization of the Cherokee was brought about by the changes that took place in their cultural landscape between 18th and 19th century. They were forced by the white farmers to relocate to very different religions and this new environment called for a change of culture in order to ensure their survival. They also learned how to trade and slowly they were integrated in to the world economy which has its own rules and regulations that are different from the Cherokee ways of life.
These changes cannot be solely taken as the only acceptable means to civilization because culture generally is adaptive and therefore the Cherokee culture would have remained relevant to them as wrong as it enabled them meet their daily needs. Culture also changes with time as a way of adjusting to the existing conditions in the environment.
References
Ehle, J. E. (1997): The Rise and fall of the Cherokee Nation. Anchors Books.
McLoughin, W. G. (1986): Cherokee Renascence in the new republic. Princetone University press.
Sturgis, H. A (2007): The Trails of tear and Indian removal. Greenwood Publishing Group
Thornton R., Snipp, C. M. and Breen, N (1990): The Cherokee: A population History. The University of Nebraska Press.
West, E. (1999): Trails of Tears. Western National Park Association.
Rome, Ancient Greece, and China belong to the earliest civilizations in the world’s history. However, they are well-known for being rather developed due to the richness of their culture, vastness of territory, and numerous victories they gained as a result of their foreign policy. Although these civilizations were located in different parts of the world, it seems they had a lot in common in terms of politics, economics, social structure, and culture.
Religious beliefs had a great impact on the worldview of people in ancient times. For instance, religion was an essential part of life in Ancient Greece, which was reflected in people’s customs. The Greeks performed festivals and the Sacred Games in honor of their gods, created myths, and believed in omens (Seignobos, 2008). The religion of the Greeks was characterized by polytheism and anthropomorphism. The Romans also believed everything in the world was created by a deity, so they brought offerings to gods and consulted them before undertaking any act. However, they differed from Greeks in a way that they had more gods and did not give them a clear form (Seignobos, 2008). As for China, the main religion there was Buddhism, which “at a very early date had taken a firm hold on the imagination of Chinese poets and painters” (Giles, 2017, p. 16). Confucianism, which promoted politeness, honesty, and wisdom, was also widespread among the Chinese, although it is not considered a religion. Thus, it was important for the people of Ancient Greece, Rome, and China to have faith and praise the gods they chose.
It is necessary to examine what place a woman took in the society for understanding the social structure of ancient civilizations. In Greece, girls’ upbringing varied – at Athens, they were secluded at home and taught to superintending the house-keeping, but at Sparta, they were trained in the same manner as boys to become robust women. (Seignobos, 2008). The same is true for Rome, where a woman was deprived of education and performed the role of the housewife. However, she was not excluded from the association with the men and was equal in dignity with her husband, which gave her a bit more freedom (Seignobos, 2008). In China, obedience was considered the main virtue of women. Her function in life was to serve her husband and his parents, to give birth, and to keep house. It may be concluded that women were discriminated in all the studied civilizations.
The political system of the ancient civilizations also deserves attention. Greek land was divided into cantons which constituted separate states called cities. The government in Athens, the leading Greek city, was called a democracy, which implied that the true aristocracy governed the whole nation. This body was assembled three times a month, and during this time, anyone except for women, foreigners, and slaves could express their opinion (Seignobos, 2008). Everything was decided by a majority of votes, all of which were equal. When it comes to Rome, for two centuries and a half, it was ruled by kings but later became a republic. Similar to Greece, there was an aristocracy that could participate in assembling, making the laws, and voting on peace and war. As for China, it was always ruled by emperors from various dynasties. Despite being autocratic in form, the institutions were democratic in operation because people’s welfare was always prioritized (Gilles, 2017). Thus, ancient governments were striving to give more value to citizens. As for the economics, in all three civilizations, it was based on land cultivation and crafts and characterized by metal money gradually replacing direct barter.
The most dynamic foreign policy in Greece was connected to Alexander the Great, who was determined to create a global empire. His father provided a solid base for it, developing a strong army and forcing all Greeks to unite (Seignobos, 2008). Alexander’s army went through the Far East, Egypt, Asia and reached India. Conquering new lands, Alexander established Greek colonies, which supported the status of Greece as a powerful empire. The history of Rome was also marked by conquering many nations. It succeeded in subjecting its neighbors, including the Latins and the Greeks, then the Orient and the Barbarian lands (Seignobos, 2008). These nations were obliged to obey Romans of every order and pay considerable tributes, which was profitable for the Roman empire. Speaking of China, despite the fact that the country was powerful, its northern borders were constantly suffering from the raids of nomadic tribes. That is why instead of getting involved in exhausting wars with nomads, the Chinese built their Great Wall. Thus, the country’s foreign policy was less invasive and more defensive than the one of the Greeks and the Romans.
Ancient Greece, Rome, and China belong to the most prosperous ancient civilizations. The life of their inhabitants was influenced greatly by their religious beliefs, which fostered the development of culture. Their political system was an attempt to take into account people’s opinions. Their foreign policy consisted of successful military campaigns or wise and efficient defense strategies. Still, some imperfections existed in these countries, such as gender inequality.
References
Giles, H. A. (2017). The civilization of China (1911) by: Herbert Allen Giles. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
Seignobos, C. (2008). History of ancient civilization. BiblioBazaar.
The letter Confessions of Faith written by Cecil Rhodes is aimed at justifying the existence of colonialism. In particular, the author argues that the citizens of the British Empire have a right to rule different regions of the world. In his opinion, the domination of this country can be important for preventing wars. Moreover, the author mentions that colonialism is important for the growth of the Anglo-Saxon nation. Cecil Rhodes insists on strengthening the ties between the British Empire and the territories that it controls. Additionally, the writer defends the idea that British government should take Africa under its control. These are the main details that can be identified.
It should be noted that Cecil Rhodes was a prominent politician and a mining magnate who supported the policy of colonialism and imperialism. This letter was written in 1877. To some degree, this text is aimed at convincing the public that colonialism is a beneficial phenomenon. Moreover, the author strives to show that the government should focus on Africa as the continent which can be critical for the power of the British Empire and well-being of its people in the future.
One should note that this letter was written at the time when Great Britain was the most powerful colonial empire that controlled territories in various regions of the world. However, at the time, many policy-makers began to debate the effectiveness of colonial policies. Moreover, this letter was written when there was a strong opposition to the colonial rule in South Africa. This is one of the issues that should not be overlooked.
This source throws light on the way in which colonialism could be justified. Nevertheless, this letter can be better understood by examining the peculiarities of the British rule in South Africa since Cecil Rhodes lays stress on this particular issue. Moreover, it is important to learn more about the political and entrepreneurial career of Cecil Rhodes who was interested in the advancement of the British rule in Africa.
This letter is written by a person who actively advocates colonialism and imperialism. The main argument of this source is that these policies can serve the purposes of many interest groups in Great Britain. This source cannot be called reliable because many of the author’s claims are unfounded. For instance, one can mention the statement according to which British citizens are superior to other nations. Moreover, the writer does not speak about the challenges that could be encountered by colonizers and native residents of the territories controlled by the British Empire.
This source is important because it can throw light on the rhetoric used by the supporters of colonial and imperial policies. Moreover, this letter demonstrates that these policies were premised on the idea that a certain nation or a race had been superior to other people. Furthermore, many people, who lived during that time, could take such arguments almost for granted. This is why this letter should not be overlooked.
Life cycle means that when a person dies it is not the end; instead it is the beginning of another kind of life. Life circle in the Native American communities was a unique perception which symbolized a physical translation of spiritual energy. In Native American communities it was also defined as a medicine wheel which served as a mirror showing the people what was happening inside them. The wheel showed the stages of life which were infancy, adolescence, youth and adulthood and lessons learned through an individuals’ life time. Death on the other hand gave birth to renewal of life and rebirth. “The Native Americans also believed that all human beings were connected in a circle. Hence it was also taken as a reflection of the true nature of life and the bigger picture within which all human beings are connected” (Mackenzie, 1995).
Therefore this paper is going to focus on continuation of life and how life begins afresh with each passing day as applied in Basil Johnston’s four stages of life which he explains as four hills, show emphasis on men seeking vision as compared to women and finalize by showing the importance of the naming ceremony in the Native American community. The paper will then conclude by giving an overview on how the Native American community viewed the circle of life.
The Four Hills Of Life uses an Ojibwe perspective in telling the story about the path we walk through the seasons of life, from the springtime of youth through the winter of old age. The hills one climbs along the way are the challenges to face and the responsibilities to accept. The path is not always easy; some of us lose our way. We can question life, and by taking the good path, we commit to values and fulfill our goals (Johnston, 1976).
Basil Johnston shows that life is like four hills which every individual is required to scale. He explains that this is necessary to complete the journey one is to take through life. Basil Johnston in his conceptual framework of life explains that there are many ideas that embody the world’s views and the values of the culture. He further asserts that there are so many ups and downs in the journey through life as individuals will meet joys and hardships which are the entire purpose of the journey. Basil Johnston also speaks of doing the Creator’s work, the ethic of non-interference and the difficulty in remaining true to one’s path in life as there are many temptations and obstacles to overcome in the four stages of life.
Johnston explains that the first hill had numerous infants trying to scale the hill. He shows the weakest and frailest infants being at the base of the hill while the oldest were on the top. The infants got stronger and older as they slowly crawled up the hill. As they continued crawling through almost half of them dropped and died because of lack of strength although even some strong infants were not able to reach the top. Those who reached the top were happy and they moved on to the other side. This first hill symbolized the very first stage of life. Here infants are so many but they don’t have any character or potential, they are also weak and succumb to nearly all ailments. Because they are frail again they cannot help each other, so it is evident that the first hill is the first stage of life where new born babies are frail and succumb easily to ailments. When they pass this stage they don’t have any reason to celebrate as they still have to continue with the journey.
On the second hill Johnston shows the survivors of the first hill who were now older and sturdier. He says some were over ten years while the youngest were seven. Johnston continues explaining the second hill as very noisy and chaotic as compared to the first hill which was quiet. On the second hill therefore there was more ability enhancement filled with all activities of youthful life. Even though there was an enhanced capability here, difficulties were also evident as only a few individuals reached the top of this hill. The individuals on this particular hill died while carrying out their work, some while playing and others were killed by unseen shadows. Johnston explains that “there was life, motion, death and no stopping. The individuals were being pushed by a certain force to reach the top as they did not even care for the sick, injured, the stricken and the dying but only for themselves” (Johnston, 1976). Once on top again they hurriedly descended it to the other side. The symbolism here is the life of the youth. Johnston means that the youth comprises many age groups who have many characters and strengths. Here some are cut down at the base of the hill while some near the top. “Life is indiscriminate and cuts down weak and strong youths alike. Johnston also shows that medicine does not have any power over death” (Johnston, 1976). In this part the youth learn skills necessary to keep them alive and develop visions which they nature for their future. Still they don’t celebrate finishing this task as the third hill awaits them.
On the third hill there were some similarities with the second one. Here again the force urging individuals forward was evident but the youthful characters were absent only men and women. The men and women carried out tasks related to adults, fought (in the event causing injury and death) and continued matching to the top. Many still perished on the way trying to accomplish the common task. Those who reached the top were so happy thinking that the way down would be as easy as the other hills. The descent here was as treacherous as the ascent with a lot of people losing their lives. This hill symbolized adulthood as the youth had been transformed into adults and carried with them a lot of responsibilities. Here again there are battles to be fought, disputes to be resolved, there is the taking care of infants and the ailing and the adults must also look after themselves. In this stage when a man loses his/her path no one is there to help as he/she has to come to it and continue with the journey through life. On this hill climbing and descending is both hard showing that completing the journey through adulthood is hard. There is no break again in this journey as individuals who have successfully beaten the third stage go to the fourth hill.
The people still carried on to the fourth hill with courage knowing that they had beaten three hills and they would probably beat this one. With all the courage they had, the inner force and outer strength most of them were unable to surmount this one. Here people had grown old and frail; they tried to encourage each other even going to the extent of shouting to those on the third hill giving them encouragements. But most could not reach the top of the hill; those dropped, died and were engulfed in the soil of the hill. Many people lost their life companions but still marched on towards the shroud hiding the crest. Very few people managed to reach the top, vanishing into the shroud. This hill shows lack of strength and the acceptance of a new mode of life. What they have is the wisdom of a long life lived which they pass on to the younger ones who are still struggling to climb the hills of life. Johnston gives an example of a flower that is dying it can only be of help to another flower which will crop up in another spring by supplying it with nutrients after it decomposes.
The purpose of life can be defined best as “life in the fullest sense,” this is, long life that is of “spiritual quality.” In the Ojibwa community males were the ones who sought to get superhuman aid. In this community a women was regarded to be already whole needing no external assistance. A man on the other hand had to struggle to get and uphold wholeness. This was achieved by acquiring and nurturing the spirit helper’s blessings.
For the young woman-to-be it meant then a period of “seclusion” at the time of her first menstrual cycle, a seclusion that was from ten to twenty days in which lessons, teachings and fasting was involved. These were directed toward preparing for motherhood, the uniqueness of being a woman, and for the possibility of a special role within her community or village. It is at this time that a young girl becomes a woman. The change that takes place in her is sacred and one by which she is given a ‘power’ to be Mother Earth and bear children. Each month from that time this power will be renewed and she will be remained of her gift while coducting herself carefully, with humility and responsibility. She would then be from this day on transformed into a woman (Johnston, 1976).
For a man on the other hand he had to seek a vision or find a spirit helper. “This usually meant going without food and water to a secluded spot, a special hill or location set aside for fasting. The fasting experience was a sacred experience in which direct contact with spirit entities was made” (Johnston, 1976). It was a precious experience and the foundation for a young man’s life in future. As long as he behaved properly he would attain his spirit helpers.
“Men were required to seek vision; moreover, they had to live out and give expression to their visions. It was through vision that a man found purpose and meaning to life” (Johnston, 1976).
The quest was equally a search within and a seeking for aid from beyond him. The spirits that came to him as a result of being “pitied by the grandfathers” was in a mysterious way. He would often carry in some material form, a representation of the one(s) who came to him in his vision. These representations, as the vision itself, are a “reflection” of the Great Spirit’s gift of power and light-giving insight to the seeker. They become his power and illumination. The vision itself may be a once-and-for all visitation, or it may unfold its full meaning over a number of years. Unlike the girl reaching womanhood, a boy was not yet considered a man upon acquiring his vision; rather, he was only beginning to fulfill his purpose in life (Johnston, 1976).
In Native American cultures the naming ceremony carried with it spiritual importance. The rites often encompassed the transfer of spiritual control to the person being named from the elders, who also received the powers through the same rites.
There are various types of names given for various reasons. “The names were often given to individuals who are then required to “carry” the name and to ensure that they conduct themselves in a way that the name indicates” (Brown, 1992). For instance, if the given name shows courage, the person will have to act in the same way to uphold the reliability of the given name. Additionally the naming ceremony symbolized the acknowledgement of a new relationship to the society together with spiritual world. This implied that when a person is passed through a specific spiritual ceremony, he/she would get a name to go with the kind of rite.
Therefore as shown in this paper it is evident that the Native Americans believed life had four stages (childhood, youth, adulthood and elderhood) or the four hills of life. In the stages of life there are rites and ceremonies that mark life passage and give individuals spiritual enhancement to aid him/her in the path through life. “Inherent in these ceremonies and rites, there is again the importance of relationships and interdependency that are the underlying themes throughout the Native American communities (Johnston, 1976). There is also a description of naming the new born, childhood naming, marriage, bringing up children, adulthood and death. Death symbolized a change of state giving birth to new life.
References
Brown, J. (1992). Aboriginal naming practices. New York NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Johnston, B. (1976). Ojibwa Heritage. New York. NY: Columbia University Press.
Mackenzie, A. (1995). Native American life cycle. New York NY: HarperCollins Publishers.
My son, William, has a chronic heart condition and has already undergone two operations. Me and my wife are profoundly religious people, which means that we are generally against any medical interventions into the human body as we believe that it is sacred and only God can decide whether a person is to live or die. Yet, under the pressure of our relatives and friends, we agreed to opt for traditional medical interventions in favor of faith healing. As a result, our son had two operations. Despite the fact, that surgeons did their best, his condition did not improve. Now, they are planning another attempt that is supposed to be much more effective than the previous two. However, I believe that it is our duty as true Christians to forego any other interventions, including operations, since it has already been proven that it is wrong to go against God’s will. William does not feel any better after two operation whereas we feel much worse as we betrayed our beliefs and values. As far as I know, it has been proven by research that faith healing practices in some cases are more effective than medical interventions (Palmary, Hamber, & Núñez, 2014). At the same time, I know that hospitals may insist on operation as it allows them to conduct research on rare cases (Collett, 2015). Thus, I do not really believe that my boy needs another operation to prove that medicine is hopeless in this case.
My Perception of the Case
There is some historical evidence that practices of faith healing helped people survive even in hopeless cases (Walls, 2015). Yet, in this particular case, I must insist that the boy should undergo another operation as it is the only way to save his life. The problem is that his parents have legal rights to forego any further medical interventions since he is immature (Case, 2016).
References
Case, A. I. (2016). Faith healing: Religious freedom vs. child protection. Skeptical Inquirer, 4(2), 12-25.
Collett, D. (2015). Modelling survival data in medical research. New York, NY: CRC press.
Palmary, I., Hamber, B., & Núñez, L. (Eds.). (2014). Healing and change in the City of Gold: Case studies of coping and support in Johannesburg. New York, NY: Springer.
Walls, A. F. (2015). Missionary Movement in Christian History: Studies in the Transmission of Faith. New York, NY: Orbis Books.
Healthcare providers are exposed to people of a variety of faiths in their places of work. Therefore, faith diversity is important to ensure that there is proper handling of patients and healthcare providers do not feel challenged. This paper provides a comparison in the philosophies of providing care from the perspective of diverse faiths.
Christian Perspectives/Components of Care and Healing
Christianity is composed of numerous denominations that have their own approaches to healing. Universally, Christianity believes in God as the power of healing. However, several denominations like the Jehovah Witness believe that Adam brought sickness as he lacked perfectionism hence passed illness to the offspring (Hollins, 2006). Catholics view illness as part of human existence and hold strong beliefs that human beings get ill because they are made of flesh and blood.
The universal Christian community believes in the power of prayer in healing and the clergy offer prayers and spiritual nourishment to the sick. Protestants, Jehovah Witness and Seventh Day Adventists have pastors and members of the clergy who visit patients in hospitals and offer spiritual nourishment. Similarly, the Catholic, through priests administers the sacrament of the sick to give blessing to the sick. The importance of medical health is a general element practiced by many Christian denominations. Universally, Christianity believes in the power of spiritual and medical care as components of cooperating with Gods hope of healing (Hollins, 2006). On the other hand, Mormonism believes that the use of drugs violates their health code.
Baha’I
Baha’ism believes in the spiritual powers of healing. They believe in the power of prayers in healing. Baha’ism accepts the display of devotional symbols of faith in houses and places of worship (Hollins, 2006). I believe that symbols denote a person’s faith that needs to be respected. Christians perceive symbols as important assets in prayers and display crosses in their homes and places of worship.
Baha’ism respects scientific methods of healing. They are open to lifestyles choices that support healing and advice their members to seek medical attention when necessary. They believe in the combination of both spiritual and physical healing. Baha’is patients are very cooperative in following medical instructions. They also respect medical practitioners and treat them with respect. They believe that prayers and most importantly caregivers support their lives (Hollins, 2006). My beliefs and trust in medical care outweigh the spirituality aspect of healing. I trust caregivers more than I can trust my prayers when it comes to the process of healing. Christianity believes in both prayer and medicinal care in healing.
Baha’i faith does not have priests or members of the clergy who pray and offer spiritual nourishment to patients in hospitals. Instead, they visit members of the local spiritual assembly for healing prayers. In fact, Baha’i does not allow clergy members of faiths to read or preach the Quran, Old Testament, New Testament or the Baha’i sacred book (Hollins, 2006). Baha’is’ point of view is different from my own and that of the Christian faith. Personally, I believe that the clergy has the spiritual gift of healing both body and mind. Christians believe in offering prayers to the sick in hospital. The clergy pray and visit the sick in hospitals.
Sikh
Sikhism believes in the sacredness of the human body. The body connects individuals to God; hence, God brings sickness. Sikhism believes in God’s power of healing. They read the scriptures for spiritual nourishment (Hollins, 2006). Patients from this faith recite Shabs and call God’s name in the belief of quick healing. Patients also listen to holy hymns. Both Sikhism and Christianity believe in God as the healer and pray to God for healing. At times, I ask, why people have to shout and sing aloud, yet God is a spiritual being who speaks to people’s hearts. The scenario of singing hymns and singing makes me amazed. Somehow, I do not concur with the faith, and I believe that communication to God should be done silently. However, I recognize the importance of listening to hymns and reading from the scriptures for spiritual nourishment. To Christians, reading scriptures and more so, the power of prayers provide complete spiritual nourishment.
Sikhism believes that God works through medicine and science. However, in some situations, patients believe that the will of God outweighs medical procedures. As a result, many do not value the work of health professionals. I perceive this to be amusing because scientific medicines work better than seeking help from an invisible being. Christian’s perception is that medical procedures and spiritual healing go hand in hand. None of the two out weights the other.
Meditation is an important element in the treatment. Sikhism believes meditation increase immunity that helps the body fighting illnesses naturally. They also believe that meditation makes them accomplish God’s will (Hollins, 2006). From my outlook, meditation is an important aspect that brings one’s spiritual life close to God that increases people’s spirituality. However, the notion of meditation increasing immunity is quite funny and interesting. On the other hand, Christianity beliefs that the power of healing is acquired mainly through prayers and not meditation.
Buddhism
Buddhism believes Karma is the cause of sickness and injury. According to the law, Buddhists believe that people create their own destiny through the personal creation of thoughts, words and actions (Harvey, 2006). Therefore, illness may result from an individual’s thoughts or actions. Personally, I believe that sickness is a natural phenomenon, and no one decides when to get sick. Human beings do not create their own destiny, but there is a supreme being responsible for all people’s actions. On the other hand, Christians contrasts with Buddhists, as they believe that God is the cause of sickness, and no person can refute that.
Buddhists believe in achieving the power of healing through careful meditation and use of herbs. They also believe that people exposure to harsh condition boosts people’s immune systems (Harvey, 2006). I certainly agree that meditation and the use of herbs can lead to healing. However, in some instances, people require medical examination in hospitals. Alternatively, the Christian perspective is that healing is acquired through prayers, and God is the origin of sickness.
Conclusion
So far, I have explored various faiths and noted major differences in philosophies regarding the provision of healthcare. I have acquired insights on the behavioral characteristics to expect when handling patients and of diverse faiths. I have also gained more insights on the contribution of the spiritual practices and beliefs to healing. The research has also enhanced my understanding on the importance of a spiritually fulfilling clinical environment to a patient. Insights acquired will help me in preparing patients wards and rooms. I will also be able to handle patients professionally by being mindful about their beliefs and religions.
References
Harvey, C. (2006). A Buddhist perspective on health and spirituality. Scottish Journal of Healthcare Chaplaincy, 9 (1), 33-35.
Hollins, S. (2006). Religions, Culture and Healthcare: A Practical Handbook for Use in Healthcare Environments. Oxon, United Kingdom: Radcliffe Publishing.
Health Belief Model (HBM) explains and predicts behaviors that relate to health interventions (Carpenter, 2010). The predictions of the behavior are based on the uptake of health services such as healthy dietary practices (Brewer & Rimer, 2008). HBM stipulates that motivation, skill, and the presence of an enabling environment lead to behavioral change (Brewer, Chapman, Gibbons, Gerard & McCaul, 2007). The underlying concept for the application of HBM is that health behavior is influenced by individual perceptions (Turner, Hunk, DiBrezzo & Jones, 2004). Brewer et al. (2007) noted that different attitudes are affected by intrapersonal factors that subsequently determine the probable behavior.
Perceived risk susceptibility is one of the core constructs of HBM. Thalacker (2010) pointed out that personal risk perception plays a crucial role in promoting people to adopt healthier behaviors. For example, a dreaded disease will make people explore alternative ways to reduce the risk. However, Thalacker (2010) noted that risk perception does not result in the elimination of the problem, but it reduces risk behavior. For instance, the creation of awareness about HIV in the past decades led to increased awareness and risk perception. Thus, people adopted mitigation practices such as protected sex or abstinence to avoid risks. The changes did not eliminate the problem but reduced the infection rates.
According to Hanson (2002), the HBM provides a framework in which differences in compliance and non-compliance are established. The agreement to change depends on the susceptibility of the risk (Stephan, Boiche, Trouilloud, Deroche & Sarrazin, 2011). The perceived susceptibility construct is based on the possibility. Pirzader and Mostafavi (2014) argued that there is no relationship between risk perception and behavior change. However, in a study to find out the risk perception of prescription drugs and vaccines, the study participants were found to consider vaccines beneficial depending on the level of knowledge (Hanson, 2002). Exposure to risk determines the outcome of the intended change. Thus, without knowledge of the risk, substantial behavioral change cannot be realized.
Bond and Nolan (2011) conducted a stratified study to identify the risk perception of mothers in relation to immunization of their infants. The study included 45 Australian parents with children who were undergoing immunization stages. The study established that the construct of risk perception among the parents played a crucial role in determining the completion of the vaccination process (Bond & Nolan, 2011). The mothers with high-risk perceptions were willing to undertake all the immunization stages. The parents without adequate knowledge of risks underwent some vaccines and withdrew from the remaining stages. The parents who were not aware of the danger caused by diseases did not immunize their infants.
Chen, Fox, Cantrell, and Kagawa (2007) carried out a study to establish risk perception of skin cancer and the use of sunscreens. They found that perceived susceptibility acts as motivation for people to use sunscreens in order to prevent cancer of the skin. The risk perception is not absolute; it is influenced by the exposure and the knowledge accumulated by the target audience. For instance, if the magnitude of the perceived risk is high, the chances of adopting the behavior to reduce the risks posed are also great (Tuner et al., 2004). In Saudi Arabia, the high risk of cardiovascular diseases among women presents a significant challenge. The extent to which the Saudi women perceive the risk probably will determine the willingness to adopt healthy practices. The perceived susceptibility acts as a motivation for behavior change.
Precautionary Adoption Process Model (PAPM)
The PAPM is a seven-stage model that explains how individuals make decisions and the transition process of making decisions (Sniehotta, Luszczynska, Scholz, & Lippke, 2005). The model applies seven stages to determine and explain awareness of health. The knowledge and exposure influence the outcome decision, i.e., either changing or deciding not to change (Mauck e at., 2002). Mauck et al. (2002) stated that the PAPM model explains the seven stages in terms of psychological processes that take place. Before taking action, the stages of PAPM are presented as mental states. The main stages of PAPM include:
Unaware of the issue
Unchanged from the issue
Undecided about acting
Decided not to act
Decided to act
Acting
Maintenance of the good behavior
Just as the HBM, PAPM is applied in health education and promotion. The target people are educated about prevailing health concerns and presented with options to act (Sniehotta et al., 2005). For instance, Saudi Arabian women are mandated with the preparation of family foods; however, the western influence has resulted in the adoption of high-fat cooking behavior. Thus, the PAPM model presents a framework for measuring the readiness of the women to act, i.e., change to low-fat cooking behavior and maintain the health practice. The stage of decision-making is the core turning point in ascertaining the direction of behavior change.
The ideas of PAPM have been applied in many health intervention programs such as prevention of osteoporosis, screening of cancer, and smoking cessation (Sniehotta et al., 2005). There are differences in the extent the PAPM ideas are applied in the health interventions and promotions. For instance, most of the researchers use a cross-sectional study design to determine the level of awareness. Blalock (2005) conducted a study in which PAPM was used to assess behavior change intervention for osteoporosis, a disorder that leads to a decrease in bone density. The study was aimed at understanding the factors that make women not take enough calcium and physical activity and to predict the transition process. The research was based on the implementation of the seven PAPM stages. The study established that awareness of the health impact of a given situation determines the probable line of action. Women who did not have adequate awareness of the risk of osteoporosis did not take diets and supplements rich in calcium. In addition, the women did not engage in physical activity. In a review of osteoporosis health beliefs, McLeod and Johnson (2011) found that men and women who reached the decision-making stage were aware of the health issue.
In a similar study, Sasaeinasab et al. (2013) stated that the PAPM’s seven stages present a dynamic behavior change process. In the process, there is no predetermined time for transition from one stage to the next. Elliot, Seals, and Jacobson (2007) conducted a study to assess behavior change and intervention processes for osteoporosis. The study evaluated health beliefs, knowledge, and stages of precaution in the adoption of protective osteoporosis behaviors among women. In relation to calcium intake, Eliot et al. (2007) noted that perceived susceptibility to osteoporosis and the knowledge of benefits of calcium was in the higher stages among women who had prior knowledge. Health motivation and knowledge mostly predicted the decision to engage in physical activity among women. The study provided a basis for understanding PAPM and established how people could be influenced to transition from the unaware stage to the stages of taking action and maintaining protective behaviors.
In yet another study on low-impact fracture among postmenopausal women, Mauck et al. (2002) found that 62% of the women were in stages one and two of PAPM. Only the women previously diagnosed with osteoporosis were ready to seek treatment. The acceptance to find the medication pointed out that awareness plays a crucial role in determining the process of transition. For instance, lack of knowledge accounted for the high number of women being in the first stages (Mauck et al., 2002). Thus, to transition to positive behavior change, adequate education is required to achieve action.
References
Blalock, S. (2005). Toward a Better Understanding of Calcium Intake: Behavioral Change Perspectives. Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 50(11), 901–9066.
Bond, L. & Nolan, T. (2011). Making sense of perceptions of risk of diseases and vaccinations: a qualitative study combining models of health beliefs, decision-making and risk perception. Journal of Public Health, 11 (1), 2-14.
Brewer, N. T., Chapman, G. B., Gibbons, F. X., Gerard, M., and McCaul, K. D. Weinstein, N. (2007). A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship between Risk Perception and Health Behavior: The Example of Vaccination. Journal of Health Psychology, 26 (1), 136-145.
Brewer, N. & Rimer, B. (2008). Perspectives on Health Behavior Theories that focus on individuals. Journal of Health Psychology, 26 (1), 136-145.
Carpenter, C. (2010). A Meta-Analysis of the Effectiveness of Health Belief Model Variables in Predicting Behavior. Health Communication, 25(8), 661-669.
Chen, J. Fox, S., Cantrell, C., & Kagawa, M. (2007). Health disparities and prevention: Racial/ethnic barriers to flue vaccination. Journal of Community Health, 32 (1), 5-20.
Crocco, M., Pervez, N., and Katz, M. (2009). At the Crossroads of the World: Women of the Middle East. Journal of Social Studies, 100(3), 107-114.
Davis, D. (2013). Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia. Environmental History, 18(2), 446-447.
Elliott, J., Seals, B. & Jacobson, M. (2007). Use of the Precaution Adoption Process Model to examine predictors of osteoprotective behavior in epilepsy. European Journal of Epilepsy, 16 (1), 424-437.
Farghally, N., Ghazeli, B., Al-Wabel, H., Sadek, A. & Abbag, F. (2007). A. Lifestyle, nutrition, and their impact on health of Saudi students in Abha, Southern region of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Medical Journal, 28 (3), 415-421
Hanson, J. A. (2002). Use of health belief model to examine older adults foods handling behaviors. Journal of Nutrition Education, 34 (1), 25-30.
Mauck, K., Cuddihy, M., Trousdale, R., Pond, G., Pankratz, V. & Melton, U. (2002). The decision to accept treatment for osteoporosis following hip fracture: exploring the woman’s perspective using a stage-of-change model. Osteoporosis International Journal, 13 (1), 560-564. Web.
Pirzader, A. & Mostafavi, F. (2014). Self-medication among students in Isfahan University of Medical Sciences based on Health Belief Model. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 3 (1), 112-121.
Sniehotta, F., Luszczynska, A., Scholz, U., & Lippke, S. (2005). Discontinuity patterns in stages of the precaution adoption process model: Meat consumption during a livestock epidemic. British Journal of Health Psychology, 10(2), 221-235.
Stephan, Y., Boiche, J., Trouilloud, D., Deroche, T. & Sarrazin, P. (2011). The relationship between risk perception and physical activity among older adults: A prospective study. Psychology and Health, 26 (1), 887-897.
Thalacker, K. (2010). Hypertension and the Hmong Community: Using the Health Belief Model for Health Promotion. Health Promotion Practice, 12(4), 538-543.
Turner, L., Hunk, S. DiBrezzo, R. and Jones, C. (2004). Design and implementation of an osteoporosis prevention program using the health belief model. American Journal of Health Studies, 19(2), 115-121.
Description of Health Intervention and Assigned Article
HIV testing is a common preventive health measure for the management of HIV and AIDS spread. By knowing one’s status, it is easy for people to take precaution not to spread the virus (if infected) and not to get the virus (if not infected). In other words, HIV testing helps people to make the right choice about their sexual health by knowing their status. The assigned article discusses the same issue by analyzing the factors that influence the conduct of HIV testing among Nigerian youth. The researchers found that proximity to urban areas, age, access to radio, and per capita income were significant indicators of HIV testing and sexual health behaviors among Nigerian youth (Oyekale & Oyekale, 2010).
Description of Health Belief Model and its Application to the Health Issue
Developed in the 1950s, proponents of the health belief model used it to predict behavior change, based on people’s beliefs about health issues (Glanz, Rimer, & Viswanath, 2015). The theory posits that people’s beliefs and perceived benefits of healthy behaviors determine their ease of adopting positive and healthy behaviors (National Cancer Institute, Rimer, & Glanz, 2005). This theory applies to the selected health issue because it explains the main factors that inform young people’s decision to engage in risky sexual behaviors. This theory is especially critical in explaining why the targeted population continues to engage in risky sexual health behaviors regardless of their understanding of HIV transmission methods. Comprehensively, the theory outlines the beliefs that explain these health issues.
Perceptions of HBM used in the Study and that Apply to the Assigned Article
The HBM has four key perceptions that its proponents use to predict human behavior. They include perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, and perceived barriers (Noroozi, Jomand, & Tahmasebi, 2011). Perceived barriers emerged as the commonly used tenet of the HBM in the assigned study. The authors showed that although many of the respondents knew about HIV and AIDS (including its transmission), their perception of stigma (especially in the case of a positive diagnosis) and ease of access to testing services prevented them from being tested (Oyekale & Oyekale, 2010). In other words, a significant section of the article focused on explaining some of the barriers that prevented Nigerian youth from being tested. Therefore, the authors used perceived barriers as the main criterion for explaining sexual health behaviors among the targeted population. I agree that the perception barrier was the most relevant tenet of the HBM to apply to the selected health issue because there has been a lot of information given to people about HIV and AIDS. The failure to act on such information only indicates the existence of perception barriers (Humiston et al., 2011).
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Health Belief Model as it Applies to the Health Issue
Strengths
The HBM is a reliable predictor of health behavior because there is a lot of empirical evidence to back it up. Furthermore, by targeting specific tenets of the theory, it is possible to increase people’s awareness about the need to change their behaviors. Similarly, it is possible to teach them how to overcome some of the barriers that prevent them from doing so. In this regard, the theory is useful in promoting social education about HIV and AIDS. Lastly, the information obtained from using the HBM is important in providing cues to action for some of the Nigerian youth who are reluctant to act on the information they know about HIV and AIDS.
Limitations
Oyekale and Oyekale (2010) have used the health belief model to explain some possible reasons why there are low HIV testing rates among Nigerian youth and why they engage in risky sexual behaviors in the first place. However, the model only accounts for individual differences in beliefs and attitudes about HIV and AIDS. It fails to account for habitual factors that would explain the same healthy behaviors. For example, it fails to account for habitual and cultural factors influencing sexual behavior, such as having multiple partners among some sections of Nigerian youth (Oyekale & Oyekale, 2010).
Additional Insights and Example
Although proponents of HBM broadly highlight its theoretical constructs, few distinctive studies have explained the relationship among the four perceptions of health behaviors highlighted in the model. For example, it is difficult to understand the relationship between perceived severity of HIV and perceived benefits of engaging in positive sexual health behaviors. I believe that researchers need to explore this area of research further.
Conclusion, Suggestion and Probing Question
HBM is useful in explaining why and how people adopt positive health behaviors. The findings of this paper demonstrate that a trigger, or cue, needs to be present for people to embrace positive health behaviors. I suggest that there needs to be a comprehensive research to address the cues that would lead to the adoption of positive or responsible sexual health practices because assessing these cues is difficult. Relative to this discussion, what is the extent of barriers that would force Nigerian youth to go for HIV testing?
References
Glanz, K., Rimer, B. K., & Viswanath, K. (Eds.). (2015). Health behavior: Theory, research, and practice (5th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Humiston, S. G., Marcuse, E. K., Zhao, Z., Dorell, C. G., Howes, C., & Hibbs, B. (2011). Parental delay or refusal of vaccine doses, childhood vaccination coverage at 24 months of age, and the health belief model. Public Health Reports, 126(Suppl. 2), 135–146.
National Cancer Institute, Rimer, B. K., & Glanz, K. A. (2005). Theory at a glance: A guide for health promotion practice (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health.
Noroozi, A., Jomand, T., & Tahmasebi, R. (2011). Determinants of breast self-examination performance among Iranian women: An application of the health belief model. Journal of Cancer Education, 26(2), 365–374.
Oyekale, A., & Oyekale, T. (2010). Application of health belief model for promoting behaviour change among Nigerian single youth. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 14(2), 63–75.
Health Belief Model (HBM) is broadly applied in health promotion because it effectively influences people’s behavior by revealing their actions’ value. It has been developed in the 1950s by Hockbaum, Kegeles, Leventhal, and Rosenstock to explain the health services’ operation based on the goal-oriented decision-making model (McKenzie et al., 2013). HBM is crucial for public health because an individual’s actions towards healthy or preventative practices depend on modifying factors such as demographic and sociopsychological variables, mass media, and society’s awareness (McKenzie et al., 2013).
The concept is based on a person’s sufficient motivation to affect an issue, the existence of a threat, and the realization that the benefits are worth the cost (McKenzie et al., 2013). HBM is beneficial for detailed explaining individual behavior in detail based on psychological properties and structures, however, it overlooks macro-structures that constrain personal thoughts and motivations (Kim & Kim, 2020). In theory, the necessary behavior will be achieved when those three facts are addressed simultaneously.
The brightest example of influencing decision-making in public health is the recent COVID-19 vaccination promotion. Mercadante and Law (2020) state that “testing HBM with the willingness to receive COVID-19 vaccine displayed that perceived benefits were significantly related to a “definite intention.” Besides, the demand in taking preventative action is broadly promoted in social media. Numerous campaigns describe the individual threats of avoiding immunization, and public health representatives encourage people worldwide to participate in eliminating the pandemic (Mercadante & Law, 2020). Kim and Kim (2020) claim that “when people are confident that a protective behavior is effective, and perceive low costs to adopting the precautionary behavior, they are more willing to adopt the recommended behavior.” The conceptual model below is based on the U.S. citizens’ behavioral patterns towards receiving the COVID-19 vaccine.
Perceived susceptibility and severity of an issue in HBM is defined as a factor that forces a person to seek preventative or helpful actions to take. In relation to getting the COVID-19 vaccine, all the citizens are aware of the pandemic, and its consequences affected everyone’s life. However, the biases about immunizations and the virus’s novelty decrease the willingness to prevent or eliminate the health issue (Kim & Kim, 2020). Consequently, the primary construct is the motivation sufficiency which must be increased by showing a person the social authorities’ example and displaying becoming vaccinated as proper civic behavior.
Identifying the possible threat is one of the concepts applied in HBM to move a person towards performing specific actions. Indeed, describing danger can be enforced by revealing the statistics about COVID-19 death cases and publishing information about the disease’s challenging course and consequences in the news. In addition to the motivation and understanding the danger of improper behavior, a person needs to realize that the benefits are worth the cost to take action. Thus, the vaccination’s promotion must address the low cost of the shot, social and workplace encouragement to cease the infection spread (Scherr et al., 2017). c
